Basic forms and methods of theoretical knowledge. Theoretical method of cognition

At the empirical level, we deal only with the phenomenon of the object, that is, with what lies on the surface, and the theoretical level is tied to the essence. Therefore, the goal of theoretical knowledge is to discover the law, the patterns of the subject being studied. And the law is not just general, recurring necessary connections, but essential ones.

The goals of theoretical knowledge correspond to the necessary means of knowledge, which, first of all, include explanation. If the description answers the questions: “what”, “how”, then the explanation answers the question “why?” Here is one of the most important criteria for the difference between description and explanation. We cannot agree with the statement that a scientist often raises the question “how?”, and not the question “why?”. It all depends on what level of knowledge the scientist is at. Genuine advanced science presupposes the solution of the question "why?", associated with the search for patterns.

Recently, great interest in scientific knowledge has been caused by the problem of understanding, which, along with explanation, has always had great importance for science.

The methods of theoretical knowledge include: idealization, formalization, axiomatic method, hypothetical-deductive, historical and logical, thought experiment,

Idealization is a type of abstraction that involves the mental reconstruction of an object by abstracting from some of its properties or replenishing them. Being generalized images, abstractions are performed on a system of models. Some are performed on material models They are called material. Others are realized on ideal models, they are called ideal.

The presence of idealizations in cognition serves as an indicator of the development of branches of knowledge, corresponds to the theoretical stage of the functioning of thought. Since a theory is a set of idealizations, and with the introduction of idealizations, only some features and factors are inevitably singled out and everything else that is part of the real whole is ignored, the question arises about the degree of validity of idealization: what are the limits, the boundaries of acceptable idealization of features in the hope of obtaining adequate results. At certain points, idealizations can come into sharp conflict with reality, especially when it comes to the fundamental assumptions of theories.

Idealization represents a kind of thought experiment consisting of the following stages:

1) highlighting in a natural situation a complex of parameters that are fundamental from the standpoint of analysis (relationships of property, power, etc.) against the background of neglecting other features of the subject;

2) constructing the selected features as invariant, representative for a certain class of phenomena (relationships of property, power, etc. as structure-forming factors linking society into a single whole);

3) the operation of passage to the limit. By discarding the “disturbing influence of the conditions on the distinguished relations, a transition is made to the limiting case, that is, to the actually idealized subject - “property” as the basis of the socio-economic formation, “power” as the basis of the socio-economic formation, etc.

Idealization is expressed not only in the adoption of a number of assumptions when formulating theoretical laws, but also in the procedure for constructing idealized objects.

An example of such an idealized object is a “material point”, a concept widely used in classical mechanics, an “incompressible fluid”, studied in hydrodynamics, etc.

It is clear that idealized objects do not have real referents, that these are some constructions of theoretical thinking. The question arises: what is the meaning of these fictitious objects?

The fact is that the construction of idealized objects is a way of formulating idealized assumptions and a method of revealing in a “pure form” certain dependencies expressed in theoretical laws. So, if a real body moves under the influence of force. applied to its center of gravity, then the movement of this center does not depend either on the geometric shape of the body or on the distribution of mass in the body. but only from the total amount of mass. The center of gravity moves as if the entire mass was concentrated in it, i.e. like an idealized object "material point". Revealing with the help of an idealized object the dependencies that exist in the case of bodies moving under the influence of a force applied to the center of gravity, we get the key to revealing the entire complex system of dependencies that exist in various cases of real mechanical movements.

What is the nature of those dependencies that are formulated in theory on the basis of a number of idealizing assumptions? Should they be considered simply subjective "simplification" and "schematization" of the real empirical situation?

Apparently, idealization cannot be reduced to a "simplification" of what is given in experience. By means of idealization, factors are not only diverted from certain data in the experience, but in a number of cases such assumptions are formulated that cannot be realized in experience.

Therefore, idealization can serve to identify essential, objectively real dependencies

Formalization - this is a set of cognitive operations that make it possible to turn a meaningfully constructed theory into a system of materialized objects of a certain type (symbols). The purpose of any formalization is the construction and expression of a knowledge system. But a formalized system can fulfill its task only if its elements and relations can be meaningfully interpreted. In order to understand the rules of formalized operations, we must go beyond a given formalistic system, since no system can be completely formalized. There is always some unformalized residue that must be formalized in another system, and so on, until we stop to use the unformalized rules. It must be remembered that formalized systems are always built in relation to some content, and only then are they abstracted from it. Formalization is not an end in itself, but a means of building a certain system of knowledge. Formalization makes it possible to generalize the formal structure of theories (or their parts) related to different subject areas, and thereby save efforts aimed at developing the logical structure of each separately. Formalization is the basis wide application machine technology.

