Question: Worldview and its types and levels. Worldview, its historical types, levels and forms

Modern society exists in an era when problems have become aggravated, on the solution of which the answer to the Hamlet question depends: to be or not to be a person and humanity on Earth.

You can, of course, try to hide from these painful problems according to the principle, “my hut is on the edge” ... But is it worthy of a person?

And the search for answers to all the new large-scale questions put forward by life - the problems of man and nature, man and society, the technosphere and biosphere, many questions of the relationship between social systems and states, etc. - requires the ability to self-determine, to find out ways to solve these and many other issues, and most importantly - to find one's place and role in these complex processes. But this requires such a prerequisite as the ability to think, a fairly broad view of things as a condition for a conscious, reasonable orientation in the surrounding reality.

However, the ability to think rationally is not innate, it must be formed and developed, and one of the best ways to do this is to assimilate the achievements of philosophical culture. Philosophy is not at all something floating in the clouds of pure thought. On the contrary, its main purpose is connected with the solution of the fundamental questions of life itself. After all, in the final analysis, the center of philosophy is the question of man and his place in the world, his place in society, the meaning of his life. And the main purpose of philosophy is to help a person navigate the endless complexities of life, in solving those equations with many unknowns that constantly arise on the path of life.

The study of philosophy is a school that helps to cultivate a culture of rational thinking, the ability to freely guide the movement of thought, to prove and disprove. It is clear that the science of thinking cannot be rented, mastering it requires effort, straining intellectual abilities. Of course, this is not at all easy and presupposes, in particular, an acquaintance with the history of philosophy, in order to trace step by step how the "eternal problems" were solved over many centuries, and most importantly, to prepare oneself to understand the ways to solve them in modern philosophy, including in dialectical materialist philosophy.

The role of philosophy today is also great in the implementation of humanistic ideals, because only through the prism of humanism can scientific and technological progress acquire the necessary orientation, global problems can be solved in the interests of man and mankind - from removing the threat of thermonuclear war to eliminating the threat to the genetic foundations and human psyche . At the same time, philosophy should not be artificially fenced off from the philosophical process in other countries, because no one is the owner of the ultimate truth on any issue. Here, exchange and systematic acquaintance with the achievements of modern world philosophical thought are necessary. The central task of philosophy is to solve a whole range of worldview problems, to develop a system of generalized views of the world as a whole from the standpoint of reason. What are these problems that can rightfully be called eternal?

What forms the basis of the world? How does the world work, how are the spiritual and material correlated in it? Did the world have a beginning in time, or does it exist forever? Is there a known order in the world, or is everything in it chaotic? Is the world evolving or is it constantly revolving in one unchanging circle? Is it possible to know the world?

Do these questions arise before man and mankind by chance? No, not by accident. They arise from the need for a general orientation in the world.

Solving them one way or another, a person, as it were, sketches coordinate grid, within which both his activity and the work of his thought will unfold. The theoretically substantiated solution of these and other worldview problems is the purpose of philosophy, and at the same time the significance of its development.

Worldview is the core, the core of the consciousness and self-awareness of the individual. It acts as a more or less holistic understanding by people of the world and themselves, their place in it. Everyone has it. But its level, its content, its form are different. It should be noted, firstly, that the worldview is historically specific, since it grows on the soil of the culture of its time and, along with it, undergoes serious changes. Secondly, society in every era is socially heterogeneous, it is divided into different groups and communities with their own interests. In addition, people themselves differ not only in their place in society, but also in their development, their aspirations, and so on. In other words, the worldview of each era is realized in a variety of group and individual variants. In addition, the worldview as a system includes a number of components. First of all, this is knowledge based on truth, and along with this, values ​​that are most clearly expressed in the moral and aesthetic components of the worldview, based on goodness and beauty.

Not only the mind, but also feelings are involved in the development of a worldview. This means that the worldview includes, as it were, two sections - intellectual and emotional. The emotional and psychological side of the worldview is represented by attitude and worldview, and the intellectual side is represented by worldview.

Naturally, the ratio of these aspects is different at different levels of worldview, their representation in the worldview in different eras is not the same, and finally, the proportions of these aspects are also different in the worldview of different people. Moreover, the very emotional coloring of the worldview, expressed in feelings, moods, etc., can be different, from joyful, optimistic tones to gloomy, pessimistic tones.

The second level of worldview is worldview, based primarily on knowledge, although worldview and worldview are not given just next to each other: they are, as a rule, one. This unity is seen in their beliefs, where knowledge and feeling, reason and will are given together, where a social position is formed, for the sake of which a person is sometimes capable of much. The strength of beliefs lies in a person's trust in their essence and meaning. And this means that the worldview includes confidence in its structure, and therefore faith (this can be religious faith, and faith in ghosts and miracles, and faith in science, etc.). Reasonable faith does not exclude doubt, but is alien to both dogmatism and boundless skepticism, which completely deprives a person of strongholds both in knowledge and in activity.

Two levels of worldview should be singled out: life-everyday and theoretical. The first is formed spontaneously, in the process of everyday life. This is the worldview of the broad strata of society. This level of worldview is important, it must be taken into account, although it differs: 1) insufficient breadth; 2) a kind of interweaving of sober positions and attitudes with primitive, mystical, philistine ideas and prejudices; 3) a great emotional burden.

These disadvantages are overcome at the theoretical level of understanding of the world and outlook. This is a philosophical level of outlook, when a person approaches the world from the standpoint of reason, acts based on logic, substantiating his conclusions and statements.

If approached historically, philosophy as a special type of worldview was preceded by mythological and religious types of worldview. Myth, as a special form of consciousness and worldview, was a kind of fusion of knowledge, albeit very limited, of religious beliefs and various types of art.

The interweaving of elements of knowledge about the world with religious and artistic fantasy in the myth finds its expression in the fact that within the framework of the myth, thought has not yet gained complete independence and is most often clothed in artistic and poetic forms, which is clearly visible in the Myths of Ancient Greece, the Iliad "," Odyssey ", national folklore, etc. And at the same time, the picture of the world as a whole was already drawn in the myths in the form of theosophy, the search for ways to assert the unity of nature and society, the world and man, the past and the present was under way, worldview problems were solved in a peculiar form.

Further development understanding of the world went along two lines - along the line of religion and along the line of philosophy.

Religion is a form of worldview in which the development of the world is carried out through its doubling into earthly, natural and otherworldly, supernatural, heavenly. At the same time, unlike science, which also creates its second world in the form of a scientific picture of nature, the second world of religion is based not on knowledge, but on faith in supernatural forces and their dominant role in the world, in people's lives. In addition, religious faith itself is a special state of consciousness, different from the certainty of a scientist, which is based on rational foundations; in religion, faith is realized in the cult and through the cult.

The reason for religion is the dependence of people on natural, natural and social forces beyond their control. It acts as an illusory replenishment of a person's weakness in front of them. The long evolution of religion has led to the idea of ​​God as the manager of earthly and heavenly affairs. Religion once played a positive role as a means of social regulation, the formation of awareness of the unity of the human race, universal values.

The common thing that unites religion and philosophy is the solution of worldview problems. But the nature of the approach to these problems within their framework, as well as their solution itself, is profoundly different. In contrast to religion, with its emphasis on faith, philosophy has always relied on knowledge and reason. Already the first step of philosophy consisted in the search for the unity in everything, in the search for the fundamental principle of the world not outside of it, but in itself.

1.2. Philosophical worldview and its key problems:

The structure of the worldview subdivided into 4 levels Alignment levels:

Historical types of outlook: mythology, religion, philosophy.

