Colonies of the Greeks. Greek colonial cities

Almost simultaneously with the appearance of the Scythians in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region, in the 7th century. BC e. the colonization by the Greeks of the eastern and southern coasts of the Crimea, the western and northwestern coasts of the Sea of ​​Azov and some regions of the Northern Black Sea region, mainly along the Dnieper-Bug estuaries, begins.

Meotida, as the ancient Greeks called the Sea of ​​Azov and the Pontus Euxine (Black Sea) attracted them with a wealth of fish, a mild climate and convenient bays for ships.

Apparently, not all Greeks lived well in their homeland. Some were oppressed by the rich and noble landowners; others were prevented from doing handicrafts and selling their products; still others were involved in revolts and in uprisings against their masters, the peasants suffered from land shortages, so they had to seek refuge outside their homeland, in remote regions, and they moved to the Crimea, the Northern Black Sea region.

The metropolis of the first Greek colonists of Crimea was Miletus, which itself was a Greek colony on the Black Sea coast in Asia Minor. Then immigrants from other cities of Asia Minor began to arrive - Heracles, Meota and Teos. And even later, the authorities of the metropolis began to expel here their guilty citizens from Athena and other Greek cities.

Initially, the Greeks founded small coastal settlements, such as trading posts, and were engaged in trade and exchange affairs with local population, attracting them with bright fabrics, unknown objects, women's jewelry.

It is unlikely that the local population greeted them enthusiastically. The first colonists in the Crimea had to meet with the Taurus, who inhabited the coastal strip at that time. Many Taurus felt the danger threatening them and did not want to voluntarily part with their land, so the meetings of the first colonialists sometimes ended tragically. Therefore, settling down on the sea coast of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea coast, the Greeks, at first, for the sake of safety and the prevention of unnecessary clashes with the local population, did not move far from the sea coast. In addition, in order to interest the aborigines, they resorted to cunning; at the first stage, trade was carried out with some benefit for them, which lulls their vigilance and gains confidence.

The trade exchange gradually grew, the local population got used to the merchants who arrived from overseas, and, not seeing the danger, they began to calmly relate to their settlements.

Over the centuries, these small settlements with berths for small merchant ships began to grow into larger ones, and over time, powerful fortress cities were formed from them. They settled mainly at the mouths of large rivers or in convenient sea bays. V different time Over the centuries, such large colonial cities arose: at the mouth of the Bug - Olbia, at the mouth of the Dniester - Tire, at the mouth of the Don - Tanape, and on the site of modern Kerch - Panticopeia, opposite Panticapaeum across the strait on the Taman Peninsula - Phanagoria. Almost simultaneously with Panticapaeum on the eastern coast of Crimea - Feodosia, somewhat later Myrmekia, Mimfey, Nympheus, Taritaka, Chimerik and a number of smaller cities.

In the west of Crimea, Chersonesos appears, not far from modern Evpatoria - Kirkinitada, which became a transshipment trading base with the metropolis in the west of Crimea.

All these cities became the main Greek colonies and centers of trade, the development of crafts and the spread of ancient culture.

Each of them arose at different times and each went down in history in its own way.

Panticapaeum, Theodosia, Olbia emerged in the 6th century. BC, Kerkinitida (Evpatoria) - at the junction of the 6th and 5th centuries. The founding of these cities dates back to the period when the Greek merchants from Miletus began to actively explore the coast of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Growing up, these cities turned into city-states, and their relations with the metropolis began to develop as partnerships, and they became less dependent on it.

PANTICAPEIA - founded by Greeks, immigrants from Miletus, the largest city in Asia Minor at that time. It is believed that Panticapaeum also had a prehistory. Even the name of the city indicates this, it is not at all of Greek origin. It is believed that in one of the ancient local dialects it means "fish way". The city was known under the name "Panticapaeum" twenty-six centuries ago, but as a small settlement it existed much earlier. Now in its place is the city of Kerch. Prior to that, depending on under whose authority it was, it was called Bospor, Cherkio, Korchev, Cherzeti.

During its existence, this city was an intermediary transshipment base between Scythia and Greece, the center of international trade in the waters of the eastern coast of Crimea, a fortress that held back and repelled the onslaught of nomads, was the capital of the Bosporan kingdom or just a run-down provincial town.

But at the same time, it always remained the center of the Kerch Peninsula, and everything that happened on this peninsula was connected with this city.

THEODOSIA. There are several different assumptions about the beginning of the city, most of them are similar to legends. One of them says: in the VI century. BC. Milesian merchants sailed on ships to the shores of the Crimea. At sea, they were caught by a strong storm and heavy ships laden with goods were thrown by the wind like splinters. The desperate merchants lost all hopes of salvation and prepared for death, and suddenly, the ships were thrown into a cozy sunny bay, where there was no storm, and the houses of a small village were white on the high bank. Not believing their salvation, the joyful merchants raised their hands to heaven and shouted: "Oh, Theodosia!", Which in Greek means: "Oh, given by God!" This enthusiastic cry remained the new name of a small village on a high bank, which was previously called Ardavda.

The merchants who landed here founded their own colony, calling it Feodosia. The convenient location of the city on the shore of the saving bay, on a busy trade route, quickly made Feodosia one of the largest ports in the world. The city with its grandeur and luxury began to compete with the best ancient cities in the world.

According to Strabo, the port could receive up to 100 ships. Wheat alone was exported through this port annually up to 22,500 tons.

KERKINITIS is the city of the ancient Greek colonizers, it was founded by them on the territory of a convenient bay, in the west Crimean peninsula, therefore, soon after its founding, it became a trans-shipment trading base for Greek merchants with the metropolis.

