Physics Dictionary. A Brief Dictionary of Physical Terms

Water bodies 03.07.2020

Water bodies

Examination tickets in physics 2006-2007 academic year year

Grade 9

Ticket number 1.Mechanical movement. Path. Speed, Acceleration

Mechanical movement- change in the position of the body in space relative to other bodies over time.

Path- the length of the trajectory along which the body moves for some time. It is designated by the letter s and is measured in meters (m). Calculated by the formula

Speed is a vector quantity equal to the ratio of the path to the time during which this path is traversed. Determines both the speed of movement and its direction at a given time. It is denoted by a letter and is measured in meters per second (). Calculated by the formula

Acceleration at uniform acceleration is a vector quantity equal to the ratio of the change in speed to the time interval during which this change occurred. Determines the rate of change of speed in absolute value and direction. Denoted by a letter a or and is measured in meters per second squared (). Calculated by the formula

Ticket number 2.The phenomenon of inertia. Newton's first law. Strength and addition of forces. Newton's second law

The phenomenon of conservation of the speed of a body in the absence of the action of other bodies is called inertia.

Newton's first law: there are such frames of reference, relative to which the bodies keep their speed unchanged, if other bodies do not act on them.

Reference frames where the law of inertia is fulfilled are called inert.

Reference frames where the law of inertia is not fulfilled - non-inert.

Power is a vector quantity. And it is a measure of the interaction of bodies. Denoted by a letter F or and is measured in newtons (N)

A force that produces the same effect on a body as several simultaneously acting forces is called the resultant of these forces.

The resultant of forces directed along one straight line in one direction is directed in the same direction, and its modulus is equal to the sum of the moduli of the constituent forces.

The resultant of forces directed along one straight line in opposite directions is directed towards the force greater in magnitude, and its modulus is equal to the difference in the moduli of the constituent forces.

The more the resultant of the forces applied to the body, the more acceleration the body will receive.

When the force is halved, the acceleration is also halved, i.e.

Means, the acceleration with which a body of constant mass moves is directly proportional to the force applied to this body, as a result of which acceleration occurs.

When the body weight is doubled, the acceleration is halved, i.e.

Means, the acceleration with which a body moves with constant force is inversely proportional to the mass of this body.

The quantitative relationship between body mass, acceleration, and the resultant forces applied to the body is called Newton's second law.

Second Newton's law: the acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the resultant forces applied to the body, and inversely proportional to its mass.

Mathematically, Newton's second law is expressed by the formula:

Ticket number 3. Newton's third law. Pulse. Impulse conservation law. Explanation of jet propulsion based on the law of conservation of momentum

Newton's third law: the forces with which two bodies act on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Mathematically, Newton's third law is expressed as follows:

Body impulse is a vector quantity equal to the product of the body's mass by its velocity. It is denoted by a letter and is measured in kilograms per meters per second (). Calculated by the formula

momentum conservation law: the sum of impulses of bodies before interaction is equal to the sum after interaction. Consider a jet motion based on the motion of a balloon with an air stream coming out of it. According to the law of conservation of momentum, the total momentum of a system consisting of two bodies should remain the same as it was before the start of air outflow, i.e. equal to zero. Therefore, the ball begins to move in the direction opposite to the air stream with the same speed that its impulse is equal to the modulus of the impulse of the air stream.

Ticket number 4.Gravity. Free fall. Acceleration of gravity. The law of universal gravitation

Gravity- the force with which the Earth attracts the body to itself. Or

Free fall- the movement of bodies under the influence of gravity.

In a given place on the Earth, all bodies, regardless of their masses and other physical characteristics, make a free fall with the same acceleration. This acceleration is called acceleration of gravity and is denoted by the letter or. It

The law of universal gravitation: any two bodies are attracted to each other with a force directly proportional to the mass of each of them and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

G = 6.67 · 10 -11 N · m 2 / kg 2

G - Gravitational constant

Ticket number 5. Strength of elasticity. Explanation of the structure and principle of the dynamometer. Friction force. Friction in nature and technology

The force arising in the body as a result of its deformation and striving to return the body to its original position is called, force of elasticity... It is indicated. Found by the formula

Dynamometer- a device for measuring force.

The main part of the dynamometer is a steel spring, which is given a different shape depending on the purpose of the device. The device of the simplest dynamometer is based on comparing any force with the elastic force of a spring.

When one body comes into contact with another, an interaction arises that prevents their relative movement, which is called friction. And the force characterizing this interaction is called frictional force. There is static friction, sliding friction and rolling friction.

Without resting friction, neither people nor animals could walk on the ground, because when we walk, we push our feet off the ground. Without friction, objects would slip out of your hands. The frictional force stops the car when braking, but without friction at rest, it could not even start moving. In many cases, friction is harmful and must be dealt with. To reduce friction, the contacting surfaces are made smooth, and a lubricant is introduced between them. To reduce the friction of the rotating shafts of machines and machine tools, they are supported on bearings.

Ticket number 6. Pressure. Atmosphere pressure. Pascal's law. Archimedes' law

A quantity equal to the ratio of the force acting perpendicular to the surface to the area of this surface is called pressure... It is denoted by the letter or and is measured in pascals (Pa). Calculated by the formula

Atmosphere pressure- This is the pressure of the entire thickness of the air on the earth's surface and the bodies on it.

Atmospheric pressure equal to the pressure of a 760mm high column of mercury at a temperature is called normal atmospheric pressure.

Normal atmospheric pressure is 101300Pa = 1013hPa.

Every 12m the pressure decreases by 1mm. rt. Art. (or 1.33 hPa)

Pascal's law: the pressure exerted on a liquid or gas is transmitted to any point equally in all directions.

Archimedes' law: a body immersed in a liquid (or gas, or plasma) is subject to a buoyant force (called the Archimedes force)

where ρ is the density of the liquid (gas), is the acceleration of gravity, and V is the volume of a submerged body (or a part of the volume of a body located below the surface). The buoyancy force (also called the Archimedean force) is equal in magnitude (and opposite in direction) to the force of gravity acting on the volume of liquid (gas) displaced by the body, and is applied to the center of gravity of this volume.

It should be noted that the body must be completely surrounded by liquid (or intersected by the surface of the liquid). So, for example, Archimedes' law cannot be applied to a cube that lies at the bottom of the tank, hermetically touching the bottom.

Ticket number 7.Work of strength. Kinetic and potential energy. Mechanical energy conservation law

Mechanical work is performed only when a force acts on the body and it moves.

Mechanical work directly proportional to the applied force and directly proportional to the distance traveled. It is denoted by the letter or and is measured in joules (J). Calculated by the formula

Energy - a physical quantity that shows what kind of work the body can do. Energy is measured in joules (J).