There are 3 types of worldview: mythological, religious, philosophical. mythological type is a set of ideas about the world based on fantasy and belief in supernatural forces, their resemblance to humans and human behavior. Historically, the first was the mythological view of the world. The myths contained attempts to answer questions about the origin of the world, about various natural phenomena - solar and lunar eclipses, floods, meteorite falls, etc. There are a lot of myths about the origin of man, the stages of his life, the problem of life and death. The Bible, for example, is also based on mythology. Mythology denies the evolution of nature, it recognizes only its eternal cycle. The myth was replaced by other forms of worldview. Religious type - belief in the presence of certain supernatural forces that play a leading role in the world around a person and specifically in the fate of each of us. The most important attributes of a religious type are: Doubling the world: real, physical, supernatural. There are a lot of religious trends, but the most important of them are: Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. Religion forms the spiritual world of man. But despite the closeness of religion and philosophy, they are different. The difference lies in the fact that philosophy is a representation of the world in a theoretical and concrete form. What can be said about religion. philosophical type("philo" - love, "sophia" - wisdom). Philosophy is one of the generalizing types of human thinking, reflecting the whole reality as a whole. philosophical type worldviews are characteristic: Theoretical, not ordinary worldview. In philosophy, intellect, reason, rational thinking are based on scientific facts. Philosophy explains the world based on the relationship between being and consciousness, and also based on the place of man in the world.

Philosophy: definition, emergence, development.

Philosophy arose in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. in the Mediterranean region, more precisely, in Ancient Greece and adjacent territories. The worldview systems developed in Ancient Egypt, Babylonia, India and China cannot be unconditionally classified as philosophical. Most often, these systems are called pre-philosophy, since they were dominated by mythological and religious ideas.

Philosophy(from Greek phileo - love, sophia - wisdom) - love of wisdom.

Philosophy is the science of the universal, it is a free and universal field of human knowledge, a constant search for something new. Philosophy can be defined as the doctrine of the general principles of knowledge, being and relations between man and the world.

The Purpose of Philosophy- to captivate a person with the highest ideals, take him out of the sphere of everyday life, give his life a true meaning, open the way to the most perfect values.

In ancient Greek philosophy, the remnants of the former way of thinking were preserved, however, techniques based on logical rules and principles of rational, including scientific, thinking dominated.

Causes:

1) the establishment of a slave system.

2) expansion of cultural and economic contacts. The expansion of cultural contacts made it possible to compare the customs, beliefs, traditions, mores of other peoples with their own and see the non-general significance (relativity) of their own ideas about the world and the norms of their way of life.

3) the emergence of scientific knowledge and, as a rule, doubt about the ideological consistency and practical sufficiency of mythological ideas and norms of everyday consciousness. This doubt was expressed in the theoretically substantiated by them and practically colored need to distinguish between opinion and knowledge.

An opinion is something that is based on tradition or common experience and is usually the opinion of the majority.

Knowledge is what is true in reality, corresponds to the real state of affairs and the course of events, and least of all depends on the position of the majority on this issue.

Taoism.

One of the most famous schools of ancient Chinese philosophers is the school of Taoism. founder - Lao Tzu believed that people's lives proceed according to the definition. eating. law - dao. Tao together with substance (air, ether) comp. the basis of the world. Taoism is the path of integral existence, in which speculation and action, spirit and matter, consciousness and life are gathered in a kind of "chaotic unity". The world is, according to Taoism, in constant motion and change. He lives and acts spontaneously, without any reason. At the center of the teachings are the concepts of "dao" (way) and "de" (strength). All things in the world must be fasted. movement and flow from one state to the opposite. events cannot be interfered with. The main task of his philosophy. We know the world. Cognition basically takes the form of a mirror reflection of the cyclical movement of things in nature.

Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas. adapt. Christ. F to changes, the conditions of the 13th century (contradictions between the secular authorities and the church, the appearance of merchants and crafts, the appearance of heresies, the re-opening of the F of Aristotle). It is from Thomas Aquinas that the duality of religious psychology begins to clearly manifest itself. The desire to penetrate into the divine mystery paradoxically confronts the demands of cold reason with the personal feelings of the believer. However, the wall separating the divine world of creation from the human world is quite high. he quite correctly solves the problems of faith and reason. Reason and Faith otl-Xia from each other, but the image. unity. moving towards the truth, the mind can come into conflict with the dogmas of faith. but deities. revelation cannot err, therefore reason errs, not faith. F and religion have a number general provisions, the cat is revealed by reason and faith. and when there is a choice, it is better to hand in the position of the mind. Those truths of the mind that do not contradict faith are called natural theology and are higher part F. proof of the existence of God. Thomas derives his essence from the fact that each.yavl. has its cause, purpose, essence. and moving along the ladder of goals, causes of essences, we approach God, because God eats the reasons for everything. processes. Thomas is trying remove the opposition of nominalism and realism. the general is a product of the mind, but it is related to reality, because reality n. out of mind. general can n. and outside our mind., or rather in the mind of God. Pers. total intended in order to assist individuals in achieving the goals set in the spirit of Catholicism. State. power origin from God, the form of government depends on konkr. circumstances. the church is superior in status to the civil. total, and earthly life- preparation for heaven.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

In his influential treatise The Social Contract, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) set out a different version of the social contract theory based on popular sovereignty. Although Rousseau wrote that perhaps at that time the British were the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government. Rousseau believed that freedom was possible only where there was direct rule by the people in legislation, where people's sovereignty was indivisible and inseparable. Citizens must, in at least some circumstances, be able to decide together the basic norms by which they will live, and be able to revise those norms later if they wish to do so—something that the British people as a whole could not do.

Marxist philosophy.

Marxism is a complex doctrine. The supreme goal of Marxism is the development and theoretical substantiation of the possibility of the liberation of mankind. Marx and Engels proved the inevitability of the destruction of all slavery, humiliation and lack of freedom of people. Marxism includes 3 main parts: philosophy, political economy and scientific communism. Marx and Engels made critical use of German classical philosophy, Feuerbach's materialism and Hegel's dialectic. In the philosophy of Marxism, it was shown that social life is not connected with human activity. Society develops according to the laws, the bearer of which was a person. Being determines consciousness. Particular attention was paid to practice, practice is the criterion of truth, truth is the basis of knowledge. The central place is occupied by the problem of cognition and transformation of the world. An important merit is the development of dialectics, its combination with materialism. The worldview is based not on religious and mystical, but on conclusions modern natural science; Thinking began to be considered not as a product of the development of nature, but as a result of complex historical social and labor activity, i.e. practices.

Worldview, its levels and structure.

Worldview is a set of ideas about reality, a system of principles, standards and beliefs that determine the direction of activity and attitude to reality of an individual, social group or society as a whole.

The structure of the worldview subdivided into 4 levels Alignment levels:

The everyday worldview is a set of ideas about natural and social reality, as well as about the person himself, the norms and standards of his behavior and activities, based on common sense and everyday experience of many generations in various spheres of life.

The scientific and philosophical worldview is a system of ideas about the world, its structural organization and development, the place and role of a person in it, which is built on the basis of a philosophical understanding of scientific data, develops along with science and has an active influence on its development.

The cognitive component includes ideas about the origin, structure and laws of development of reality. These are elements of the scientific picture of the world, natural science laws, theories and hypotheses of such fundamental sciences as astronomy, astrophysics, astrochemistry, cosmology, mechanics, thermodynamics, biology, cybernetics and others.

The value component contains a number of characteristics that express the significance of the phenomena of reality for a person, as well as a set of specific relationships offered to him to the phenomena of natural reality and other people.

The activity-behavioral component covers a set of rules, norms, principles, standards of behavior prescribed to a person (do not kill, do not steal, do not bear false witness, help others, etc.) and activities (choose feasible goals and suitable means; be active and inventive, be careful and do no harm, achieve the maximum result at the lowest cost, etc.).

Attitude is a relatively independent way of perceiving reality, based on emotional and psychological mechanisms.

World outlook is a way of perceiving reality, based on the intellectual abilities of a person.

Worldview is an extremely generalized, ordered system of a person's views on the world around him, society, natural phenomena, on himself, the basic life positions of people, beliefs, ideals, principles of knowledge.