On the western outskirts of the city of Evpatoria, near the children's sanatorium "Chaika", there are the remains of an ancient settlement founded by the Greeks. It is believed that at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th centuries. BC. during the Greek colonization of the western coast of Crimea, the ancient city of Kerkinitida arose on this place. It became a major port that traded with Athens, Sinop, Rhodes and the Crimean cities of Chersonesos Panticapaeum. The first written reports about him belong to Hecateus of Miletus, then they are mentioned by Herodotus, Ptolemy, Arrian.

On the territory of the settlement, archaeologists discovered unique works of ancient masters - a bronze sculpture of an Amazon and a bas-relief of Hercules, which speak of the high culture of the ancient inhabitants of Kerkinitida. In the IV century. BC. the city became a part of the agricultural chora (district) of ancient Chersonesos.

OLVIA was founded on the banks of the Dnieper-Bug estuary. Archaeologists have found its remains near the village of Parutino, south of the city of Nikolaev.

During the excavations of all the above cities, the remains of residential quarters, defensive walls, towers, gates, burials, many household items and women's jewelry were found. In addition, during the excavations of Olbia, the remains of temples, artisan workshops, the remains of baths and agora were found.

KIMMERIK - also founded in the 5th century. BC. on the southern coast of the Kerch Strait, named after the Cimmerian Bosporus. It was a connecting port with the Taman Peninsula of the Caucasus. The remains of defensive walls, houses, economic structures were found.

TANAIS - founded in the first quarter of the 3rd century. BC e. at the mouth of the Don River. This is confirmed by the excavations of the Nedvigov settlement of the Nizhne-Don archaeological expedition of the Ukrainian SSR. Many amphorae, earthenware vessels for wine and grain, roof tiles with the brands of the craftsmen were found. These findings allow us to draw a conclusion about the economic and commercial ties of Tanais with the cities of the Bosporus kingdom and the metropolis.

The descendants of the founders of these cities, modern Greeks, can be proud of the courage and dedication of their ancestors, who founded new lands - the coast of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, bringing them closer to the culture of ancient Hellas, which at that time stood at a high level of world civilization. During colonization, they were more humane and tolerant of the local population, compared to other conquerors.

The Hellenic civilization spread not only among the subjects, but also among the neighboring peoples and, above all, among the Scythians.

From the first years after the founding of the Greek merchants, the Greek pioneers in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, they immediately began to enter into trade contacts with the early Scythians who appeared from the East. Initially, they treated the Scythians arrogantly, considering them "barbarians", putting into this word a concept meaning "a man with an incomprehensible speech." Moreover, the Greeks attributed to the "barbarians" everyone who did not speak their language and led a way of life less cultured, in their opinion, than they.

But centuries passed and the attitude towards the Scythians changed, also because many of them took what was useful from the Greeks and what they considered "cultural" for themselves, thus enriching their lives with examples of Greek culture, thereby raising their rating in the face of the Greeks ... In addition, it was profitable to trade with them, mediating with Athens, ravaged by wars.

At a cheap price, they bought grain, animal skins, wool, honey, fish, timber, but sold to the metropolis at a higher price. The Scythians were sold beautiful weapons, various household items, items for decorating Scythian dwellings, painted vases, grape wine, olive oil - and much more, without which the Scythians, having entered the stage of a higher culture, could no longer do, bought in Greece much cheaper.

Having entered into closer contact with the Scythians, Greek merchants began to penetrate with their goods far to the north, covering the lands of modern Kiev, Poltava and Kharkov regions. For example, in the Lubyanka region, the remains of Greek temples were found: Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, which indicates that there were already many Greek colonists in these parts.

During archaeological excavations in Scythia, the remains of ancient settlements and burial grounds, coins of Greek Black Sea cities, Greek painted utensils for grain, wine and oil, jewelry made by Greek craftsmen have been found. This indicates that the peoples who lived here, purchasing goods from the Greeks, gained their culture, studied the art of Greek masters, various crafts. Some tribes completely switched over to their customs, accepted their religious beliefs.

All Greek colonial cities were built according to the model and, as it were, according to the tradition of the metropolis. They were small in size, compact city-policies (city-states). These were a kind of small independent republics with a center in the city and cultivated fields around, which provided the city with food. This reflects the Greek peculiarity, expressed in dislike for large kingdoms and empires.

Each city-polis lived on its own, but in cases where they were threatened by a serious danger from the outside, they united to jointly repel the enemy.

Bosporan kingdom

The temporary unions of the cities-colonies more than once ensured them victories over a strong and insidious enemy, but life predicted the need for closer rallying and the unification of individual cities into a single kingdom.

In 480 BC. on the initiative of the ruling elite of Panticapaeum, a large slave-owning state arose, named after the Cimmerian Bosporus Strait - the Bosporus kingdom. It was named so because the lands on both sides of this strait were under the rule of the newly formed state.

Of the Meotian tribes, the largest were the Sindi, who settled on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and the Taman Peninsula. In the V-IV centuries. BC. it created an independent state of Sindiku, which also included the Dandarii and Doshi tribes.

However, the state of Sindik did not last long; when the Bosporus kingdom was formed, it became part of it.

The Greek cities, having united into a single state, could already resist external, more powerful enemies - the tribes of wild nomads and Scythians, who were pressing from the east and north, and to some extent, dictate their terms to them.