Potential energy called energy, which is determined by the mutual position of interacting bodies or parts of the same body. It is denoted by the letter or. Calculated by the formula

The energy that the body possesses due to its movement is called kinetic energy. It is denoted by the letter or. Calculated by the formula

Mechanical energy conservation law:

In the absence of forces such as friction, mechanical energy does not arise from nothing and cannot disappear anywhere.

Ticket number 8.Mechanical vibrations. Mechanical waves. Sound.Fluctuations in nature and technology

A movement that repeats after a certain period of time is called vibrational.

Oscillations occurring only due to the initial supply of energy are called free vibrations Physics The concept of time in classical thermodynamics Abstract >> Philosophy

He puts time first among major concepts physics, followed by space, place ... representations of space is introduced into physics high energies concept physical vacuum as a kind ...

Physical terms

Acoustics(from the Greek. akustikos- auditory) - in a broad sense - a branch of physics that studies elastic waves from the lowest frequencies to the highest (1012-1013 Hz); in a narrow sense - the doctrine of sound. General and theoretical acoustics study the laws of radiation and propagation of elastic waves in various media, as well as their interaction with the medium. Sections of acoustics include electroacoustics, architectural acoustics and building acoustics, atmospheric acoustics, geoacoustics, hydroacoustics, physics and ultrasound technology, psychological and physiological acoustics, musical acoustics.

Astrospectroscopy- a section of astronomy that studies the spectra of celestial bodies in order to determine the physical and chemical properties of these bodies by spectral characteristics, including their speeds.

Astrophysics- a section of astronomy that studies the physical state and chemical composition of celestial bodies and their systems, interstellar and intergalactic media, as well as the processes occurring in them. The main sections of astrophysics: physics of planets and their satellites, physics of the Sun, physics of stellar atmospheres, interstellar medium, theory of the internal structure of stars and their evolution. The problems of the structure of superdense objects and related processes (the capture of matter from the environment, accretion disks, etc.) and the problems of cosmology are considered by relativistic astrophysics.

Atom(from the Greek. atomos- indivisible) - the smallest particle of a chemical element that preserves its properties. In the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus, in which almost all the mass of the atom is concentrated; electrons move around, forming electron shells, the dimensions of which (~ 108 cm) determine the dimensions of the atom. The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus (the charge of all electrons of the atom is equal to the charge of the nucleus), the number of protons is equal to the ordinal number of the element in the periodic system. Atoms can attach or donate electrons, becoming negatively or positively charged ions. The chemical properties of atoms are determined mainly by the number of electrons in the outer shell; combining chemically, atoms form molecules. An important characteristic of an atom is its internal energy, which can only take certain (discrete) values corresponding to stable states of the atom, and changes only abruptly through a quantum transition. By absorbing a certain portion of energy, the atom goes into an excited state (to a higher energy level). From an excited state, an atom, emitting a photon, can move to a state of lower energy (to a lower energy level). The level corresponding to the minimum energy of the atom is called the ground level, the rest are called excited. Quantum transitions determine the atomic absorption and emission spectra, which are individual for the atoms of all chemical elements.

Atomic mass Is the mass of an atom, expressed in atomic mass units. The atomic mass is less than the sum of the masses that make up an atom of particles (protons, neutrons, electrons) by the amount due to the energy of their interaction.

THE LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
- the number of non-decayed radioactive nuclei in any sample is halved every time interval, called the half-life. The law of radioactive decay is a statistical law and is valid for a sufficiently large number of radioactive nuclei. The half-life is independent of external conditions and the reference time.

THE LAW OF DISPLACEMENT OF WINE
- with an increase in temperature, the maximum energy in the radiation spectrum of an absolutely black body shifts towards shorter waves and, moreover, so that the product of the wavelength at which the maximum radiation energy falls and the absolute temperature of the body is equal to a constant value.

THE LAWS OF THE EXTERNAL PHOTO EFFECT
1st law: the number of electrons knocked out by light of a given wavelength from the metal surface in 1 s is directly proportional to the light intensity;

2nd law: the maximum kinetic energy of electrons pulled out by light increases linearly with the frequency of light and does not depend on its intensity;

3rd law: for each substance there is a red border of the photoelectric effect, that is, such a minimum frequency of light (or maximum wavelength) at which the photoeffect is still possible, and if the frequency of light is less than this critical value, then the photoeffect no longer occurs.

ISOTOPES
- these are varieties of a given chemical element, differing in the mass number of their nuclei. The isotope nuclei of one element contain the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons. Having the same structure of electron shells, isotopes have practically the same chemical properties. However, the physical properties of isotopes can differ quite sharply.

IONIZING RADIATION
- this is radiation, the interaction of which with the environment leads to the ionization of its atoms and molecules. These are X-rays and γ-radiation, fluxes of β-particles, electrons, positrons, protons, neutrons, etc. Visible and ultraviolet radiation is not classified as ionizing radiation.

QUANTUM OF LIGHT (photon)
- a portion of the energy of electromagnetic radiation, an elementary particle that is a portion of electromagnetic radiation, a carrier of electromagnetic interaction. A term used to describe light as a flux of neutral particles that exhibit wave-like properties in a number of experiments.

QUARKS
- These are point, structureless formations related to truly elementary particles, which were introduced to systematize the numerous (more than a hundred) elementary particles discovered in the 20th century (electron, proton, neutron, etc.). A characteristic feature of quarks, which is not found in other particles, is a fractional electric charge, a multiple of 1/3 of the elementary one. Attempts to find quarks in a free state were unsuccessful.

CORPUSCULAR-WAVE DUALISM
- this is a universal property of nature, which consists in the fact that both corpuscular and wave features are manifested in the behavior of micro-objects. The term was introduced during the development of quantum physics, since, according to the concepts of classical physics, the movement of particles (corpuscles) and the propagation of waves are fundamentally different physical processes. It turned out that in the physics of the microworld, such a view is incorrect. It was found that to explain the laws of the photoelectric effect, light must be considered a stream of particles, while for electrons and protons one can observe interference and diffraction.

NEUTRON BREEDING COEFFICIENT
Is a characteristic of the chain process of decay of radioactive nuclei, equal to the ratio of the number of neutrons in any generation of the chain reaction to the number of neutrons that generated them in the previous generation.

RED BORDER OF PHOTO EFFECT
Is the minimum frequency of light ν0 or the maximum wavelength λ0, at which the photoelectric effect is still possible.

CRITICAL MASS
Is the minimum mass of nuclear fuel at which a chain reaction of nuclear fission is possible.

LASER (optical quantum generator)
Is a light source that works on the principle of stimulated emission. The name “laser” (LASER) is formed by the first letters of the words of the English expression Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, which means “amplification of light by stimulated radiation”. A high degree of coherence and sharp directivity of laser radiation, as well as the ability to concentrate very high power in a pulse (with sufficient intensity, a laser beam melts and vaporizes any substance) led to the widespread use of lasers in various fields of technology and medicine.