A worldview is not all views about the surrounding world, but only their ultimate generalization.

The subject of the worldview: social group; personality.

Depending on the subject distinguish the following forms:

the worldview of the class;

the worldview of the social group;

the outlook of society;

ü worldview of a certain historical era

Forms of worldview:

According to validity, credibility:

ü non-theoretical worldview (myths, religious worldviews);

ü philosophical and theoretical outlook;

a scientific outlook.

Various approaches:

ü artistic and figurative (on its basis a mythological and religious worldview is formed);

ü poetic and spiritual;

ü conceptually rational.

The main subsystems in the worldview: cognitive; valuable; behavioral;

Worldview structure:

v Knowledge, beliefs, doubts, faith;

v Feelings, emotions, value system;

v Programs of behavior and actions of people, life attitudes are praxeological side (it provides a link between cognitive and value components).

attitude- sensory awareness of the world.

worldview- allows you to see the world in the unity of all its sides (emotional side).

world outlook- the cognitive side of the worldview) the intellectual side).

mentality of a person: è this mindset, mentality; è soulfulness; è the totality of all the results of knowledge; è the final alloy that determines the spiritual world of a person.

Basic levels of worldview

Everyday practical- This is a spontaneously developing form of worldview. This is mass consciousness. Theoretical level : Philosophy.

Historical types of worldview

Mythological type of worldview is defined as a set of ideas that were formed in the conditions of primitive society on the basis of a figurative perception of the world. Mythology is related to paganism and is a collection of myths, which is characterized by the spiritualization and anthropomorphization of material objects and phenomena.

Religious worldview is based on belief in supernatural forces and their dominant role in the world and people's lives.

philosophical outlook. Philosophy is the study of the absolute. The Absolute is the doctrine of the higher principles, the initial principles of reality, the deep foundation of reality. Philosophy appeared 2.5 thousand years ago in India, China, Greece. Philosophy is considered as the theoretical core of the worldview, whose functions include the systematization of knowledge, their generalization and rationalization using the language of concepts and categories.

№ 2. Features of philosophy as a form of development of reality. The language of philosophy. The main categories of philosophical thinking

Philosophy is a special form of knowledge of the world, which develops a system of knowledge:Ü about the fundamental principles and foundations of human existence;Ü about the most general essential characteristics of people's attitudes towards nature, society and spiritual life.

Philosophy is a term that means the love of wisdom. Philosophy acted as a search for wisdom. This is a fundamentally different type of worldview. Philosophy arose in the 6th-7th centuries BC. e. in Ancient Greece, India, China.

Object of philosophy - the world as a whole. The subject of philosophy - these are the most general laws of the emergence and development of the world, the universe, nature, man, society.

Main philosophical themes:

generalization, integration, synthesis of knowledge about the world; discovery of the most general patterns; formation of hypotheses for the development of nature, society, thinking.

Philosophy and Science

General: Categorical-theoretical type of knowledge, in which the studied reality is not only described, depicted, but also explained; Philosophy as a science relies on specially developed thinking techniques, logical rules and methodologies.

Differences: Science always abstracts from personal-subjective opinions and assessments of reality; Philosophy cannot abstract from the subjective context of knowledge; Science reproduces the world as it exists in its ontological reality; Philosophy is a value form of consciousness that reflects reality as significant for a person from the standpoint of his higher life goals; Scientific ideas and hypotheses must be substantiated and proven by experience and experiment; Philosophy requires turning to speculation, creative imagination and understanding.

Philosophy and art

General: The cognitive interest of both the philosopher and the artist is always aimed at the formation of certain ideals and ideas about the proper, the beautiful, the good, the ugly. Philosophical treatises are ambiguous, their content is always mediated by the specifics of the author's worldview.

Differences: Philosophy uses categorial-theoretical means of understanding the subject area under study; Artistic thinking dominates in art, operating with sensual-emotional images. The artistic image affects the sensuality of a person; The philosopher appeals to the human mind.

Philosophy and religion

General: Religion contains a significant element of rationality (in theology)

Theology is a science that rationally substantiates the thesis that God contains all the fullness of grounds, reality.

Differences: Philosophical thinking critical it seeks to prove and substantiate any of its assertions; Religion contains the totality dogmas who are not subject to the judgment of reason; Religious experience does not require proof and substantiation; feelings and emotionally colored states of consciousness (religious ecstasy, catharsis) dominate.

The categories of philosophy are fundamental concepts that fix the essential properties of objects, phenomena of reality. Such concepts are present in all thinking; knowledge is based on them. These are: being, matter, property, reason; consequence, chance, necessity; part, whole, content and form, etc.

No. 3. The main directions of development of philosophical consciousness. Materialism, idealism, dualism. The main functions of philosophy

The main directions of development of philosophical consciousness:

· Materialism - recognizes primary nature, material being;

· Idealism considers consciousness, spirit, to be primary.

Historical forms of materialism:

· Naive materialism ancient world - Egypt, Babylon, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome.

ü Thales; Heraclitus; Democritus and others.

· Metaphysical materialism 17th-18th centuries;

· Dialectical materialism .

Varieties of idealism:

· Objective idealism (Plato, Thomas Aquinas. Hegel). Recognizes as primary the Spiritual world, the World mind, the World of ideas.

· Subjective idealism (Berkeley, Hume, Mach Avenarius). Considers primary human sensations, human consciousness.

· Solipsism (solus - the only one, ipse - itself). A kind of subjective idealism, according to which there is only a specific person and his consciousness.

· Dualism (dualis - dual). There are 2 principles independent of each other in the world: material and spiritual substance is the fundamental principle of the world. (Rene Descartes). Dualism is not an independent trend in philosophy.

The main functions of philosophy

Worldview function of philosophy

Ø develops a generalized system of views on the world and the place of a person in it;

Ø explores the forms of practical, cognitive and value relations of a person with reality;

Ø substantiates the principles of these relations, develops goals and ideals for the development of human society and culture.

Methodological function of philosophy

Ø development of a scientific picture of the world;

Ø substantiation of the image of knowledge;

Ø formation of a generalized model of interaction between science, society and man.

Cumulative function

Ø generalization and integration of scientific knowledge;

Ø formation on this basis general scientific picture of the world.

Boolean function

No. 4. Historical dynamics of the subject of philosophy. Main philosophical problems

Philosophy inherited from mythology its ideological character, i.e. a set of questions about the origin of the world as a whole, about its structure, about the position of man in the world. Philosophy became the rational-theoretical core of the worldview. “The mind controls everything with the help of everything” (Heraclitus, late VI - early V century BC). The search for "one in many" is carried out. Philosophy judges a single basis for all phenomena of the world, looks for in it the conditions for the unity and integrity of the world. It is no coincidence that many thinkers, when discussing the beginning of philosophy, pointed out that it appears as a result of amazement, surprise, the desire for a rational explanation of the world, its origin and essence.

The structure of philosophical knowledge includes the following sections (historical dynamics of the subject of philosophy):

Ø ontology - the doctrine of being, of the origins of all things, of the criteria, general principles and patterns of existence;

Ø epistemology - the doctrine of cognition, its essence and possibilities, the relationship of knowledge to reality, the conditions for its reliability and truth;

Ø axiology - the doctrine of the nature and structure of values, their place in reality, the relationship of values ​​among themselves;

Ø praxeology - the doctrine of in practical terms man and the world, the activity of our spirit, the goal-setting and effectiveness of man;

Ø anthropology - philosophical doctrine of man in his multidimensional incarnations;

Ø social philosophy - a branch of philosophy that describes the specific features of society, its dynamics and prospects, the logic of social processes, the meaning and purpose of human history.

These sections are not reducible, not reducible to each other, but are closely related.

The range of problems covered by philosophy, and in accordance with this, the subject of philosophy has historically changed with the development of society, science, and philosophical knowledge itself. But, despite the fact that it is impossible for all philosophical doctrines that have ever existed to recognize a single subject of study, it is possible to isolate the subject area of ​​philosophy, which historically changes within the boundaries determined by the specifics of philosophical knowledge.