The first rulers of the Bosporan kingdom were from the Archaeanaktids dynasty, who were in power from 480 to 438. BC. Initially, the rulers, in imitation of Athens, bore the republican title - archon, and later they began to call themselves kings. Little is known about the rule of this dynasty and its kings, except that they were the creators of the Bosporus kingdom with a slave-owning form of government.

In 438 BC, as a result of a coup d'état, the Spartokid dynasty came to power, the first king of which was Spartok I, the organizer of the coup.

The Spartokid dynasty was of Thracian origin, from the local ellized nobility, but from Thrace. Spartok I, becoming king, created a royal guard, staffed mainly from the Thracians.

The most prominent statesmen of this dynasty, who called themselves kings, whose names have been preserved by history, except for Spartok I (438-433 BC), were Satyr, Leukon I (399-369 BC) , Perisad I, Persis I and his son Eumelus, who reigned on the throne as a result of strife.

Life on the very edge of the ancient world was still tense, hectic for the Bosporus kingdom, and was held in constant struggle with the warlike nomads Scythians who settled in the Crimea and the Taurus. This tension especially intensified after the Sarmatians appeared in the Northern Black Sea region, who ousted the Scythians and began to directly threaten the Bosporus kingdom. Therefore, having united into a single state, it was easier for them to organize defense: build defensive structures, erect walls, ramparts, ditches, maintain military garrisons.

The unification of various ethnic groups into a single state contributed to their cultural and economic rapprochement, served as an impetus for the development at a higher level of handicraft production in cities, agriculture and animal husbandry in rural areas, increased the volume of trade with neighbors, distant countries, including the metropolis.

An active period of ethnic and cultural rapprochement of the Bosporus kingdom began. This rapprochement was especially noted between the Greeks and the Scythians. Mixed so-called Hellenic-Scythian settlements began to form.

This period in the history of the Bosporus kingdom is well confirmed by archaeological finds. Archaeological research of Crimea began soon after its conquest by Russia. The first excavations were carried out in Kerch in 1816-1817, which gave a lot of new information about the history of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. This was followed by excavations of other ancient cities and burial mounds of the Crimea. Based on these findings, found during excavations at the site of ancient Panticapaeum, Chersonesos, Olbia and other cities of the Bosporus kingdom, one can judge the high culture of this period, as well as the relationship of the peoples of the Bosporus kingdom, their trade, economic and cultural relations with the outside world.

No less important discovery made during excavations of the ancient Bosporus city of Mimfey, south of Kerch, in 1982, a multicolored plaster was discovered that had fallen from the wall of one of the sanctuaries, built in the first half of the 3rd century. BC. On the plaster, decorated with transverse bright yellow and red stripes in the center, various inscriptions have survived, among which there are lengthy texts concerning the gods Aphrodite and Apollo, the patrons of the seas. The fresco also features many different designs dominated by sailing ships. The inscriptions reflect the sides of the private and public life of the ancient Nympheus during the reign of Perisad II. The main place on the fresco is occupied by a warship - a trière, a ship with three tiers of oars, called "Isis", named as seen in honor of the goddess Isis.

There is reason to believe that the ship was a diplomatic vessel that brought Egyptian ambassadors to the Bosporus to discuss some important issues of trade between Egypt and the Bosporus and strengthen friendly relations with the Bosporus kingdom.

During the reign of the kings from the Spartokid dynasty, the borders of the state were significantly expanded to the east and west, its political and international position was strengthened, crafts, art, and trade were further developed. Under them, the Bosporan kingdom maintained a well-armed and trained army. Many neighboring cities and peoples were captured and conquered.

Under Leukon I, Theodosius was annexed, which had a convenient location on a busy trade route, and was at that time one of the major ports in the world. It was entered with their goods by ships not only of Greek merchants, but also of many other, even very distant countries. The luxury and splendor of architecture Theodosia competed with the best cities of the ancient world. All this attracted the attention of the rulers of the Bosporus kingdom. Levkon I, seeing in the person of Theodosia a serious rival and dangerous rival, decided to put an end to this. In 393 BC. he by force took possession of a prosperous polis and annexed it to his state.

Under the Spartokids, a large and strong navy was created, with the help of which Pontus Euxine (Black Sea) was cleared of pirates who attacked ships plying between the ports of the Bosporan kingdom and Hellas.

After that, the Bosporan kingdom not only continued the trade tradition of city-states, but also intensified trade exchange with the metropolis. Levkon I encouraged this trade in every possible way, but especially with bread. His decree is known, prescribing, first of all, to load Greek ships and not to impose duties on them. Strabo testifies: King Leucon sent 2,100,000 medims of grain to Athens (medim is 51.5 liters). In addition to bread, furs, animal skins, honey, wax, fish, domestic animals and cheap labor were sent to the metropolis - slaves captured in battles with local and neighboring tribes.

In difficult circumstances for the metropolis, the Spartokids helped her, but they themselves, if necessary, resorted to her help. There was a profitable partnership mutual assistance.

Under the Spartokids, the Bosporan kingdom reached great prosperity and power, especially its capital Panticapaeum. Having close ties with the metropolis and other cities and states of the ancient world, it was not inferior to them in beauty and architectural design. The center of the city was a mountain 90 m high, later named Mount Mithridates in honor of the late king Mithridates VI. Around this mountain the city is upset. As in the present, the mountain was surrounded by streets - terraces with retaining walls-crepes. At the top, surrounded by powerful walls, stood the Acropolis - the upper city. On the northern slope, a building was erected for the city authorities - Pritania. Panticapaeum had good running water and sewerage. In fact, at that time Panticapaeum became the political and economic center of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region.