LINEAR SPECTRA
Are optical spectra consisting of individual spectral lines. Line spectra are characteristic of the radiation of heated substances in a gaseous atomic (but not molecular) state. For the line spectrum of radiation, the following pattern is characteristic: the atoms of a given chemical element emit waves of a strictly defined set of frequencies, therefore, the line spectrum of radiation for each chemical element has its own, which does not coincide with the spectrum of any other chemical element. Linear for individual atoms of a substance is not only the radiation spectrum, but also the absorption spectrum. The following regularity is valid for the absorption spectrum: the atoms of a substance absorb light of exactly those frequencies that they emit in a heated state; therefore, the lines in the absorption spectrum of a given chemical element are located in the same places in the spectrum as the lines in the spectrum of its radiation.

LUMINESCENCE
- this is excess over thermal electromagnetic radiation of the body (cold glow), caused either by the bombardment of the substance with electrons (cathodoluminescence), or by passing an electric current through the substance (electroluminescence), or by the action of any kind of radiation (photoluminescence).

LUMINOPHORS
- these are solid and liquid substances capable of emitting light under the action of electron fluxes (cathodoluminophores), ultraviolet radiation (photoluminophores), etc.

MASS NUMBER
Is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. The mass number is equal to the relative atomic mass of the element, rounded to the nearest integer. For the mass number, there is a conservation law, which is a special case of the baryon charge conservation law.

NEUTRINO
Is a light (possibly massless) electrically neutral particle that participates only in weak and gravitational interactions. A distinctive property of neutrinos is their enormous penetrating ability. It is believed that these particles fill the entire space with an average density of about 300 neutrinos per cm3.

NEUTRON
Is an electrically neutral particle with a mass 1,839 times the mass of an electron. A free neutron is an unstable particle that decays into a proton and an electron. The neutron is one of the nucleons (along with the proton) and is part of the atomic nucleus.

CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM (solid spectrum)
Is a spectrum containing a continuous sequence of all frequencies (or wavelengths) of electromagnetic radiation, smoothly passing into each other. A continuous spectrum is given by incandescent solids, luminous liquids, dense gases, and high-temperature plasma. In the optical region, when the light from these bodies is decomposed using a spectral apparatus (spectroscope or spectrograph), the continuous spectrum is presented in the form of a rainbow-colored strip, in which seven primary colors (red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue and violet) can be distinguished, smoothly merging into each other. The distribution of energy over frequencies in the continuous spectrum of radiation of various bodies is different.

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
Is a sequence of nuclear reactions leading to the formation of increasingly heavy atomic nuclei from other, lighter ones.

NUCLONS
Is the general name for protons and neutrons - the particles from which atomic nuclei are built.

BASIC CONDITION
Is the state of an atom, molecule, or some other quantum system with the lowest possible internal energy value. In contrast to excited states, the ground state is stable.

HALF LIFE
- This is the period of time during which the initial number of radioactive nuclei, on average, is halved. For different elements, it can take on values from many billions of years to fractions of a second. For each type of nucleus, the half-life is strictly constant. Experiments with radioactive substances have shown that no external conditions (heating to high temperatures, high pressures, etc.) can affect the nature and rate of decay.

POSITRON
- an elementary particle with a positive charge equal to the charge of an electron, with a mass equal to the mass of an electron. She is the antiparticle in relation to the electron.

STRIPED SPECTRA
- these are optical spectra of molecules and crystals, consisting of broad spectral bands, the position of which is different for different substances.

POSTULATES OF BOR
- these are the basic principles of the "old" quantum theory - the theory of the atom, developed in 1913 by the Danish physicist Bohr.
Bohr's first postulate: an atom may not be in all states admitted by classical physics, but only in special quantum (or stationary) states, each of which corresponds to a certain energy; in a stationary state, the atom does not radiate.
Bohr's second postulate: when an atom passes from one stationary state to another, a quantum of electromagnetic radiation is emitted or absorbed. The energy of the emitted or absorbed quantum (photon) is equal to the difference in the energies of stationary states.

PROTON
- it is a positively charged elementary particle with a mass 1836 times greater than the mass of an electron; the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. The proton (along with the neutron) is one of the nucleons and is part of the atomic nuclei of all chemical elements.

OPERATION OUTPUT
- the minimum work that needs to be done to remove an electron from a solid or liquid substance into a vacuum. The work function is determined by the type of substance and the state of its surface.

RADIOACTIVITY
- this is the ability of some atomic nuclei to spontaneously transform into other nuclei, while emitting various particles: Any spontaneous radioactive decay is exothermic, that is, it occurs with the release of heat.

STRONG INTERACTION
- This is one of the four fundamental interactions of elementary particles, a particular manifestation of which are nuclear forces. Compared to other types of interactions, it is the most intense. It has a short-range character: its radius of action is only 10–15 m. Strong interactions are characteristic of particles called hadrons. The carriers of strong interactions are gluons.

WEAK INTERACTION
- This is one of the four fundamental interactions of elementary particles, a particular manifestation of which is the beta decay of atomic nuclei. The weak interaction is less intense than the strong and electromagnetic interaction, but much stronger than the gravitational one. Weak interaction is characteristic of almost all particles, but its radius of action is extremely small: ~ 10–18 m. The carriers of the weak interaction are intermediate bosons.

UNCERTAINTY RATIO
- this is a fundamental relationship of quantum mechanics, according to which the product of uncertainties ("inaccuracies") in the coordinate and the corresponding projection of the momentum of a particle for any accuracy of their simultaneous measurement cannot be less than half the Planck constant. It follows from the uncertainty relation that the more accurately the location of the particle is determined, the less accurate the information about its momentum is, and vice versa.

RADIATION SPECTRUM
Is a set of frequencies or wavelengths contained in the radiation of a given substance.

ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
Is a set of frequencies (or wavelengths) of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by a given substance.

SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
Is a method for determining the chemical composition of a substance by its spectrum. Distinguish between qualitative spectral analysis, with the help of which it is established which chemical elements are included in the composition of a substance, and quantitative spectral analysis, which makes it possible to determine its quantitative content in the sample by the intensity of the spectral lines of a chemical element.

SPIN
Is the proper angular momentum of an elementary particle. Has a quantum nature and (unlike the angular momentum of ordinary bodies) is not associated with the motion of the particle as a whole.

THERMAL RADIATION
- This is electromagnetic radiation generated by the internal energy of the substance emitting it. It is characterized by a continuous (continuous) spectrum with a maximum, the position of which depends on the temperature of the substance. With its increase, the total energy of thermal radiation increases, and the maximum moves to the region of higher frequencies.

THERMONUCLEAR REACTIONS
- These are nuclear reactions between light atomic nuclei, occurring at very high temperatures (~ 108 K and higher). In this case, the substance is in a state of fully ionized plasma. The need for high temperatures is explained by the fact that for the fusion of nuclei in a thermonuclear reaction, it is necessary that they approach a very small distance and fall into the sphere of action of nuclear forces. This rapprochement is hindered by the Coulomb repulsive forces acting between like-charged nuclei. To overcome them, the nuclei must have very high kinetic energy. After the start of the thermonuclear reaction, all the energy spent on heating the mixture is compensated by the energy released during the course of the reaction.