Axiomatic Method - became widespread in connection with the development of the logical and mathematical sciences and acts as one of the forms of deductive method. An axiom is understood as the initial principles or premises from which all other statements of a theoretical system must be derived in a purely logical way, through proofs.

Hypothetical-deductive method it is used mainly in the so-called empirical sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, etc.

This method has been used in science since the 17th century. But it became the object of methodological analysis only in the middle of the 20th century. Interestingly, its application contradicted the ideal of empirical science, which should be built "bottom-up": from empirical data to theoretical generalizations. Here the study moves from general theory to individual facts. The study begins with the formulation of a hypothesis, from which statements are derived about the empirical facts that must be observed if the original hypothesis is true. Certification of the truth of the original hypothesis is possible by two methods: verification and falsification.

Verification Method was proposed by R. Carnap (1891-1970). The essence of the method is to create the possibility of empirical verification of theoretical constructions high level abstractions that do not allow direct comparison with facts. To do this, a number of consequences are deduced from the hypothesis being tested, with the level of abstraction lowered until it comes to statements about that. What facts must be directly observed if the theoretical assumptions are correct. These statements should be compared with observed facts. Correspondence with the facts will directly testify to the truth of the empirically verified consequence and indirectly confirm the truth of the original hypothesis from which this consequence was logically deduced.

However, empirical confirmation of lower-level hypotheses cannot guarantee the truth of the original hypothesis. No matter how many consequences are checked for compliance with the facts, there is always the possibility of that. That the next consequence will disperse with them. Therefore, an increase in the number of matches leads only to an increase in the probability that the original hypothesis is true, without making this truth absolutely reliable.

Falsification method, proposed by K. Popper (1902-1994), had to overcome this uncertainty about the truth of the original hypothesis. The beginning of the falsification procedure was the same as during verification: putting forward a hypothesis and deriving from it a number of consequences of a lower level of abstraction. Only the consequences should have concerned not those facts that should be observed under the condition that the initial hypothesis is true, but those that, under the correctness of this hypothesis, should in no case be observed. In this case, the study unfolded in the direction opposite to verification. The scientist had to look for facts that did not confirm, but disproved his assumptions. So far, no such evidence has come to light. The original hypothesis could be considered true.

historical method involves tracing the history of an object in all its fullness and diversity, generalizing empirical material and establishing on this basis a general historical pattern. But this regularity can be revealed without referring directly to real history, but by studying the process at the highest stage of its development, which is the essence logical method.

Historical and logical methods complement each other, which makes it possible to move from the structure of the object that has become to the laws of its development and, conversely, from the history of development to the structure of the object that has become. That is, when studying development, we turn to the present in order to better understand the past. When cognizing the actual characteristics of an object, we turn to its past in order to better know the present. The questions “what”, “where”, “when”, “under what conditions”, etc., clearly outline the facts, give them the property of concreteness. Concretization of the facts is extremely necessary, it is an antidote against juggling, falsification of facts.

Modern science knows several types modeling. Object modeling is the use of models that reproduce certain geometric, physical, dynamic and functional characteristics of the prototype.

mental modeling is the use of various mental representations in the form of imaginary models. Sign (symbolic) modeling uses schemes, drawings, formulas as models. Some properties of the original are reflected in them in a symbolic form. A kind of sign modeling is mathematical modeling, carried out by means of mathematics and logic. The language of mathematics allows you to express any properties of objects and phenomena, describe their functioning or interaction with other objects using a system of equations. Often mathematical modeling is combined with the subject.

Computer modelling has become widespread in recent times. V this case The computer is both a means and an object of experimental research, replacing the original. The model is a computer program.

Modeling is connected with analogy. This method is based on the essential similarity of the original object and its model. Modeling should be treated with the same caution as analogy, the limits and limits of simplifications allowed in modeling should be strictly indicated.

Under systematic approach in a broad sense, they understand a research method in which objects and phenomena of interest to us are considered as parts or elements of a certain integral formation. These parts and elements, interacting with each other, form new properties of a holistic formation (system), which are absent in each of them separately. Thus, the world appears to us as a set of systems of different levels, located in relation to the hierarchy.

System - this is an internal (or external) ordered set of interconnected elements, manifesting itself as something unified in relation to other objects or external conditions.

concept "element" means the minimum, further already indivisible component within the system. In all systems, the connection between elements is more stable, orderly and necessary than the connection of each of the elements with environment. An element is such only within the framework of a given system; in other respects, it itself can represent a complex system. The set of connections between elements forms system structure.

Considering the structure of the system, the following components can be distinguished in it: subsystems and elements. Subsystems are large parts of systems with significant independence. The difference between subsystems and elements is conditional.

Within the framework of the systems approach, a general systems theory was created, which formulated principles common to various fields of knowledge. It begins with the classification of systems and is given for several reasons.