Archaeological finds indicate the cultural flourishing of Panticapaeum. The frescoes of the Stasov crypt (as archaeologists called it) on the northern slope of the mountain depict battle scenes showing the battles of the Bosporians with the Taurus and Sarmatians.

Of particular interest is the fresco of the famous crypt of Demeter, the goddess of agriculture and fertility of the Hellenic world. This is an outstanding painting monument of that era. He suffered greatly during the Great Patriotic War(1941-1945).

Having reached the climax in the development of military power, the Bosporan rulers began to have ambitious plans: to unite all the Black Sea peoples under their rule.

But this was not destined to come true. First of all, because the cities that became part of the Bosporus kingdom were still policies (city-states). They recognized the central authority of Panticapaeum, but retained their self-government and even administrative and economic isolation. The rulers of these cities were not inclined to participate in the military adventures of the kings. In this sense, the Bosporan kingdom was more a union of isolated cities than a monarchical state.

The Bosporan kings achieved military power, but could not achieve the political unity of the city-policies, and a city like Chersonesos completely isolated itself from them into an independent republic.

This was the first and main obstacle to the implementation of the aggressive plans of the Spartokids.

The second obstacle was that over the Bosporus kingdom there was a constant threat of invasion from the Sarmatians, who seized the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and came close to the Crimea.

The third obstacle was the emergence on the southern coast of the Black Sea and Asia Minor of a more powerful Hellenic state - the Pontic kingdom, whose rulers had the same aggressive plans.

To all this, it must be added that the fulfillment of the predatory desires of the Spartokids was hampered by constant combat clashes with the Taurus, the Scythians, who formed their state in the steppe part of the Crimea, and Chersonesus, who did not want to be subordinate to the Bosporus kingdom.

Agora - among the ancient Greeks - a national assembly, as well as the area where it took place. On the sides of the agora, temples, government buildings, porticos with trade shops were built. (author's note)

Archon - in ancient Greece - the highest official in Athens. (author's note)

Isis - in ancient Greek mythology - the goddess of heaven, earth and hell - the wife of Ovaris. (author's note)

Common causes of colonization

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Greek colonization was widely developed. The emergence of settlements of Greek colonists in the Mediterranean countries played a significant role in the historical life of the Greeks themselves and in the life of the tribes and peoples with whom, as a result of colonization, the Greeks came into direct and long-term contact.

The main reasons for colonization are rooted in the general course historical development Greek society. The domination of the clan aristocracy, the concentration of land holdings in its hands, the process of landlessness and enslavement of the free poor forced the latter to emigrate.

For those who were defeated in an internal struggle with varying success, there was often no choice but to leave their homeland forever and found a new settlement. In a number of cases, democratic elements: the poor, small and medium landowners, artisans, whose work began to be supplanted by the labor of slaves, and even the rich are opponents of the established government. The defeated aristocrats also left their homeland, often with their adherents and relatives. Later, with the development of colonization and the expansion of sea trade, the initiative in the creation of new settlements is often taken by the most enterprising representatives of the trade and craft circles of the urban population, and often by the slave-owning state itself.)

Describing the reasons for this emigration, Marx wrote: “In the ancient states, in Greece and Rome, forced emigration, which took the form of a periodic organization of colonies, constituted a permanent link in the social chain ... Insufficient development of the productive forces made citizens dependent on a certain quantitative ratio, which could not be violated. Therefore, the only way out of the situation was forced emigration. "

The main difference between the early Greek colonies and the Phoenician colonies was that the Greek colonies originally possessed all the features of agricultural settlements that had trade relations only with their metropolis, while the Phoenician colonies were most often trading posts. Agricultural settlements were, for example, the colonies founded in the VIII century. BC e. the Euboean city of Chalkida on a peninsula in the northern part of the Aegean Sea, later called Chalkidiki, or the city of Byzantium, founded by immigrants from the Dorian Megara on the Thracian coast of the Bosporus - the strait connecting the Propontis (Sea of ​​Marmara) with the Black Sea. Greek settlements, which arose at about the same time on the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily, famous for their fertility, were also agricultural in nature.

Weapons and other metal products, fabrics, art utensils, olive oil, wine - all this the Greek colonists, at least in the beginning, received from their metropolises. In turn, the colonies exported surplus of their agricultural products to the metropolis. Colonies from agricultural gradually became agricultural and commercial. Subsequently, the inhabitants of the colonies began to consume only part of the imported goods, while they resold the other part to neighboring tribes or exchanged them for food and raw materials, simultaneously increasing exports to the metropolis. Over time, the colonies also developed their own handicraft production. Expanding the borders of the Hellenic world and strengthening the ties of the Greeks with other tribes and peoples, colonization thus forced the growth of commodity production both in the metropolises and in the colonies and significantly influenced the development of maritime trade. The size of the territories belonging to the colonies, with a few exceptions, were usually small. As a rule, they were adjacent to the sea coast or were in close proximity to it. In the figurative expression of the philosopher Plato (5th century BC), the Greek cities scattered along the shores of the seas from the Caucasus to Gibraltar resembled frogs scattered around a pond.

In cities that founded a large number of colonies, such as, for example, in Miletus, which, according to legend, formed more than 60 colonies, the colonization problem acquired such heavy weight, which turned out to be in the center of attention of the state. In such cities, special officials began to be elected - the so-called oikists, whose duties were to set up new settlements. Often, not only citizens of the given policy, but also residents of other cities were evicted in the colony. In such cases, the city that created the colony acquired the significance of a kind of gathering point for everyone who wanted to move to a new place. In the context of the general upsurge in economic life that characterized the period under review, many newly founded settlements quickly turned into cities as large as their metropolises were. So, for example, Syracuse, founded by the Corinthians in Sicily, in terms of the number of inhabitants and wealth, was soon in no way inferior to their metropolis - Corinth.