TRACK
Is the trace left by a charged particle in the detector.

TRITIUM
Is a superheavy radioactive isotope of hydrogen with a mass number of 3. The average tritium content in natural waters is 1 atom per 1018 hydrogen atoms.

Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effect
Is an equation expressing the relationship between the energy of the photon participating in the photoelectric effect, the maximum kinetic energy of the electron emitted from the substance and the characteristic of the metal on which the photoeffect is observed - the work function for the metal.

PHOTON
Is an elementary particle that is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation (in the narrow sense - light). It is a truly neutral particle (i.e., it has no charges). It always spreads at a fundamental speed of 3 × 108 meters per second. The energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of fluctuations in the intensity of the electric field of radiation, the coefficient of proportionality is a fundamental constant called Planck's constant.

PHOTO EFFECT (external photo effect)
Is the emission of electrons by bodies under the influence of light.

CHEMICAL ACTIONS OF LIGHT
- these are the actions of light, as a result of which chemical transformations occur in substances that absorb light - photochemical reactions. The chemical actions of light include the reactions of photosynthesis in the green parts of plants; the appearance of sunburn; fading of fabrics in the sun; decomposition into their constituent parts of silver bromide molecules in the photosensitive layer of a photographic plate, etc.
Photochemical transformations play an important role in the mechanism of vision in humans and animals. The role of light in photochemical processes is to impart such a high energy to a molecule of a substance that the molecule splits into its constituent parts. The chemical action of light -. As in the case of the photoelectric effect, for every photochemical reaction there is a red border, that is, a minimum frequency at which light is still chemically active. The existence of such a boundary can only be explained from the standpoint of quantum concepts.

CHAIN REACTION
Is a self-sustaining fission reaction of heavy nuclei, in which neutrons are continuously reproduced, dividing more and more nuclei.

BLACK HOLE
- this is an area of space in which there is such a strong gravitational field that even light cannot leave this area and go to infinity.

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
Is the conventional name for a large group of micro-objects that are not atoms or atomic nuclei (with the exception of a proton - the nucleus of a hydrogen atom).
Currently, about 400 such particles have been discovered (together with antiparticles). Most of them do not satisfy the strict definition of elementarity (indecomposability into even smaller formations), since, according to modern concepts, they (in particular, a proton and a neutron) are composite systems. For this reason, the name “subnuclear particles” is sometimes used instead of the term “elementary”. The same particles that claim to be the primary elements of matter are called truly elementary or fundamental particles. Leptons (for example, an electron), quarks, and carriers of interactions (photon, graviton, gluons and intermediate bosons) are currently considered fundamental. In contrast to them, all hadrons (which include mesons and baryons, including nucleons) are composite objects built from smaller particles called quarks.
Individual elementary particles differ in their mass, average lifetime, electric charge and other characteristics. One of the most fundamental properties of elementary particles is their interconversion. The particles formed as a result of various interactions are not included in the composition of the initial particles, but are born directly in the processes of their collisions or decays.

ENERGY OUTPUT OF NUCLEAR REACTION (reaction energy)
Is the difference between the kinetic energies of the final and initial states of particles participating in a nuclear reaction. To find the energy released in a nuclear reaction, subtract the mass of the products from the mass of the initial components and multiply by the square of the speed of light.

ATOMIC NUCLEUS BINDING ENERGY
Is the minimum energy required for the complete splitting of the nucleus into individual nucleons. When a nucleus is formed from nucleons, the energy of the nucleus decreases, which is accompanied by a decrease in mass, i.e., the mass of the nucleus must be less than the sum of the masses of the individual nucleons that form this nucleus. The difference between the sum of the masses of nucleons (protons and neutrons) and the mass of the nucleus consisting of them, multiplied by the square of the speed of light in vacuum, is the binding energy of nucleons in the nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon is called the specific binding energy.

COMPTON EFFECT
Is a decrease in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation when it is scattered by free electrons. It is observed for high frequencies of scattered radiation (in the X-ray region and above). The Compton effect manifests the quantum properties of electromagnetic radiation. The correct explanation of the effect was given on the basis of the idea that electromagnetic radiation is a stream of photons with energy and momentum associated with the radiation frequency.

NUCLEAR (PLANETARY) ATOM MODEL
- the model of the structure of the atom, proposed by the English physicist Rutherford, according to which the atom is as empty as the solar system. In the center of the atom there is a nucleus, which is positively charged, and practically all the mass of the atom is concentrated in it. The nucleus of an element with ordinal Z carries a charge Z times greater than the elementary one, has dimensions tens of thousands of times smaller than the dimensions of the entire atom. Around the nucleus, under the action of Coulomb electric forces, Z electrons revolve, so that, on the whole, the atom is neutral.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS
- these are transformations of atomic nuclei as a result of interaction with each other or with any elementary particles. For a nuclear reaction to occur, it is necessary that the colliding particles approach a distance of about 10–15 m. Nuclear reactions obey the laws of conservation of energy, momentum, electric and baryon charges. Nuclear reactions can proceed both with the release and with the absorption of kinetic energy, and this energy is approximately 106 times higher than the energy absorbed or released during chemical reactions.

NUCLEAR FORCES
Is a measure of the interaction of nucleons in an atomic nucleus. It is these forces that hold the like-charged protons in the nucleus, preventing them from scattering under the influence of electric repulsive forces. Nuclear forces have a number of specific properties:
1. Nuclear forces are 2–3 orders of magnitude more intense than electromagnetic ones.
2. Nuclear forces have a short-range character: the radius of their action is R ~ 10–15 m (that is, they coincide in order of magnitude with the radius of the atomic nucleus).
3. Nuclear forces are forces of attraction at distances of ~ 10–15 m, but at much smaller distances between nucleons they transform into repulsive forces.
4. Nuclear forces are off-center; in classical (non-quantum) language, this means that they are directed at a certain angle to the straight line connecting the interacting particles (forces of this type are called tensor forces).
5. Nuclear forces have charge independence, that is, the forces acting between a neutron and a neutron, between a proton and a proton, and also between a neutron and a proton, are the same.
6. Nuclear forces have the property of saturation: each nucleon in the nucleus attracts only a small number of its neighbors to itself, while repelling the rest of the particles.
7. Along with the usual (paired) nuclear forces, there are also the so-called triple (and generally multiparticle) nuclear forces, the range of which is approximately half the range of the conventional paired forces. (By triple we mean the forces between three particles, which vanish when at least one of these particles moves to infinity.)
8. Nuclear forces, at least in part, have an exchange character. According to the meson theory of nuclear forces, the interaction between nucleons is carried out by the emission and absorption by these particles of quanta of a special pion field - pi-mesons. A complete complete theory of nuclear forces, which would explain and predict all their properties, has not yet been created.