Basic principles:

ü search for common foundations of being (Miletian school, Aristotle, etc.);

ü reduction of the entire diversity of the spiritual world of man to the rational ability of thinking;

ü it was said about the highest development of man and mankind;

ü subject-object relations were the basis of the process of cognition;

ü comprehension of the truth was the main goal of epistemology.

Postclassical philosophy associated with the rejection of the fundamental principles of classical philosophizing, attempts to radically rethink them. The formation of postclassical philosophy was socially prepared and caused by the crisis of philosophy and culture Western Europe. At the end of the 19th century, there was a mismatch between rationally constructed samples of the world order and the real world, often anti-rational, irrational, and other in nature.

In postclassical philosophy, the status of the mind of the cognizing subject, the structure of the cognitive process is being revised. Alternative, opposite to rationalism forms of comprehension of being and man, irrationalism, become relevant.

No. 13. Classics and postclassics. Main directions of postclassical philosophy

In the development of European philosophy of modern and contemporary times, two eras are distinguished:

Irrationalism(Latin unreasonable, unconscious) is a denial of the possibilities of the mind in the process of cognition. Intuition, feelings, will, mystical experience are declared the basis of cognition. Representatives of irrationalism: A. Schopenhauer; F. Nietzsche; S. Kierkegaard; A. Bergson.

In postclassical philosophy, the central problem is anthropological. A person is considered not as a rational-cognizing or socially active being, but as a being. experiencing, doubting, self-creating.

This is not about the possibility of obtaining universal truths, as in classical philosophy, but about comprehending the meaning of being a person experiencing massing, repression, social impact. The main thing that worries postclassical philosophy is the understanding of what happens to a person, with his consciousness in conditions of massive manipulation of him. Postclassical philosophy asks itself the question of what to do to remain human in such a social environment.

Postclassical philosophy moves from the search for universal principles, universals to the self-worth of the individual singular .

Marxism is a system of philosophical views founded by K. Marx and F. Engels, which includes dialectics, a materialistic understanding of history, and the rationale for the economic laws of the development of capitalist society.

Applies to neo-Thomism . Founder Maritain, Gilson. This also includes psychoanalysis (Freud, Jung and others) and pragmatism (Pearce, James).

Third stage took shape by the middle of the 20th century. Main directions:

Existential-phenomenological philosophy. The main goal is to develop a philosophy of man that would take into account the specifics of human existence and consider a person as a single, concrete one. Representatives include such existentialists as Pascal, Dostoevsky, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Husserl .

Existentialism arises on the eve of the First World War in Russia - Sheston, Berdyaev . After the First World War - in Germany - Heidegger, Jaspers, Buber .

Spread in France during World War II (Marseille, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, Camus, Simone de Beauvoir) . In the middle of the 20th century in other countries, including the USA. In Spain, existentialism is close Jose Ortega y Gasset .

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that considers human existence as something unique, single. Authentic existence is comprehended in borderline situations.

Borderline situations are the most dangerous moments of human existence, when there are states of fear, care, guilt, choice, expectation of death. At such moments, the true meaning of his existence is revealed to a person.

Analytical Philosophy. Developed Russell, Wittgenstein . They solved the problem of establishing the boundaries of knowledge, they see in philosophy not a theory, but a method of philosophical analysis, they are trying to reorient philosophy to study of the language of science . Representatives of the analytical strategy proposed to create a universal language of science, that is, to eliminate the gap between words and experience, to get rid of the ambiguity of ordinary language. The main goal of analytic philosophy is the elimination of pseudo-problems and the development of logically flawless structures of the language. The main principles are expressed in the works Frege, Russell, Moore, Wittgenstein .

Positivism- Philosophical direction. Founded Comte in the 30s of the 19th century. The main idea of ​​positivism - scientific knowledge - is the cumulative result of special natural sciences. The main methods of cognition are observation, experiment.

The main forms of positivism:

Classical positivism(Comte, Miles, Spencer); Empiriocriticism (Machism) - Mach, Avinarius; Neopositivism (Schlick, Assel, Wittgenstein).

Empiriocriticism(Machism) is a subjective-idealistic movement of the late 19th - early 20th century. The world is a collection of sensations, perceptions. Cognition is a means of biological adaptation to environment. The task of science is to describe facts on the basis of simplicity and expediency.

Neopositivism- direction of philosophy of the 20th century. Opposes science to philosophy, eliminates philosophy from science. The task of science is to develop a method for the logical or linguistic analysis of knowledge. Develops ideas of modern logic.

hermeneutics a current in modern philosophy. Foundations laid Schleiermacher . Ideas were developed by Ailtey, Ricoeur, Gadamer.

It originated in ancient Greece as the art of understanding the priests. Socrates in the dialogue "Ion" said: "Poets are interpreters of the will of the gods, each obsessed with the god who owns him." Aristotle considers hermeneutics as a kind of logical grammar.

Mleiermacher stated: "In order to understand someone else's text, it is necessary to penetrate into the state of mind, the psyche, the language of the author of the text."

Neo-Thomism- an influential teaching of modern philosophy of Catholicism. Representatives: Gilson, Maritain .

The basis of neo-Thomism is the doctrine of the harmony of faith and reason. Faith and reason are two ways to comprehend God: supernatural - through revelation, the word of God; natural - through the knowledge of the mind of the world created by God.

Recognizes three forms of knowledge of truth: science, philosophy, theology. The science captures events. philosophy- servant of theology, theology- supramental knowledge, equal to faith.

Postmodernism– representatives Derrida, Deleuze, Lyotard . In his work “The Postmodern Situation” (1979), Lyotard notes that totalitarianism, the confrontation between North and South, and unemployment became the logical fruit of rationalistic industrial progress.

Representatives of postmodernism are skeptical about the orientation towards the transformation of reality. According to the representatives of postmodernism, the world not only does not lend itself to human efforts to remake it, but also does not fit into any theoretical schemes. Emphasizes the uniqueness, originality of any phenomenon, event, fact. The extreme forms of the critical possibilities of cognition are manifested in the complete denial of science, in the search for its replacement by "subjectivity", in the spread of mysticism in the scientific community.

No. 14. Subject and structure of Marxist philosophy. Materialistic understanding of history

Marxism is a philosophical, political and economic doctrine and movement founded by Karl Marx in the middle of the 19th century. There are various interpretations of Marx's teachings associated with various political parties and movements in social thought and political practice. Political Marxism is a variant of socialism along with leftist anarchism, Christian socialism, and the non-Marxist part of democratic socialism/social democracy.

In his early works, Marx, on the one hand, condemns philosophy for its speculative consciousness, but on the other hand, persistently emphasizes the need to translate philosophy into reality. Thus, the 11th thesis of Marx about L. Feuerbach is widely known: “Philosophers have only explained the world in various ways, but the point is to change it”

Marxism considers philosophy as a practically oriented science, the essence of which is expressed in the thesis “philosophers only explained the world in different ways, but the point is to change it.” The contribution of K. Marx and F. Engels to philosophy is that they:

Ø developed the materialist dialectic as a philosophical doctrine of development and interconnection in nature, society and thinking;

Ø opened materialistic understanding of history , according to which economic relations form the basis of all other social relations (this manifested a certain absolutization of the role of the economy in society). The essence of the materialistic understanding of history K. Marx succinctly expressed in the preface political economy":" The mode of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. It is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness”;

Ø explained patterns historical process , which is reflected in formational approach to the development of mankind. K. Marx singled out three eras of world history, the criterion of which is the form of ownership: antique , feudal and bourgeois , representing the stages of progress of the economic social formation. It is preceded by archaic, pre-class societies, and is replaced by a communist formation through a social revolution, which is characterized by:

lack of exploitation of man by man and opposition mental labor physical;

the transformation of labor into the first necessity of life;

comprehensive development of individuals, as a result of which “society will be able to write on its banner: “To each according to his ability, to each according to his needs” (K. Marx “Critique of the Gotha Program”);

slave state	feudal state	Capitalist (bourgeois) state	socialist state
ü the first historical type of state ü economic basis - the slave owner's ownership of the slaveü existed surrounded by "barbarians", who were the main source of labor force ü the state protects the interests of slave owners	ü economic basis - private ownership of land by feudal lords as the main means of production ü personal dependence of peasants on landowners-feudal lords.ü the state protects the interests of the feudal lords, whose class privileges are enshrined in laws	ü defends the bourgeois system and its basis - private ownership of tools and means of production ü is the apparatus of power that ensures the exploitation of the working people uses economic coercion to work	ü is a tool political power workers (working class) ü the state maintains public ownership of the instruments and means of productionü without exploiting others, the state ceases to be a state proper and gradually dies out.