The Greek colonies were as independent city-states as their metropolises. The connection between the colony and the metropolis, as a rule, took the form of friendly or allied relations, but these were relations of two independent states, between which conflicts arose, sometimes reaching armed clashes.

The main directions of Greek colonization

Greek colonization of the 8th-6th centuries BC e. developed simultaneously in several directions, largely determined by the ties that existed between the Greeks and other peoples and tribes of that time. With the development of colonization, new ties arose and grew stronger. The relations of Greek colonists with local tribes, which have not yet outlived primitive communal relations, acquire at this time great importance... Such is the relationship of the Greeks with the Thracian tribes on the Balkan Peninsula, with the local tribes of southern Italy and Sicily, with the Celts and Iberians, who in ancient times inhabited the modern territories of France and Spain, with the Scythians, places and other Lemens on the coasts of the Black and Azov seas... With many of the local tribes, the Greeks established peaceful relations on the basis of trade exchange, which brought enormous benefits to the colonies, but there were frequent cases of military clashes.

The advance of the Greek colonists in the western direction began with the creation of a number of colonies on the coasts of the Ionian and the southern Adriatic Sea - Epirus, Illyria, on the nearby islands - Kerkyra, Lefkada and others, as well as southern Italy. In the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. In the colonization of southern Italy, some were taken by immigrants from a number of cities and regions of Greece. For example, after the conquest of their homeland by Sparta, many inhabitants of the western region of the Peloponnese-Messenia, settled in the city of Regia, shortly before that founded by the Chalkidians on the shores of the Strait of Messina, moved here. The inhabitants of Sparta itself also moved to southern Italy, who founded the colony of Tarentum on the shores of the bay of the same name. The inhabitants of Achaia founded Sybaris and Croton on the same coast, which soon melted into flourishing cities famous for their wealth. The above-mentioned Khalkidians, together with immigrants from the Asia Minor city of Kim, founded the city of Kimu (Kumy) on the western coast of Italy. In turn, the Kumas founded a number of other colonies nearby, including Naples ("New City"). The Chalkidians, according to legend, in 735 was founded by Naxos, the first Greek colony in Izilia, which in turn founded Catana and Leontina. Almost simultaneously with the Chalcedians, Corinth created the colony of Syracuse on the east coast of Sicily, which later became ^ the largest of all Greek cities located west of Greece. During the second half of the VIII and VII centuries. on the coasts of Sicily and southern Italy, many other colonies arose, founded by the inhabitants of various Greek cities. The colonization of these coasts took on such a wide scale that already in the VI century. behind them, and especially for the area around Tarentum, the name "Greater Greece" was established.

Many of the colonies in Magna Graecia took possession of significant areas of fertile land, placing the local indigenous population in a dependent position. This often caused military clashes between the Greeks and local tribes (for example, with the Messapian and Brutti tribes in southern Italy, with the Sicul and Sican tribes in Sicily). On the basis of territorial expansion, trade rivalry and the struggle for political dominance, military clashes often took place between the colonies themselves. So, in Sipilia, Syracuse fought several times with their own colony Kamarina, etc. Clashes between the poleis were often intertwined with the acute social struggle that took place within them between various political groups, since the same social processes that took place in the indigenous Greek cities, developed in the colonies; and here, among the population, the aristocracy who emigrated from the metropolis and the newly emerged aristocracy stood out, striving to stay in power, and here the process of property stratification took place.

The Greeks continue to penetrate further west. Natives of Phocaea founded the colony of Massalia (now Marseille, Southern France) at the mouth of the Rhone River. Subsequently, Massalia brought a number of colonies further west, up to the coast of the Iberian Peninsula.

On the basis of territorial expansion, there were clashes between the Greeks and the Etruscans and Carthaginians. So, the Carthaginians, with the help of the Etruscans, ousted the Phocaean Greeks from the island of Corsica, who were trying to establish their colony here. The Carthaginians retained a significant part of Sicily, did not allow the organization of Greek colonies in southern Spain and the western part of the North African coast, and firmly held the island of Sardinia.

On the southeast coast of the Mediterranean Sea, two significant Greek colonies arose - Navcratis in Egypt, on one of the branches of the Nile delta, and Cyrene on the coast of Libya, west of Egypt. The peculiarity of the Navcratis device was that the land for the creation of this colony was allocated by the Egyptian king and the territory in Egypt was limited by it, in which the Greeks could settle and trade, paying a tax to Egypt. Therefore, the population of Navcratis was made up of immigrants from various Greek cities. These settlers, within the framework of a common policy for all of them, continued to maintain their special autonomous control. Navcratis developed a fairly significant handicraft industry, whose products, in many ways imitating the ancient Egyptian ones, were widely exported, including to Western Asia. The second colony on the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea - Cyrene was founded in the middle of the 7th century. predominantly Dorian policies. In the future, several other settlements arose around Cyrene. The political unification of these settlements led by Cyrene (the so-called "five-city") covered the whole region - Cyrenaica. Cyrenaica was famous for its exceptional fertility. According to one inscription in the 4th century. BC BC, Cyrene during three years exported to various cities of Greece over 800 thousand medims of grain (medim = 52, 53 liters). The main items of its export were: wheat, olive oil, dates, etc.