NUCLEAR PHOTOEMULSIONS
Are photographic emulsions used to register tracks of charged particles. When studying high-energy particles, these photographic emulsions are stacked in stacks of several hundred layers. A charged particle flying through them excites the atoms encountered on the way, leading to the formation of a latent image in the emulsion. Once developed, the track becomes visible. Due to the high stopping power of the photographic emulsions, the tracks are short. For example, in a typical photographic emulsion, α-particles with an energy of 55 MV leave a track about 1 mm long. Therefore, the traces left in photographic emulsions are observed using microscopes, which give a magnification of 200 to 2000 times.

NUCLEAR REACTOR
Is a device in which a controlled chain reaction of nuclear fission is carried out. The main part of a nuclear reactor is the core, in which a chain reaction takes place and nuclear energy is released. The chain reaction is controlled by means of special control rods, which are introduced into the reactor core using a remote control panel. These rods are made from highly neutron absorbing materials (cadmium or boron). The parameters of the core are calculated so that when the rods are fully inserted, the chain reaction certainly does not occur. The reactor starts working when the rods are extended so much that the neutron multiplication factor is equal to 1.

NUCLEUS (atomic)
- this is the positively charged central part of the atom, in which 99.96% of its mass is concentrated. The radius of the nucleus is ~ 10–15 m, which is approximately one hundred thousand times less than the radius of the entire atom, determined by the size of its electron shell.
The atomic nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. Their total number in the nucleus is denoted by the letter A and is called the mass number. The number of protons in the nucleus Z determines the electric charge of the nucleus and coincides with the atomic number of the element in the periodic table of elements of D. I. Mendeleev. The number of neutrons in a nucleus can be defined as the difference between the mass number of a nucleus and the number of protons in it. The mass number is the number of nucleons in the nucleus.
Nucleons in the nucleus are held together by special nuclear forces, which are a particular manifestation of the so-called strong interaction. The powerful nuclear forces acting in the core ensure its stability. A measure of the stability of a nucleus is its binding energy.

1.The material point is a body, the size of which can be neglected when solving specific problems. 2.A frame of reference is a coordinate system; a reference body with which it is associated and an instrument for measuring time. 3.Displacement is a vector connecting the starting position of the body with the final position of the body 4.Trajectory is an imaginary line along which the body moves. 5.Path-path length 6.Average speed is the ratio of the entire path traveled at different speeds to the entire travel time. 7.Rectilinear movement - movement along one straight line 8.Rectilinear uniform movement is a movement in which the body, moving in a straight line at regular intervals time passes equal distances. 9. The speed with uniform movement is a vector quantity equal to the ratio of the movement of the body of any span of time to that span. 10. Equally accelerated movement is movement with constant acceleration. 11.Acceleration-Speed, speed change. 12.Schedule Speed-dependence of speed on time of movement 13. The braking distance is the distance traveled by the body from the beginning of braking to its complete stop. 14.Force is a vector quantity, it is a quantitative measure of the interaction of bodies. 15.An inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference relative to which the body moves in a straight line and uniformly or rests if no forces act on it. 16. "Newton's first law": There are frames of reference, called inertial, relative to which the body moves uniformly, rectilinearly or at rest if the sum of the forces acting on it is zero. 17. "Newton's second law": Acceleration caused by a force acting on a body is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the body mass 18. "Newton's third law": The reaction force is equal to the action force 19. The weight of a body is the force with which the body presses on a support or suspension. twenty. Free fall is movement by gravity 21. "Law of Universal Gravitation": The force of mutual attraction of two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. 22. The gravitational constant is a physical quantity equal to the force with which two bodies of mass are attracted 1 kg at a distance of 1 meter. 23. The momentum of a body is a vector quantity equal to the product of the mass of the body by its velocity 24. "Law of Conservation of Impulses": The vector sum of impulses of bodies that make up a closed system does not change over time for any interactions of bodies with each other. 25. Inertia is the ability of a body to continue moving after the force has ceased to act on it. 26.Mass is a measure of inertia. 27.Mechanical vibrations are any periodically repetitive mechanical movements. 28.The period is the time during which the body makes one vibration. 29.Frequency is a physical quantity equal to the number of vibrations per unit of time.. 30.The vibration amplitude is the value equal to the maximum deviation from the equilibrium position. 31.Free vibrations are vibrations caused by an initial deviation from the equilibrium position. 32.Harmonic vibrations are vibrations described by the sine and cosine equation. 33.Resonance is a phenomenon of a sharp increase in the amplitude of system oscillations when the frequency of its natural oscillations of the system with the frequency of the external driving force. 34. Waves - Any disturbance propagating in space from the place of origin. 35.Elastic waves are disturbances propagated in an elastic medium. 36.Longitudinal waves are waves that oscillate along the direction of propagation of the wave. 37. Transverse waves are waves that oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. 38. Wavelength is the distance between the closest points, oscillating in the same phase. 39.Sound vibrations are vibrations with a frequency of 20Hz to 20kHz, which the human ear can pick up. 40. Infrasound is a vibration with a frequency below 20 Hz 41. Ultrasound is a sound with a frequency higher 20 kHz 42. Electric current is the ordered movement of charged particles 43.Dielectrics are non-conductive substances 44.Resistance is a physical quantity that characterizes the ability of a substance to conduct electrical current. 45. "Ohm's Law": The current in the section of the circuit is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. 46. Series connection is a connection in which all elements of the circuit are connected in series one after the other. 47. Parallel connection is a connection in which all elements of the circuit are connected in parallel to each other. 48. A magnetic field is a special type of matter with the help of which magnetic interactions are carried out. 49.A uniform magnetic field is a field whose lines are parallel each other with the same frequency. 50. An inhomogeneous magnetic field is a field whose lines are curved and located at different frequencies. 51.A solenoid coil, on which a large number of turns of wire with a current are wound. 52. "Rule of the Giper": If the direction of translational movement of the Giper coincides with the direction of the current in the conductor, then the direction of rotation of the Gimbal's handle coincides with the direction of the magnetic field lines. 53. "Rule of the right hand": If you grasp the solenoid with the palm of your right hand, directing four fingers in the direction of the current in the turns, then the thumb, set aside ninety degrees, will show the direction of the magnetic field lines inside the solenoid. 54. "Rule of the left hand": If the left hand is positioned so that the lines of the magnetic field enter the palm perpendicular to it, and four fingers are directed to the flow, then the thumb, set aside ninety degrees, will show the direction of the force acting on the conductor. 55. Magnetic field induction is a vector quantity that characterizes the strength of the magnetic field at every point in space. 56. One Tesla is such an induction of a magnetic field, which acts on a conductor one meter long with a current of one Ampere with a force of one Newton. 57. Magnetic flux is a physical quantity that characterizes the change in the vector of magnetic induction passing through the space bounded by the contour. 58. The electromagnetic field is a special type of matter, formed from alternating electric and magnetic fields that paralyze each other. 59. "The main position of the theory of Maxell": Any change in the magnetic field leads to the emergence of an alternating electric field, and any change in the electric field generates an alternating magnetic field. 60. An electromagnetic wave is a system of alternating electric and magnetic fields that generate each other and propagate in space. 61.Ultraviolet radiation is electromagnetic radiation with a shorter wavelength. 62. Light interference is the phenomenon of superposition of two coherent waves, in which an interference pattern is formed 63. Coherent waves are waves with the same frequency and constant phase difference. 64. An interference pattern is a pattern of vibration amplitudes distribution in space that does not change over time. 65. Alpha radiation is a flux of nuclei of a helium atom 66 Betta radiation is a flux of electrons 67. Gamma radiation is a flux of photons 68. Radioactivity is the ability of an atom of a substance to spontaneously emit Alpha, Betta and Gamma rays. 69. Alpha decay is the phenomenon of radiation from one or more nuclei of a helium atom. 70. Isotopes are atoms of the same substance with different nuclear masses. 71. Nucleons is a generic term for protons and neutrons.