Ø Suggested understanding of the essence of man as the totality of all social relations dominated by relations of production, which include:

1) the relationship of people to the means of production (ownership);

2) relations of exchange of products of production;

3) relations of distribution of produced products.

Ø analyzed the problem of "alienated labor" as such human activity, which, being the main condition of his life, at the same time deprives him of the opportunity to fully develop and satisfy his abilities and needs. As a result, under capitalism, according to K. Marx, a person is alienated from:

1) results of his work;

2) his own creative nature (self-alienation) and generic essence, those of labor;

3) another person.

A person (worker) appears as: goods; work force; a socio-historical being (“Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844”);

Ø introduced the concept of social practice , which is the material, expedient activity of people in the development and transformation of natural and social objects. In the structure of practice, two sides are distinguished: the subjective one - a person, his abilities, goals and actions; object - the subject, means and products of activity.

No. 15. Historical fate of Marxist philosophy. Neo-Marxism. post-marxism

Neo-Marxism- heterogeneous and contradictory flow. The slogan "Back to the true Marx!" sounded for the first time in the 30s of the 20th century. He was nominated representatives frankfurt school Horkheimar, Adarzho and others.

In the 60s, it was picked up by the figures of the same Frankfurt school (G. Marcuse, E. Fromm and others). Neo-Marxism arose in the 30-80s. 20th century. It splits into two opposing directions:

1. Dialectical-humanistic. The founders are Lukacs, Korsch, Gramsch, later - Habermas, Marcuse, Frome, Merleau-Ponty. They sought to put man as the subject of historical action at the center of Marxist philosophy, relied on early work Marx.

2. scientic. Representatives - Althusser, Wolpe, Cohen, Remer. They believed that Marxism was not scientific enough, they set the task of giving historical materialism a strict scientific form, while using functional analysis, game theory.

Neo-Marxism includes: groups of Marxist-oriented theorists of the national liberation movement; Researchers of the problems of the "third world"; Globalization researchers Samin, Frank, Wallerstein

Traditional Neo-Marxism usually contrasts the young K. Marx, the “anthropologist philosopher”, with the mature Marx, the author of Capital, with his “non-romantic” orientation towards scientific knowledge. Theorists of neo-Marxism deny the general validity of Marxist dialectics, reducing its content only to society.

Neo-Marxism accused "Soviet Marxism" of scientific-positivist revisionism, proceeding from the thesis about the possibility of social cognition, independent of class interest. Such knowledge, according to neo-Marxists, is impossible. Therefore, neo-Marxists believe, one must rely entirely on the “universal “critical consciousness”” of “late capitalism” and “state socialism”, which everywhere exposes alienation, the suppression of humanity, different forms illusory, false and perverted consciousness.

As a new driving force of political struggle and social change in modern conditions, neo-Marxism puts forward the "critical intelligentsia", rebellious youth, students, and the liberation movement in the third world.

In the 50s-70s. neo-Marxism became the ideology of the "new left". Aggregates ideological currents and political movements that oppose themselves to the "old left" - the theorists and practitioners of the communist and workers' parties. Initially, the new left acted as an elite literary and philosophical trend of "social-critical intellectuals" who preached the end of bourgeois culture and rebellion against capitalist civilization, but were disappointed in the revolutionary spirit of the working class and therefore looked for new anti-bourgeois forces. G. Marcuse, Fromm, Habermas and other representatives of the Frankfurt school, grouped around the journal "...", became the theorists of such neo-Marxism.

In the early 60s, the number of new leftists began to grow rapidly due to students drawn into the mass general democratic movement in the countries of developed capitalism: in the struggle against the Vietnam War, for the civil rights of blacks and other national minorities, democratic reform higher education against apartheid in South Africa. The intellectual movement grew into a practical one with specific political demands. The New Left embarked on the path of absolutization of violence and terrorist methods of struggle. Among the authorities and heroes of the young new left were the French theorist of political extremism R. Debre with the idea of ​​a “burning partisan hearth”, F. Fanon with the preaching of the “self-goal” of political violence, Mao Zedong as the inspirer of the “cultural revolution”, neo-anarchists and Trotskyists. Such a left-wing extremist orientation led in the 70s. new left to a deep and protracted crisis, to ideological and organizational confusion.

In connection with the crisis of socialism and the restoration of capitalism in the post-socialist countries, Marxism and its critics were forced to turn to the problem of whether Soviet command-bureaucratic socialism was an attempt to implement Marxist communism or not.

In the study of this problem, post-Marxism was formed. post-marxists as a rule, they try to defend Marxism by arguing that the communist experiment in Russia is not part of the Marxist legacy. J. McMurtry (Canada) with references to the work of K. Marx “On the critique of political economy. Preface”, notes that communist experiments began in a country whose level of development of the productive forces could not become the basis of a new socialist economic order. And according to Marx, recalls J. McMurty, "New, higher production relations do not arise until the material conditions for their existence have matured in the bowels of the old society."

The Bolshevik revolution and Soviet despotism were the organic result of Russian history alone; the ideological doctrines of this revolution and all subsequent communist experiments are to be found not in Marxism, but in Leninism. Lenin only mobilized the colossal energy of the people, created a totalitarian party and imposed on his country a rigid, totalitarian dictatorship not bound by any principles. This was enough to defeat the enemies, but not enough to achieve the goal. One of the main reasons for these mistakes of Lenin was that he was not a philosopher of alienation and "even a good philosopher in general", did not know the "works of the young Marx". He "concentrated on the problem of the class struggle, understood as a merciless struggle for power ... the most characteristic feature of Lenin was the iron will to implement, by all means, a communist utopia."

These tenets of Leninism contradict Marx's position that a communist society can only be built on the basis of developed industrial production forces. Therefore, today, according to post-Marxists, it is necessary to realize that the restoration of capitalism in post-socialist countries did not so much collapse Marxism as a futurological theory community development, and the collapse of Leninism with which, starting with Stalin, they began to identify Marxism. But today it is not only necessary to return Marxism to its authentic form, and to "restore" Marx's theory. It is necessary to give Marx's theory a second wind, to introduce it into the context of today's practice. Marx's futurological pronouncements stemmed from an analysis of nineteenth-century capitalism. and were based on the conclusion that the contradictions between the conditions for the growth of productive forces and the conditions for the growth of capitalist profits can be resolved only by the seizure of state power by the proletariat.

The modern developed capitalist society, thanks to the continuous efforts and intervention of the state, has found other ways to weaken or resolve the contradiction between the interests of the productive forces and capitalist property (on which, in fact, Marx made the main emphasis), and found a way to avoid the impasse of mass unemployment and the inevitable collapse of the cycles of reproduction. . The post-Marxist concept of socialism must take into account that command-bureaucratic socialism of the Stalinist type cannot be an alternative to modern capitalism.

No. 16. Features and main directions of development of Russian philosophy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

The first experience of Russian philosophizing should be attributed to the ancient Kievan era and the adoption of Christianity in Russia. Its sources were the gospel doctrine, patristic literature, and the teachings of the Eastern Fathers of the Church. A truly original national philosophy appears only in the 19th century.