The coasts of the Hellespont (Dardanelles), the Propontis (Sea of ​​Marmara) and the southern coast of Pontus (Black Sea) have also been around since the 8th century. began to be mastered mainly by immigrants from the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The Greek colonies of Cyzicus on the shores of the Sea of ​​Marmara, Sinop and Trebizond on the southern shores of the Black Sea arose already in the middle of the 8th century. Invisible, in the second half of the 7th century. Istria was founded on the west coast of Pontus; at the end of the same century, Apollonia appeared south of Istria, followed by several other colonies of the Western Black Sea region. They served as strongholds for the further advance of the Greeks to the north.

In the colonization of the Northern Black Sea region, the main role belonged to the Ionian cities of the Asia Minor coast and, above all, Miletus. In the VII-VI centuries. he founded Olbia on the right bank of the Bugo-Dnieper estuary and a number of colonies on both banks of the Kerch Strait, the ancient "Bosporus of Cimmerian". The largest of them were Panticapaeum (modern Kerch) and Feodosia on the eastern coast of Crimea, Phanagoria and Hermonassa on the coast of the Taman Peninsula. The only Dorian colony on the northern Black Sea coast was Chersonesos, founded in the 5th century. 3 km from present-day Sevastopol by immigrants from Heraclea Pontic (now the city of Eregli in Asia Minor).

From the very beginning, the northern Black Sea colonies came into close contact with the local Scythian and Meotian tribes (the latter lived on the Taman Peninsula and in the Kuban region). With some of the tribes, the colonists had military clashes, with others, peaceful relations were established on the basis of exchange trade. For the further development of the northern Black Sea colonies, along with agriculture and handicraft production, trade begins to acquire importance. Many Greek cities began to feel the need to import grain and other agricultural products relatively early. In this regard, the northern Black Sea colonies as permanent suppliers of these products, and in the future and work force(slaves) began to play a very prominent role in the economic life of Greece. The development of trading activities of the northern Black Sea colonies had a significant impact on their relationship with local tribes. Handicrafts imported from Greece, wine and olive oil, as well as products made by Greek craftsmen in the colonies themselves, were exchanged for agricultural products; the local tribal nobility, who owned large herds and fertile lands, was especially interested in such an exchange. However, broader strata of the population were drawn into trade relations with the Greeks, part of which, according to Herodotus, sowed bread with the expectation of selling it. Numerous Greek artifacts found during excavations of settlements and burial mounds clearly show the intensity of these connections.

Trade with the Greeks both in the Northern Black Sea region and in other areas of Greek colonization contributed to the further decomposition of the primitive communal system among the local tribes. The strong influence of Greek culture on the upper strata of the surrounding tribes is also becoming more and more noticeable. On the other hand, the rapprochement of the Greek settlers with the local population left its mark on the entire course of the socio-economic and political history of the colonies and the nature of their culture. The interpenetration of the cultures of the Greeks and local residents and the incorporation of some local elements into the population of the colonies are more or less characteristic of all areas covered by Greek colonization, although the relationship of the colonists with the local population took various forms.

Colonization also played a significant role in the historical development of the indigenous territory of Greece. The growth of handicraft production and trade, accelerated by colonization, strengthened the handicraft and commercial strata of the demos in the metropolises, who fought against the tribal aristocracy. Thus, the colonization of the VIII-VI centuries. was one of the important factors in the process of the final elimination of the remnants of the clan system and the complete victory of the slave-owning mode of production in Greece.

Class struggle in the colonies

Little is known about the internal events of the socio-political life of the Greek colonies in the first period of their existence. Some data are available on the situation in the policies of Magna Graecia (Cypilia and Southern Italy). Already in the VII-VI centuries. there was a fierce class struggle. Information about social movements VII century in the city-states of Magna Graecia, they say that here, even earlier than in the metropolis, broad strata of the Greek population demanded that the laws in force be recorded. We have heard about the legislation of Zalevka (about 650) from Locres of Italica and Haronda (about the 6th century) from Catana in Sicily. As far as can be judged on the basis of fragmentary data, these laws reflected the relations prevailing in agricultural communities. So, for example, the laws of Zalevka prohibited any intermediary trade, while the farmer could sell his products only directly to the consumer. Written agreements were also prohibited; deals were to be made orally in front of the witnesses.

The development of commodity-money relations led to an exacerbation of contradictions between large landowners and trade and craft strata of the population. Just as in the Greek city-states of the Aegean basin, in the western colonies of the Greeks, these processes found their expression in political upheavals associated with the establishment of tyranny.

Tyranny in the Greek cities of Sicily appears at the end of the 7th century, but becomes especially widespread in the second half of the 6th century. According to legend, the first Sicilian tyrant was Pantetius (in Leontines). In the first half of the VI century. carried out a political coup in Akragant (Agrigent) Falaris. The support of this tyrant was, as tradition has it, the artisans and builders he collected for the construction of the temple of Zeus. At the end of the VI century. the domination of the oligarchs in Gel was overthrown by the leader of the democratic strata of the population, Cleander, who held power for seven years; for the same time after Cleander, his brother Hippocrates, who led an active foreign policy: he took possession of Naxos, Leontines and other cities, successfully fought with the Syracusans, but died in the battle with the Siculs. His successor Gelon (491-478) took possession of Syracuse and became the founder of a rather large Eastern Sicilian state with the center in this city; Syracuse was further strengthened by an alliance with the tyrant of Akragant - Feron.