Hadrons- a class of elementary particles participating in strong interactions. All belong to hadrons baryons and mesons including resonances.

Hadronic jets- directed beams of hadrons, formed during the collision of high-energy particles in deeply inelastic processes.

Antiparticles- particles that differ from similar ones in the sign of an electric charge. The names "particle" and "antiparticle" are largely arbitrary.

"Aroma"- characteristic of quarks, including the entire set quantum numbers(electric charge, strangeness, "charm", etc. except for "color").

Baryons- a group of "heavy" elementary particles with a half-integer spin and a mass not less than the mass of a proton. Baryons include a proton, neutron, hyperons, some of the resonances, etc.

Boson- a particle with zero and integer spin, obeying the Bose-Einstein statistics. Bosons include photons, gravitons(not yet open) mesons, bosonic resonances, gas molecules, gluons and etc.

Vacuum- a special type of matter, which corresponds to the lowest energy state of quantized fields in quantum field theory. Characterized by the absence of any real particles, at the same time it constantly generates short-lived virtual particles.

Virtual particles- in quantum theory, short-lived particles, for which the connection between energy, momentum and mass is broken: E 2 ≠ p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 2. Virtual particles are carriers of interactions.

Overcharge (Y) is one of the characteristics of hadrons. The hypercharge is expressed in terms of other quantum numbers of the hadron - baryon charge, strangeness, "charm", "beauty".

Hyperons- unstable elementary particles with a mass greater than a nucleon one. Refer to hadrons and are baryons.

Gluons- hypothetical, electrically neutral particles, carriers of strong interactions between quarks in quantum chromodynamics... Spin = 1, rest mass = 0.

Goldstone boson is a hypothetical particle with zero spin and zero mass. Introduced in quantum field theory to distinguish between vacuum states.

Gravitational collapse- astrophysical process of compression of space objects under the influence of their own gravitational forces.

Graviton- quantum of the gravitational field, which has zero mass and electric charge, spin is equal to 2. Gravitons are carriers of gravitational interaction; have not been found experimentally yet.

Dirac monopole- a hypothetical particle with one magnetic pole. Its existence was predicted in 1931 by P. Dirac.

Doppler effect- change in the oscillation frequency when the source moves in relation to the observer.

Unified field theory- a general theory designed to unite all the variety of properties of elementary particles and features of their interaction. At present, within the framework of the ETP, it has been possible to combine only electrical, magnetic and weak nuclear interactions.

Charge parity- (C-parity), a quantum number that characterizes the behavior of neutral particles. In weak interactions, the symmetry associated with charge parity is broken.

Isotopic invariance- symmetry of strongly interacting particles. On the basis of isotopic invariance, multiplets are formed, which make it possible to effectively classify all hadrons.

Instanton- a special state of vacuum, which corresponds to a strong fluctuation of the gluon field. In the theory of self-organization, instanton is one of the main structures generated by vacuum.

Gauge symmetry- the general name for the class of internal symmetries in quantum field theory and quantum chromodynamics. Gauge symmetries are related to the properties of elementary particles.

Quasars- powerful extragalactic sources of electromagnetic radiation. There is an assumption that K. are active nuclei of distant galaxies.

Quantization of space - time- the general name for generalizations of quantum field theory based on the hypothesis of the existence of a fundamental length and a fundamental time interval as universal physical constants.

Quantum mechanics(wave mechanics) is a theory that establishes a way of describing and the laws of motion of microparticles, as well as their relationship with physical quantities directly measured by experiment.

Quantum chromodynamics(QCD) -quantum field theory of strong interaction of quarks and gluons, based on the model of quantum electrodynamics on the basis of "color" gauge symmetry.

Quarks- material particles, of which, according to modern concepts, all hadrons are composed. To understand the dynamics of various processes with the participation of hadrons, six quarks are currently considered sufficient: u, d, s, c, b, t. There is indirect confirmation of the existence of the first five quarks.

Quantum numbers- whole or fractional numbers that determine the possible values of physical quantities that characterize quantum systems. Quantum numbers include: main (n), orbital (l), magnetic (m e), spin (m s), strangeness, "charm", "beauty", etc.

Chiral symmetry- in quantum field theory, one of the fundamental dynamic symmetries, through which a good description of the processes of scattering and decay of hadrons at low energies and at very high energies becomes possible. Chiral symmetry also includes enantiomorphisms (right-left).

K-mesons(kaons) -group of unstable elementary particles that participate in strong interactions. Charge asymmetry of decays K 0 L → π - + e + (μ +) + v e (v μ) and k 0 L → π + + e - (μ -) + v e ˜ (v μ ˜), where the probability of the second decay is greater than the first by 10 ~ "\ indicates a violation of one of the fundamental symmetries of nature (CP-invariance).

Compton wavelength is the value of the dimension of length characteristic of relativistic quantum processes λ 0 = h / mc.

Cosmology- the doctrine of the Universe as a single whole. The conclusions of cosmology are based on the laws of physics and observational astronomy data, taking into account philosophical principles.

Mesons- unstable elementary particles belonging to hadrons... According to the quark model, M. consists of a quark and an antiquark.

Neutrino- light (possibly massless) electrically neutral particle with spin 1/2. Participates only in weak and gravitational interactions. Neutrinos have tremendous penetrating power, and their detection will allow a detailed study of the states of the early Universe.

Reversible process- in thermodynamics and statistical physics, the process of transition of a system from one state to another, allowing the possibility of returning it to its original state.

Reversal of time- mathematical operation of replacing the sign of time in the equations of motion. Objectively, real time as an attribute of matter is irreversible, and therefore the operation of replacing the time sign is possible only as an epistemological device that facilitates the solution of a physical problem.