The beginning of professional philosophizing in Russia is associated with the name Petr Yakovlevich Chaadaev(1794-1856), philosopher and publicist. In 1819 he was admitted to the "Union of Welfare", in 1821 - to the Northern Society of the Decembrists. He was a member of the campaign of the Russian army in Europe in 1812-1813, traveling in 1823-1826. in European countries met with Schelling. The main philosophical work of P. Ya. Chaadaev “Letters on the Philosophy of History” (“Philosophical Letters”) was written in 1829-1831. and first published in the Telescope magazine in 1836. His main topic – reflection on the historical destiny of Russia , historiosophical assessment of the spiritual evolution of the Russian-Orthodox world. Chaadaev spoke about Russia's exclusion from the global upbringing of the human race, national complacency, spiritual stagnation, inertia in understanding the historical mission. Chaadaev's ideas were greeted sharply negatively both in the circles of the enlightened public, seized by a patriotic impulse after the victory over Napoleon, and by the Russian authorities. The author of the Philosophical Letters was declared insane and was under political and medical surveillance for a year. Responding to accusations of a lack of patriotism, Chaadaev wrote in his next work, Apology of a Madman (1837), that Russia had yet to decide most problems of the social order, to answer the most important questions that occupy mankind. Chaadaev remained an influential thinker for a long time, outlining the horizons of Russian historiosophy in its development. In the 19th - 20th centuries. Chaadaev's ideas were comprehended by representatives of various directions, in particular, Westerners and Slavophiles.

Westernism how the course of Russian public life took shape in the 40-60s. 19th century His main ideas developed in circles Stankevich N. V. (Annenkov, Bakunin, Botkin, Granovsky) and Herzen - Ogarev. The main ones among these ideas are:

1) criticism of the feudal-serf order in the economy, politics, culture;

2) the idea of ​​socio-economic reform according to the Western model, as a result of which Russia was supposed to assimilate European science and "the fruits of centuries of enlightenment";

3) denial of revolutionary methods of resolution social problems; the means of social transformation was to be, first of all, education and propaganda;

4) an important idea of ​​Westernism also consisted in a high assessment of the transformations of the era of Peter I. A promising source social development Russia was seen by Westerners in using the experience of Western European countries. In an effort to build their own system of philosophy of history, they tried to determine the role of the Russian people among other peoples of Europe. The discussion of the problems of religion and questions about the methods of reforms split the formerly ideologically unified Westernism into two directions: liberal (P. A. Annenkov, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin) who defended the dogma of the immortality of the soul; revolutionary democratic (A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, V.G. Belinsky), which interpreted the essence of the soul from the positions of atheism and materialism, put forward the ideas of revolutionary struggle.

38. The problem of the correlation of social and biological in man. Concepts of the origin of man: religious, scientific and philosophical. Anthroposociogenesis and its complex nature.

The social and biological are in a person in an inseparable unity, the sides of which are the personality as his " social quality and the organism that forms its natural basis.

From the side of its biological nature, each individual is determined from the very beginning by a certain genotype a set of genes received from parents. Already at birth, he receives one or another biological heredity, which is encrypted in the genes in the form of inclinations. These inclinations affect the external, physical data of the individual, his mental qualities. However, one should not conclude from this that only the natural conditioning of human abilities. Makings are just the prerequisites for human abilities that cannot be reduced to the genotype. Abilities are determined, in general terms, by the unity of three factors: biological (inclinations), social (social environment and upbringing) and mental (inner self of a person, his will, etc.).

When considering the problem of the social and biological, two extreme points of view should be avoided: the absolutization of the social factor pansociologism and the absolutization of the biological factor panbiologism. In the first case, man appears as an absolute product social environment like a tabula rasa (blank slate) on which this medium writes the entire development of the individual from beginning to end. The second concept includes various kinds of biological studies. Racists and representatives of social Darwinism stood on biologizing positions, trying to explain social life based on Darwin's theory of natural selection.

Biological and social in man are closely interconnected. An infant who has fallen into animal conditions of existence, even if he survives physically under favorable circumstances, however, does not become a man. For this, the individual needs to go through a certain period of socialization. Outside of social conditions, biology alone does not yet make a person a human person.

Another aspect of the influence of the social on the biological in man is that the biological in man is realized and satisfied in social form. The natural and biological side of human existence is mediated and “humanized” by sociocultural factors. This also applies to the satisfaction of such purely biological needs as procreation, food, drink, etc.

There are different approaches to the knowledge of our past. In the most general form, they can be divided into creationism (religious approach), global evolutionism (philosophical approach) and the theory of evolution (scientific approach).

Creationism can be divided into orthodox (or anti-evolutionary) and evolutionary. Theologians-anti-evolutionists consider the only true point of view set forth in the Holy Scriptures (Bible). According to it, man, like other living organisms, was created by God as a result of a one-time creative act and did not change in the future. Supporters of this version either ignore the evidence for long biological evolution, or consider it the result of other, earlier and possibly unsuccessful creations. Some theologians recognize the existence in the past of people different from those living now, but deny any continuity with the modern population.

Evolutionary theologians recognize the possibility of biological evolution. According to them, animal species can turn into one another, but the Divine will is the guiding force: a person could have arisen from lower organized beings, but his spirit has remained unchanged since the initial creation, and the changes themselves occurred under the control and at the will of the Creator.

The idea of ​​a single process of human evolution along with the entire universe originated in antiquity. In the later and developed versions of global evolutionism, the moment of the emergence and evolution of man is described based on scientific positions. The originality of these options is given by predictions of the future of mankind, attributing to mankind a global role in the evolution of the Universe.

In 1834 K.M. Baer formulated the "universal law of nature", which states that matter develops from lower forms to higher ones. As applied to man, this meant that he originated from some lower animals and, in the course of a long evolutionary process, reached the modern level.

The idea of ​​the continuous complication of the Universe has received significant development in the works of P. Teilhard de Chardin and V.I. Vernadsky. Their points of view on driving forces of this process are different: for P. Teilhard de Chardin it is an otherworldly thinking center, for V.I. Vernadsky - the forces of nature. According to the authors, the crown of the evolution of matter - cosmogenesis - is anthropogenesis. At a certain stage of anthropogenesis, the noosphere arises - the thinking shell of the planet with the separation of the thinking spirit from its material basis (P. Chardin Teilhard, 1965; Vernadsky V.I., 1977; Alekseev V.P., 1984).

The concept of changing some creatures into others - biological evolution - acquired more and more distinct outlines in the works of naturalists. For the first time, Zh.B. Lamarck in 1802 and 1809 However, the mechanisms of evolutionary changes proposed by J.B. Lamarck, look too simple and rather unconvincing. Even among the contemporaries of the scientist, this theory in its finished form did not receive wide recognition.

A much sharper public and scientific resonance was caused by Ch. Dravin's theory of evolution. The theory continued to develop, and after the discovery of genetic inheritance and its laws, it became known as the synthetic theory of evolution. Briefly, its essence is as follows. genetic material living organisms tend to change under the influence of various factors. These changes can be harmful or beneficial. If an organism turns out to be more adapted than its relatives, then it has a chance to leave more offspring, passing on its genetically fixed qualities to it. With a change in the environment, signs that were previously neutral or even harmful turn out to be more useful. Organisms with such traits survive, and the traits remain in their offspring. Human ancestors, being part of the nature around them, gradually changed due to changes in external conditions, which led to the emergence of modern man.