Democratic coups, often associated with the establishment of tyranny, took place in the second half of the 6th century. and in a number of southern Italian cities. In Sybaris, a large mall Great Greece, a democratic revolution took place, the result of which was the establishment of tyranny and the war with the aristocratic Croton, which ended in the complete destruction of Sybaris (509). Soon, however, Croton's aristocracy was stripped of power as a result popular uprising... A tyrannical form of government was established in Kim, Tarentum, and Regia. This regime was the longest in the last city, where the tyrant Anaxilai for a long time (494-476) held power in his hands. The tyrant of Kim Aristodemus at the end of the 6th century. seized power, relying on the lower ranks of the urban population. He released the convicts from the dungeons and allegedly even freed the slaves.

In another area of ​​Greek colonization - in agricultural Cyrene in the 7th and 6th centuries. dominated by oligarchic governance, headed by the council and the tsar. But even here in the second half of the 6th century. broad strata of the free achieved reforms that limited the tsar's economic and political power. However, the democratic restructuring of the state took place only later, already in the 5th century, and the victory of democracy here was fragile.

Common to all these movements was the desire for the seizure of power and political rights by the trade and craft strata of the population. The internal struggle was further exacerbated in connection with the foreign policy situation, since the desire of the Greek cities of the Western Mediterranean to dominate trade routes led to serious conflicts with the Carthaginians, and then with the Etruscans.

GREAT GREEK COLONIZATION

The archaic era marked such significant event in the history of Hellas, as Great Greek colonization, when the Greeks founded many cities and settlements on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Thus, the Greek civilization spread over large areas of southern Europe.

The development of the colonization process was determined by the prerequisites of an economic and political nature. The economic prerequisites should include, first of all, the acute "land hunger" that arose as a result of population growth, when the small size of the choir and low yields could not provide a normal existence for all citizens of the state. As a result, part of the population was forced to seek means of subsistence in a foreign land. An important incentive for the colonization of the neighboring territories by the Greek policies was the desire to gain access to sources of raw materials that were absent in their homeland, and to secure the most important trade routes for Greece. That is why the Greeks founded not only apoikia- full-fledged colonies, immediately becoming independent policies, but also trading trading posts, which were only places of residence of merchants with their goods. As for political reasons colonization, then a fierce struggle for power in the policies of the archaic era played an important role. Often, a group that was defeated in this struggle had only one thing to do - to leave its hometown and move to a new place.

It is no coincidence that the centers of excretion of colonies (metropolises) were developed in the economic and politically policies that had a large population, but a small chorus. Among such policies are Corinth, Megara, Chalcis, Eretria, etc. For example, Miletus, according to some sources, founded more than 70 colonies. It would seem an exception to general rule was the region of Achaia, a backward agricultural region in the north of the Peloponnese. However, it should be borne in mind that in Achaia, with its rocky soils, "land hunger" was felt especially acutely.

An incomparably smaller role in the Great Greek colonization was played by those polis, the chorus of which was more extensive, and the pace of economic and political development - slower (or artificially restrained). So, practically no colonies were founded during the archaic era of Athens, Sparta, the states of Boeotia and Thessaly.

Colonization proceeded in two main directions - western and northeastern, where the first colonies were withdrawn in the 8th century. BC e. In the west, the Greeks were especially attracted to the fertile lands of the Apennine Peninsula and the island of Sicily. Already in the first half of the VIII century. BC e. immigrants from Chalkida founded a small settlement on the islet of Pitekussa off the western coast of Italy; soon the colonists moved to the mainland, and there was a Greek polis Kumas. A century passed - and the southern coast of the Italian "boot" and the entire coast of Sicily were literally dotted with new Hellenic cities. Immigrants from Euboea, from Corinth, Megar, Achaia and other Greek city-states took an active part in the colonization of the region. Sometimes several policies carried out a joint colonization expedition. But there were cases of completely different relations - enmity, struggle for territories, leading to wars and pushing the weaker back to less convenient lands.

Ultimately, southern Italy and Sicily were so intensively mastered by the Greeks that already in ancient historiography this whole area received the name Great Greece. The largest and most significant policy in the region was Syracuse, founded approx. 734 BC e. the Corinthians. Syracuse was such a thriving economic and political center, which can be considered the most famous Greek colony. From other cities of Magna Graecia, it should be mentioned: in Sicily - Gelu(colony of the city of Lind in Rhodes), on the southern coast of Italy - Sybaris, Croton(founded by people from Achaia), Tarentum(almost the only colony of Sparta, withdrawn as a result of the internal political struggle in this policy), Regium(colony of Chalcis).

A special role in the colonization of the extreme west of the Mediterranean by the Greeks was played by Fokeya - a policy in Asia Minor Ionia, the birthplace of many excellent sailors. Around 600 BC e. the Phoceans founded a colony on the southern coast of what is now France Massilia(modern. Marseille), which became a rich and prosperous city. The Phoceans created a number of their settlements on the Mediterranean coast of Spain.

The northeastern direction of Greek colonization attracted the inhabitants of the policies of Balkan Greece by the presence of minerals (deposits of gold and silver in the Northern Aegeid), the fertility of lands (primarily on the Black Sea), and the possibility of establishing profitable trade relations. In this direction, the Greeks mastered the Thracian coast of the Aegean Sea, including the Halkidiki peninsula (on this peninsula, the network of Greek settlements was especially dense), and then the Black Sea straits zone, where Megaras showed great activity. In the VI century. BC e. Megaryans founded the Thracian (strategically extremely important region) colonies on the opposite shores of the Bosporus Strait Chalcedon and Byzantium(future Constantinople, present-day Istanbul).