Operators- in quantum theory, a mathematical symbol used to perform an action on a physical quantity.

Orbital moment is the angular momentum of a microparticle due to its motion in a force field with spherical symmetry.

Ground state a quantum system - a steady state with the lowest possible internal energy.

Open systems- thermodynamic systems that exchange matter, energy, momentum with the environment. Recently, open systems in chemistry and biology have been studied.

Partons- virtual components of hadrons, manifested in deeply inelastic processes.

Plasma- one of the main types of matter, it is a partially or completely ionized gas. The vast majority of the Universe is in the state of plasma: stars, galactic nebulae, the interstellar medium. In laboratory conditions, plasma is formed in discharges, combustion processes, MHD generators and special installations (for example, "Tokamak").

Positron- (e +) an elementary particle with a positive electric charge, numerically equal to the electron charge. Is an antiparticle in relation to the electron.

Vacuum polarization- quantum-relativistic phenomenon, consisting in the creation of virtual pairs of charged particles-antiparticles from a vacuum under the influence of an external field.

Space and time- attributive (inalienable) properties of matter. Space expresses the order of coexistence of objects, time expresses the order of succession of events. Space and time are objective, that is, they do not depend on a person, and their characteristics are determined exclusively by the nature of the movement of the corresponding forms of matter.

Proton- a positively charged elementary particle, the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. It is suggested that the proton is an unstable particle with a half-life of ~ 10 30 years, however, experimental confirmation of this hypothesis has not yet been carried out.

Pulsars- variable sources of cosmic electromagnetic radiation.

Resonances- short-lived excited states of hadrons (t life ~ 10 -22 ÷ 10 -24 s). Unlike other unstable particles, resonances decay mainly due to strong interactions. To date, more than 300 resonances have been discovered.

Relativistic effects- physical phenomena observed at speeds comparable to the speed of light. These include: time dilation, length shortening, weight gain, etc.

Superconductivity and high temperature superconductivity- the property of many conductors, which consists in the fact that their electrical resistance abruptly drops to zero when cooled to the temperature of liquid hydrogen and helium. At the present time (March 1987) a transition to the superconducting state of a number of materials at high temperatures has been discovered, which will be of exceptional national economic importance.

Symmetry- a) in physics - a kind of proportionality of laws. More generally, symmetry is a kind of relationship between two objects that is characterized by both moments of identity and moments of difference. The most widely used in physics is isotopic, "color", gauge and other symmetries, without which modern physical theory would be impossible; b) in philosophy, symmetry is one of the general scientific concepts, denoting the formation of moments of identity in the different. Symmetry is represented in the objective world as concrete forms of symmetry.

Soliton- a structurally stable solitary wave in a nonlinear dispersive (scattering) medium. Solitons are used extensively in constructions of quantum nonlinear field theory.

Compliance principle- in the methodology of science, one of the principles according to which any subsequent scientific theory should include the previous theory as a limiting (special) case. In relation to correspondence, there are, for example, Newtonian mechanics and special relativity.

Spin- the proper angular momentum of elementary particles, has a quantum nature, due to the internal "rotation" of the particle.

Spontaneous symmetry breaking- spontaneous violation of a stable, equilibrium, symmetric state, subject to moving away from the state with minimum energy. Spontaneous symmetry breaking is associated with the solution of many problems in quantum field theory, including the appearance of particles with zero mass and zero spin.

Supergravity- gauge supersymmetry theory, which allows generalizing the general theory of relativity. In the framework of supergravity, in principle, it is possible to combine all known types of interactions.

Supersymmetry- the symmetry connecting the fields, the quanta of which are bosons, with the fields, the quanta of which are ferm ions. The most interesting application of supersymmetry is in supergravity.

CPT-symmetry- one of the fundamental symmetries, according to which in quantum field theory the equations are invariant under the combined C (charge), P (spatial) and T (time reversal) transformation.

Unitary symmetry- approximate symmetry inherent in the strong interaction of elementary particles. In electromagnetic and weak interactions it is violated. On the basis of unitary symmetry, it was possible to classify hadrons.

Fluctuations- random deviations of physical quantities from their average values. Fluctuations occur in any quantity as a consequence of random factors.

Fermions- particles obeying the Fermi-Dirac statistics. Fermions have half-integer spin. Fermions include quarks, leptons (electron, muon, all types of neutrinos).

Photon- an elementary particle, a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. The rest mass of a photon is zero. Photons are bosons.

Parity- quantum-mechanical characteristic of the state of a microparticle, reflecting the symmetry properties of the wave function of this particle with respect to spatial transformations.

State vector- a value that fully describes the state of a micro-object (electron, proton, atom, molecule) and, in general, any closed quantum system.

In quantum theory, the state vector is usually denoted by the symbol | >. If some set of data defining the system is denoted by the letter x, then the state vector will have the form | x>.

Wave function(WF) is a special case, one of the possible forms of representing the state vector as a function of coordinates and time or their conjugate variables. This is a representation of the system, as close as possible to the usual classical description, which presupposes the presence of a common and independent space-time.

The description of the state of a micro-object using the WF has a statistical, that is, probabilistic nature: the square of the absolute value (modulus) of the WF indicates the value of the probabilities of those quantities on which the WF depends. For example, if the dependence of the particle WF on the coordinates is given X, at, z and time t, then the square of the modulus of this WF determines the probability of detecting a particle at the moment t at the point with coordinates X, at, z... Since the probability of a state is determined by the square of the WF, it is also called the probability amplitude.

Harmonic Oscillator(GO) is a physical system that performs harmonic oscillations around a stable equilibrium position. For GO, the potential energy of the system U is determined by the expression, where x- deviation of the system from the equilibrium position; k- constant coefficient. For a harmonic oscillator, the average kinetic energy of the system over the period of oscillations is exactly equal to the average potential energy.

A quantum oscillator is characterized by a discrete set of states, energy levels En which are located at equal distances, where n = 0, 1, 2 ...; h- Planck's constant; ? - natural vibration frequency.

Hilbert space(GP) - in relation to the problems of quantum mechanics, this is the space of possible states of the system, specified by a set of eigen (basic, or ground) states.

GP elements must possess the properties of convergence (that is, consist of vectors, the "length" of which is finite), for which the concept of proximity between objects is established in a certain way.

Operators play a significant role in GP. The operator defined in the GP acts on one element of the GP and transfers it to another.

Depending on the task, we can choose one or another set of basic states. If we are interested in the spatial coordinates of a particle, then we choose an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space, since the coordinate is a continuous value, and a separate state of the particle is associated with each point in space. If we are interested in the behavior of the spin of a particle, we can choose as a basis the spin states possible for the particle, for example, "spin-up" and "spin-down".

Decoherence- a physical process that is accompanied by a decrease in quantum entanglement as a result of the interaction of the system with the environment. Decoherence is accompanied by the appearance of its classic features: subsystems "manifest" from a non-local state, acquiring visible local forms. This process can be described as the formation of quantum correlations (or entanglement, entanglement) between the system and its environment, arising in the course of their interaction. In this sense, decoherence is identical to quantum measurement.