In 1876, F. Engels formulated the idea that human evolution occurred mainly for social reasons. F. Engels considered labor activity to be the main driving force behind the transformation of apes into humans, which at the same time distinguishes them from each other. "Labor created man", as well as his modern anatomy. The transition to upright posture led to the release of hands from the function of movement. Hands began to be used for the manufacture and use of tools. The complication of labor operations led to an increase in the brain, which again caused a complication of activity. Work also contributed to the rallying of the team, the emergence of speech and, finally, society. F. Engels considered the consolidation in heredity of the acquired in the process of work as a specific mechanism for the influence of the sociocultural environment on biological evolution. morphological features. Such an explanation does not agree with modern ideas about genetic heredity, however, a certain connection between sociocultural and biological evolution is undeniable and is revealed quite definitely.

outlook Structure Worldview object- the world as a whole. The subject of the worldview Levels – attitude worldview understanding of the world Historical types Mythology Religion - Philosophy-

Comparative analysis philosophy, mythology, religion, science.

Philosophy(from Greek - love of truth, wisdom) - the doctrine of the general principles of being and knowledge, the relationship of man to the world, the science of the universal laws of the development of nature, society and thinking. Philosophy develops a generalized system of views on the world, the place of man in it; it explores cognitive values, socio-political, moral and aesthetic attitude of man to the world. Specific features of philosophy: 1. rationality; 2. free thinking; 3. criticality; 4. openness to dialogue; 5. different directions, currents; 6. special specific language (concepts and terms). Mythology is a fantastic, illusory reflection of the world in myths, tales, legends. Specific features of mythology: 1. humanization, animation of the outside world, because ancient man did not know how to distinguish himself from this world, he endowed this world with his own features and characteristics; 2. basics mythological worldview are the worldview and worldview - they have a pronounced emotional character; 3. emotional-sensual form of reflection (what I see, I reflect); 4. Syncretism - (inseparability) everything is mixed: both pure views and scientific knowledge, and everyday knowledge. Religion - it is a fantastic, illusory reflection of the world, based on the belief in the supernatural powers of the gods. Features of the religious worldview: 1. division of the world into 2 realities - the world of supernatural deities and the earthly, natural world; 2. human confidence in the existence of the supernatural world and connection with it; 3. religious. worldview is formed in close unity with other forms of comprehension of the world (politics, law, art, morality); four. religious world created by a certain group of people (clerics); 5. religious. the world is one of the elements of the structure of religion. The relationship between Philosophy and the private sciences was contradictory. The particular sciences were engaged in research, while the general theoretical questions of these sciences were dealt with by Philosophy. modern science is an extremely ramified system of knowledge. All the known phenomena of the world were in the "private" possession of one or another special. science. Philosophy clearly defined itself in the system of scientific knowledge. Not a single private science studies the regularities common to natural phenomena, the development of society and human cognition, these regularities are the subject of Philosophy. Philosophy brings together the results of research in all fields of knowledge. Philosophy as theoretical form consciousness, rationally substantiating its principles, differs from the mythological and religious forms of worldview, which are based on faith and reflect reality in a fantastic form. Philosophy, unlike other forms of knowledge, has its own special object of study– world at large .

The subject and main sections of philosophy. Functions of philosophy.

Subject of Philosophy changed historically in close connection with the development of society, all aspects of its spiritual life, including the development of science and philosophical knowledge itself. Philosophy originated at the dawn of civilization in India, China, Egypt, but reached its classical form in Dr. Greece. First, the philosophers of the ancient world sought to discover a single source natural phenomena. Naturphilosophy was the first historical form of philosophical thinking. With the accumulation of particular scientific knowledge, the process of separating mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and other sciences began. Various philosophical theories and currents arose. The main sections of philosophy : ontology - the doctrine of being, epistemology - the doctrine of the knowledge of the world, logic - the science of the forms of correct thinking, philosophical anthropology - the philosophy of the study of man, dialectics - the doctrine of development and universal connections, social philosophy - the science of society, axiology - the doctrine of values. Functions of Philosophy: 1. worldview; 2. epistemological (cognitive); 3. methodological; 4. humanistic; 5. praxeological (transformative); 6. predictive.

Features and stages of development of ancient philosophy.

Arose in the 6th century. BC. in a civilized society, in Miletus. Stages of development of ancient philosophy philosophy replaced mythology; paganism was replaced by world religions (Buddhism); science appeared as a set of theoretical knowledge about the world; the modern personality type emerges. Features of ancient philosophy: 1. ancient Greek philosophy was genetically and problematically connected with mythology (myths were used only as a means of expressing thoughts); 2. ancient Greek f. unlike the eastern, it was more connected with science, and not with religion; 3. f. appeared due to the emergence of inquisitive people who looked at the world around them and were surprised by it; 4. other Greek philosophers tried to explain the essence of the world, the process of emergence from the chaos of a harmonious cosmos; 5. constant striving f. to the truth, obtaining objective historical knowledge about the world; 6. other Greek f. represented by a variety of trends, trends, schools. With the accumulation of private scientific knowledge, special. methods of research began the process of highlighting mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and other sciences.

Natural philosophy of antiquity.

During the VI-V centuries. BC. in Greece there was a rapid flowering of culture and philosophy. Representatives Milesian school: Thales- was the first to formulate the question: “what is everything”, “what is the fundamental principle”. Everything came from some kind of moist primordial matter or water. The earth is a flat disk floating on the surface of water. Water and all the things that come from it are not dead. The universe is full of gods, everything is animated. Examples - a magnet and amber can set other things in motion - they have a soul. All knowledge must be reduced to one basis - sensible appearance, Anaximander- the primary source is a kind of primary substance apeiron from which the opposites of warm and cold are separated, giving rise to all things. Apeiron has no boundaries, it is boundless. The earth is a cylinder. Everything separated from the infinite must return to it. Therefore, worlds arise and are destroyed. The sensory world is only a manifestation of the real world, therefore it is necessary to go beyond the limits of direct observation. Anaximenes- the primary substance is air. All substances are obtained by condensation and rarefaction of air. Air is the breath that embraces the whole world. The earth is a disk supported by air. The soul also consists of air. Air has the property of infinity. Having wondered where everything comes from and what it turns into, they looked for the beginning of the origin and change of all things. It was believed that there is a primary substance - living as a whole and in parts, endowed with soul and movement. Engaged in various practical activities. Naturphilosophy was the first historical form of philosophical thinking. In the 5th century BC e. Miletus lost its independence (in the power of the Persians) and the development of philosophy stopped here. School of Ephesus: HERACLITOUS- the beginning of the whole world is fire. Cosmos is one, everything that exists is not created by anyone and is a living fire, it lights up and goes out. Fire turns into water - the seed of the universe, water turns into earth and air; and back. The soul is a fiery breath - the basis of life. The first distinguished between sensory and rational cognition. Truth is comprehended by the mind, which cognizes the essence (logos) of the world, being beyond the threshold of feelings. Cognition begins with feelings, but they must be processed by the mind. Education and the concept are merged together, since feelings and rational knowledge are united. There is unity in the world as a result of the combination of opposites. The struggle of opposites is natural, because it is the source of the creation of the world. Opposites unite and harmony is established. Heraclitus develops dialectical views. “Everything flows, everything changes”, “you cannot step into the same river twice”, everything is born due to the death of something. This is a spontaneous dialectic, where the cosmos is considered as a whole and is in constant motion and change. Atomist School: representatives: Leucippus and Democritus. In their opinion, the fundamental principle of the world is invisible, indivisible. But the intelligible particles are atoms. The atomistic theory of the structure of the world occupies a dominant position in f. and physics until the end of the 19th century.

Philosophical teachings of Kant.