The logical completion of the movement of the Greeks to the northeast was the development of the Black Sea coast, which they called Pontus Euxine (i.e., the Hospitable Sea). The first attempts to colonize the Black Sea coast date back to the 8th century. BC e. But only from the 7th century. BC, when the Greeks managed to firmly gain a foothold in the Black Sea straits, and also get used to the navigational specifics of the Black Sea basin (the virtual absence of islands, long distances and depths, other climatic conditions), this sea became truly "hospitable" for them. Miletus, who founded most of his colonies in this region, took an especially active part in the colonization of the Pontic shores.

Of the colonies of the southern Black Sea region, the most significant were Sinop and Heraclea of ​​Pontic, Eastern - Dioscuriada and Phasis, Western - Istria and Odessa. Perhaps the largest number of settlements among the Hellenic colonists was in the Northern Black Sea region. At the end of the 7th century. BC e. Miletyans settled on the small island of Berezan near the mouth of the Dnieper. Then they made a "leap to the mainland", founding a city Olbia. In LTv. BC e. many settlements of the Greeks (in the overwhelming majority - the Milesian colonies) occupied the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus (the ancient name of the Kerch Strait). The largest center of ancient civilization in this region was Panticapaeum(located on the site of modern Kerch). Towns of smaller size and importance have sprung up nearby: Nymphaeus, Myrmekiy, Theodosia, Phanagoria, Hermonassa and others. Over time, these cities created an association (of a religious, and possibly a military-political nature), headed by Panticapaeum. In the classical era, from this union of policies, the largest state in the Northern Black Sea region was formed - the Bosporus kingdom.

The great Greek colonization, for obvious reasons, almost did not spread to the east and south. Developed states (Phoenician cities, Egypt) have long existed in the Eastern Mediterranean, which were by no means interested in the appearance of settlements of "aliens" on their lands. Business did not go further than the formation of Greek trading posts on the territory of these kingdoms. In particular, in Egypt, in the Nile delta, in the 7th century. BC e. a colony arose Navcratis, but this is not a traditional Greek city. Navcratis was founded by several policies and was inhabited mainly by merchants, while being subordinated to the authority of the pharaoh. In other words, it was rather a large trading post than a colony in the proper sense of the word. Only in one area on the African coast, which later received the name Cyrenaica (the territory of modern. Libya), from the 7th century. BC e. colonies began to appear, the largest of which was Cyrene, which quickly became a thriving city.

Sicily. Temple of Concord in Akragant (V century BC). The photo

All Greek policies were very responsible for the withdrawal of colonies. Before the departure of the colonists, they tried to find out the place of the proposed settlement, learn about the presence of fertile land, take care of convenient harbors, and, if possible, determine the degree of friendliness of the local residents. Very often, the city authorities turned for advice to the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, whose priests became real experts in this kind of matter. Then lists of those wishing to go to the colony were drawn up, the head of the expedition was appointed - oikist(upon arrival at the place, he usually became the head of a new city). Finally, taking with them the sacred fire from their native altars, the future colonists set off on ships on their ships.

Arriving at the place, the first thing the settlers began to do was to arrange the Greek polis they had founded: they erected defensive walls, temples of the gods and public buildings, and divided the surrounding area into clears (land plots). Since its inception, each colony has been a completely independent polis. As a rule, all colonies maintained close ties with the metropolis - economic, religious, and sometimes political (for example, Corinth sent its delegates to the colonies founded by him).

One of the most important problems that always faced the colonists was the system of relationships with the local tribal world. After all, almost each of the newly founded Greek cities turned out to be surrounded by settlements of a people who previously lived in this territory, who were, as a rule, at a lower level of development (in Sicily these were Siculs, in the Northern Black Sea region - Scythians, etc.). Relations with Aboriginal people could develop in different ways. Unclouded friendly contacts based on mutually beneficial economic cooperation were established relatively rarely. More often, the surrounding tribes showed hostility, which led either to frequent wars, exhausting both sides, or to a state of armed neutrality, which forced the colonists to live in constant vigilance. It happened that one of the sides managed to gain the upper hand in the struggle. In the event of the victory of the colonists, the locals fell into political and economic dependence on the Greeks. Founded in the middle of the VI century. BC e. Heracles of Pontic, the Greeks from Megar immediately entered into a stubborn struggle for land with the local population - mariachs. The more united and better armed Greek colonists won the victory. The land of the Mariandins was turned into the property of the Heraclean polis, and the locals themselves were enslaved, although they received some guarantees: the founders of Heraclea committed themselves not to sell them abroad. Such was the fate of the Killiri tribes in Syracuse.

Ruins of Tauric Chersonesos. The photo

But the Greek colony could also become dependent on the local ruler. So, in the V century. BC e. Olbia was under the protectorate of the Scythian kings.

It is difficult to overestimate the consequences of the Great Greek colonization, which began in the archaic era and continued, although not on the same scale, in the classical era. During the course of colonization, the Greeks settled and developed vast territories. The Greeks approached the choice of a place for a colony very rationally, taking into account all possible positive and negative factors therefore, in most cases, new settlements quickly became prosperous cities. Maintaining active ties with the "old" Greek lands, the colonies themselves began to influence the development of their metropolises.

Colonies were typical city-states, and therefore life in them fell under the same laws. social development that of the policies of Balkan Greece. In particular, they faced the same economic, social and political problems: "land hunger", the struggle of various groups for power, etc. It is not surprising that many of the colonies eventually become metropolises themselves, establishing their own colonies. So, Gela in Sicily founded Acragant - the city, which soon was not inferior to her in size and importance. Several colonies were bred by Heraclea of ​​Pontus, of which the most famous emerged in the second half of the 6th century. BC e. Chersonesos Tauride(on the territory of modern. Sevastopol).