Decoherence, caused by the interaction of a quantum system with its environment, destroys quantum effects, turning them into classical ones. Because of this interaction, the states of the system are "confused" with so many states of the environment that coherent effects are "lost" during the averaging and become unobservable.

Decoherence is movement from the source, the center - to the periphery, a multitude of externally unrelated phenomena. A fully decohere system is heading for chaos.

With regard to the human psyche, decoherence means narrowing of attention on one side of the phenomenon, the object of attraction or addiction, as a result of which a person finds himself in a narrowed space of perception. He accepts one side of the phenomenon, but not the other.

Diffraction- scattering of microparticles (electrons, neutrons, atoms, etc.) by crystals or molecules of liquids and gases, in which deflected beams are formed from the initial beam of particles, the direction and intensity of which depend on the structure of the scattering object.

Diffraction of particles arises due to the interference of the components formed during the interaction of the initial beam with the periodic structure of the object and can be understood only on the basis of quantum theory. Diffraction of particles, from the point of view of classical physics, is impossible.

Light diffraction- a phenomenon observed when light propagates past the sharp edges of various bodies (for example, slits). In this case, there is a violation of the straightness of the propagation of light, that is, a deviation from the laws of geometric optics.

Entangled (quantum-correlated) states(ЗС) is a form of correlations of composite systems that has no classical analogue. ЗС - the state of a composite system, which cannot be divided into separate, completely independent and independent parts, that is, it is an inseparable (inseparable) state. ES can arise in a system, parts of which interacted, and then the system disintegrated into subsystems that did not interact with each other. For such systems, fluctuations of individual parts are interconnected by means of nonlocal quantum correlations, when a change in one part of the system at the same moment in time affects the rest of its parts (even separated in space by infinitely large distances).

In the case of open systems interacting with the environment, the connection between particles will remain until the superposition of states turns into a mixture under the influence of interaction with surrounding objects.

Interference- addition in space of two (or several) waves, in which at different points gain or decrease in the amplitude of the resulting wave is obtained. If the crests of one wave coincide with the crests of another wave, then amplification occurs, and the amplitude increases. If the crests of one wave fall on the troughs of another, then the waves cancel each other out, and the amplitude of the resulting wave weakens.

Interference is typical for all waves, regardless of their nature: for waves on the surface of a liquid, elastic (for example, sound) waves, electromagnetic (for example, radio waves or light) waves.

Quantum system- this term does not indicate the size of the system, but the way it is described by the methods of quantum physics in terms of states.

Classic correlations- the interconnection of the characteristics of any objects through ordinary interactions through the exchange of energy. The rate of establishment of classical correlations between objects is limited by the speed of light.

Coherence(from lat. cohaerens- being in communication) - the coordinated course of several oscillatory or wave processes in time, which manifests itself when they are added. Oscillations are called coherent if the difference between their phases remains constant over time and, when the oscillations are added, determines the amplitude of the total oscillation.

Correlation(from lat. correlatio- interdependence) - a systematic and conditional relationship between two data series.

Density matrix- a matrix (table of elements), with the help of which both pure-quantum states and mixed states arising from the interaction of the system with the environment are described.

Nonlocality- a property of entangled states, which cannot be associated with local elements of reality. The term “nonlocality” is often used to describe the out-of-space connection of entangled states, when one particle or part of a system immediately responds to changes with another particle or subsystem, regardless of the distance between them.

Uncertainty ratio(uncertainty principle) - one of the provisions of quantum theory, which states that any physical system cannot be in states in which the coordinates of its center of inertia and momentum simultaneously take exact values. The equivalent formulation is that the energy of any system can be measured with an accuracy not exceeding, where h- Planck's constant; ? t- measurement time. In other words, the classical concepts of coordinate and momentum are applicable to microparticles only within the limits established by the Heisenberg relations. Thus, the law of conservation of energy in the course of small time intervals may not be fulfilled, this makes it possible to create virtual particles (or pairs) that exist for a short time. According to quantum field theory, any interaction can be represented as a set of processes involving virtual particles.

Inseparability- the fundamental impossibility of dividing the system into independent and independent components. Same as quantum entanglement.

Light polarization- the property of optical radiation, consisting in the inequality of different directions in the plane perpendicular to the light beam (the direction of propagation of the light wave). This is due to the fact that the electric field strength vectors oscillating in the light wave E and magnetic field strength N perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation and allocate certain directions in space.

Energy flow characterizes the intensity of the exchange of energy of an object with the environment. Energy flux density is the amount of energy flowing per unit time through a unit surface area located perpendicular to the flux. Energy flows inside the body arise due to the uneven distribution of energy, that is, due to the presence of energy gradients, arising, for example, during accelerations. With regard to our perception, it is felt as "captured the spirit", "blood rushed to the head", "hair moved" or a soft feeling of what is happening in the body.

Scattering- the process of interaction of microparticles with various objects (including other particles), during which their energy, direction of motion, internal state, etc. can change.

Recoherence- the process opposite to decoherence, that is, the transition from mixed (classical) states to purely quantum ones. This is the process of acquiring quantum properties by a system, including quantum entanglement, upon termination or weakening of interaction with the environment. For the recoherence of the system to a quantum state, it is necessary to stop or weaken the exchange of information with the environment.

In the course of recoherence, dense material shells "spread out", and the boundaries between bodies begin to disappear, and subsystems are combined into a single nonlocal quantum system. Recoherence means movement from the periphery of flickering phenomena to the center, to their source.

With regard to the human psyche, recoherence means awareness, synthesis, getting into the source, that is, the transition to understanding what is happening from a wider spectrum of world perception. For recoherence, it is necessary to be able to distinguish between a sufficiently complete set of states of a certain space of events and to be able to interact with them in a controlled manner.

In this case, recoherence is reduced to defocusing attention, that is, removing the focus of attention from the addicted object, thought or feeling without suppressing them.

In subjective perception, recogeneration can be characterized by a state of rest, clarity, non-employment, an expanded vision of what is happening. In the case of "recogeration" of everyday troubles, the result can be expressed by the words: "This question no longer interests me"; “I noticed so many new and interesting things around”; “It turned out that everything was pretty good”; "I clearly understood what to do."

Mixed state- such a state of the system that cannot be described by one state vector, it can only be represented by a density matrix. In a mixed state, the maximum complete set of independent physical quantities that determine the state of the system is not given, but only the probabilities w 1, w 2 ... find a system in various quantum states described by the state vectors | 1>, | 2> ...

State of the system- implementation of certain potential capabilities of the system, possible under the given conditions. It is characterized by a set of quantities that can be measured.

Clean state(pure-quantum state) - a state that can be described by a state vector. Closed systems are described by pure states.