The founder of classical German idealism, who revived the ideas of dialectics, was I. Kant (1724 - 1804). It was with Kant that the philosophy of modern times began. The concept of the origin of the solar system from a giant gas nebula, developed by him, is still one of the fundamental scientific ideas in astronomy. With his natural science works, Kant made an attempt to apply the principles of modern natural science not only to the structure of the universe, but also to the history of its origin and development. He put forward the idea of ​​the distribution of animals, in order of their possible origin, as well as the idea of ​​​​the natural origin of human races. Kant believed that the solution of such problems of philosophy as the problems of being, morality and religion should be preceded by an investigation of the possibilities of human knowledge and the establishment of its boundaries. The necessary conditions for cognition are, according to Kant, in the mind itself and form the basis of knowledge. Kant distinguished between the phenomena of things perceived by man and things as they exist in themselves. We cognize the world not as it really is, but only as it appears to us. We have access only to the phenomena of things (phenomena) that make up the content of our experience. The world of phenomena corresponds to the essence of things independent of human consciousness - “things in themselves”. Absolute knowledge of them is impossible. Kant did not share the boundless faith in the powers of the human mind, calling this faith dogmatism. In the fundamental limitations of human knowledge, he saw a certain moral meaning: if a person were endowed with absolute knowledge, then for him there would be neither risk nor struggle in the performance of moral duty. Kant was convinced that the ideas of space and time are known to man before perception. Space and time are ideal, not real. In his doctrine of cognition, Kant gave a great place to dialectics: contradiction was considered as a necessary moment of cognition. In an effort to reconcile science and religion, he said that he had to limit the field of knowledge in order to make room for faith.

Philosophy of Marxism.

The philosophy of K. Marx is called dialectical and historical materialism. Dialectical materialism also included a materialistic understanding historical development human society. K. Marx showed that only in their unity did dialectics and materialism become philosophical concepts covering all spheres of the nature of society and human consciousness. Marx believed that philosophers explained the world in various ways, but the point is to change it. This position can be considered the main one in Marxism. You need to change the world with the help of theory, but not one. It is not individuals who can change, but only the masses, the working people. Marxism enters the field of social life, affecting the fate of millions of people and even of all mankind. Marx was not satisfied with the improvements in social life. He believed in the power of its revolutionary qualitative transformation. Before Marx, philosophers made plans for the social improvement of the world. The former reformers saw the root cause and fundamental principle of social life in the restructuring, re-education of human consciousness. Marx's philosophical outlook is characterized by an understanding of human activity. Radical restructuring in the interpretation of its nature is carried out in the course of consideration of questions about the subject and object of social development. Marx calls the relationship of man as a subject to nature as an object labor and considers it to be the foundation of all culture-forming activity. Nature for Marx is not only the conditions of life and the house in which a person lives, nature is also a person himself, his own body. Marx affirms the naturalness of man. The analysis of capitalist production becomes the basis for constructing a philosophy for M. M. seeks to foresee further evolution. And he saw the self-destruction of capitalism. The main provisions of Marx's theory: 1. The antagonism between labor and capital determines the entire historical progress, the division into five formations based on the relationship between the productive forces and production relations. 2. the mechanism of transition from one formation to another - the contradiction between the productive forces and production relations. 3. The theory of surplus value: there is time required for the production of goods, it is paid to the worker in the form wages. And there is time that is not paid, then profit is created. In this way, surplus value is the time when profit is created. To increase profits, you must either increase working time or use low-paid labor. This can only be avoided through technological progress. Marx's concept is sociological. M. Considers the place of a person in society and tries to find out when and under what conditions a person realizes himself as an integrity. Each person is a citizen, he is connected with the state and through this connection he realizes the beginning of his universality. In general, a person does not participate in universality for most of his life. He is closed within his professional environment. Marx saw two ways out of this situation: either polytechnic education, or the humanization of labor in order to overcome the alienation of man from his labor. In general, Marx's theory confirms the desire of philosophy for practicality.

Philosophy of positivism.

Positivism - a philosophical trend that asserts that only individual specific (empirical) sciences can be a source of genuine, “positive” (positive) knowledge, and philosophy, as a special science, cannot claim to be an independent study of reality. Stage I: 40s 19th century – before the first M.V. Representatives: Auguste Comte, Spencer. II stage : empirio-criticism - Er Mach and Richard Avenarius. Neopositivism : 20s - 60s - Carnap, L. Wittgenstein, Karl Popper - "The Open Society and Its Enemies". The founder of this direction is Auguste Comte. Positive philosophy, according to O. Comte, can become the only basis for social organization, thanks to which the crisis that has been experienced by civilized nations for so long will end. It is mental anarchy that is the basis of the political and moral crisis. modern societies. So long as individual minds do not unanimously accept a certain number of ideas capable of forming a common social doctrine, the peoples will remain in a revolutionary state that allows only temporary institutions. The purpose of positivism- to produce "the union of minds in a single communion of principles" and through this to deliver "a solid foundation for social reorganization and for the normal order of things." According to Comte, a view of the general mental development of humanity (positivism), indicates that there is a basic historical law: each of our main concepts, each branch of our knowledge passes successively through three different theoretical states: the theological state, or the state of fiction; a metaphysical or abstract state; scientific state, or positive. For positivism, there are no other sciences than natural science, which studies the phenomena of the external world. The essence of positivism: this is the reality of the development of philosophical thought. Positivist aspirations are trying to strengthen the reliance on the achievements of science. Weak side positivism: denies almost all the previous development of philosophy and essentially insists on the identity of philosophy and science, and this is unproductive. Philosophy is an independent field of knowledge, based on the entire array of culture, including natural science, social sciences, art, and the everyday experience of mankind.

Consciousness as a system.

Consciousness is a systemic phenomenon. It is a complex combination of knowledge, goals, motives, values, beliefs, emotions and feelings of a person. Two areas are distinguished in the structure of consciousness: the area of ​​the unconscious and the area of ​​consciousness itself. The unconscious is the largest part of the human psyche in terms of volume, including the unconscious without the use of special. methods motives, mechanisms and programs of activity and behavior of people. The unconscious became the subject of research by the representatives of psychoanalysis - Z. Freud, K. Jung, E. Fromm. This area is responsible for conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, character, feelings. The temperament of the individual. It contains the foundations of intuition, which is fully realized already at the level of rational thinking inherent in the individual. The development of stable social reactions - archetypes and mentality - is closely connected with this sector of consciousness. Sometimes this area or some part of it is called the subconscious. Consciousness itself is the area that is responsible for the thinking of a person, his intellect and memory. Consciousness itself, thanks to the rational-logical basis, acts as a regulator of the unconscious area. Depending on the carrier of consciousness, individual and social consciousness are distinguished. The forms of social consciousness are mythology, religion, art, science, morality, law. They are formed historically and in content reflect the specific features of a particular social system. Functions of consciousness: information and cognitive: thanks to the consciousness of people. develops knowledge about the connections and patterns of the objective world; regulatory: consciousness regulates and controls the emotional sphere, social relations, value bases of activity; communicative: communities of people consciously develop and consolidate norms, rules and forms of communication.

Worldview: essence, levels, structure, historical types, history. character

outlook- a system of generalized feelings, intuitive ideas about the world around and a person's place in it, on a person's relationship to the world. Structure worldview - components: cognitive, value-normative, moral-role and practical. The content of the worldview: a variety of knowledge about the world; principles; ideas; beliefs (confidence in the correctness of their views); ideals (goals for a cat. A person strives); values ​​(ideas that matter to a person: goodness, kindness, collectivism, honor, the meaning of life, dignity, love, etc.); behavior programs. Worldview object- the world as a whole. The subject of the worldview- the relationship between the natural world and the human world. Worldview is impossible without a body of knowledge about nature, society, and man. Worldview is formed under the influence of social conditions, upbringing, education. Actions and deeds are the measure of a person's worldview maturity. Levels – attitude as the emotional and psychological side of the worldview (the world cannot be considered as a body of knowledge about the world); worldview, as a set of cognitive education, arose in the process of direct reflection of the world with the help of the senses; understanding of the world- the intellectual-rational side of the worldview (it arose thanks to the abstract mind - we are able to delve into the meaning of already existing knowledge). Historical types worldviews: mythology, religion and philosophy. Mythology is a fantastic, illusory reflection of the world in myths, tales, legends. Religion - it is a fantastic, illusory reflection of the world, based on the belief in the supernatural powers of the gods. Philosophy- love of wisdom, the doctrine of the universal principles of being and knowledge of the world.