Depending on the structure of the system, they are divided into: discrete, rigid, centralized.

Discrete systems consist of elements similar to each other, not directly related to each other, but united only by a common relation to the environment, so the loss of several elements does not damage the integrity of the system.

Rigid systems are highly organized, so the removal of even one element leads to the death of the entire system.

Centralized systems have one main link, which, being in the center of the system, connects and controls all other elements.

In the 1970s, there was synergy , which, according to the definition of its creator G. Haken, is engaged in the study of systems consisting of many subsystems of a very different nature. The main idea of ​​synergetics is the idea of ​​the fundamental possibility of the spontaneous emergence of order and organization from disorder and chaos as a result of the process of self-organization. This occurs when there is a positive feedback between the system and the environment. That is, we are talking about the fact that under the influence of the environment in the system, useful changes arise and accumulate, which can lead to a fundamental change in the system, turn it into a more complex and highly organized one.

Synergetics claims to discover a certain universal mechanism by which self-organization is carried out in systems of animate and inanimate nature. However, the object of synergetics can only be systems that have a number of features: openness, nonequilibrium, nonlinearity, dissipativity. An open system exchanges matter, energy, and information with the environment. G. Haken believes that the processing of energy received by the system at the micro level goes through a number of stages, which eventually leads to order at the macroscopic level. Under changing conditions, the same system can demonstrate different ways of self-organization. And in highly non-equilibrium conditions, systems begin to perceive those factors that, in normal conditions were irrelevant to the system.

From the critical state of significant non-equilibrium, the systems emerge in the form of a jump. A jump is an extremely non-linear process, in which even small changes in the control parameters of the system cause its transition to a new quality.

dissipativity- this is a special dynamic state of the system, when, due to the processes occurring with the elements of a non-equilibrium system, qualitatively new properties and processes appear at the level of the entire system. In the course of their development, dissipative systems go through two stages:

1) A period of smooth evolutionary development, with well-predictable linear changes, eventually leading the system to some unstable critical state.

2) A jump that transfers the system to a new stable state with a higher degree of complexity and organization.

The critical value of the system parameters at which an ambiguous transition to a new state is possible is called the point bifurcations. The discovery of the phenomenon of bifurcation made it possible, according to I.Prigozhin, to introduce an element of the historical approach into physics. When the process of self-organization proceeds, the unidirectionality of time is clearly revealed. Classical thermodynamics proved the irreversibility of time using the second law of thermodynamics. The non-equilibrium thermodynamics of I.Prigozhin uses the following argument: the jump process cannot be reversed. After the system passes through the bifurcation point, it qualitatively is converted.

Synergetic analysis of systems faces the need to study the nature of uncertainty. There is also the issue of randomness. No matter how long and carefully the study of systems is carried out, this does not lead to liberation from randomness. Randomness is understood in such a way that the properties and qualities of individual phenomena change their values ​​independently and are not determined by the list of characteristics of other phenomena.

The regularities necessary in the new strategy for studying self-organizing systems are statistically formulated in the language of probability distributions and manifest as laws of mass phenomena based on large numbers.

Synergetics arose on the basis of thermodynamics and radiophysics, but its ideas are interdisciplinary.

Scientists of various specialties are well aware that non-logical factors are important in scientific creativity (the talent and experience of a scientist, equipping laboratories with modern equipment, a creative atmosphere in a scientific team, etc.)

intuition usually defined as a direct observation of the truth, comprehension of it without any reasoning and proof. For intuition, unexpectedness, improbability, direct evidence and unconsciousness of the path leading to it are typical. The role of intuition in mathematics and logic is great. Intuition is essential in moral life, historical and humanitarian knowledge in general. Artistic knowledge is generally impossible without intuition.

There are many definitions of intuition, but one thing is common to all - the direct nature of intuitive knowledge.

To the forms of development scientific knowledge attributed before just a problem, a hypothesis, a theory.

Problem- it is necessary arising in the process scientific knowledge a question or an integral set of questions, the solution of which is of theoretical or practical interest. The whole course of the development of human knowledge can be represented as a process of transition from the formulation of problems to their solution, and then to the formulation of new problems.

Scientific knowledge begins with the formulation of a problem. It is often said that posing a problem correctly is half the success in solving it. In the whole cycle of cognition - from the formulation of the problem to its resolution - the driving spring is obligation in various forms, expressing the activity of the cognizing subject in his relation to the object. Obligation is a subjective moment in the process scientific research, but this subjective is an expression of the objective: the social needs of man for the practical transformation of the world. These needs stand at the beginning and at the end of scientific research. They encourage the formulation and resolution of a scientific problem, determine the ways of practical implementation of scientific ideas.

Scientific problems are divided into the following types.

According to the methods used:

programmable problems. This type of problem usually includes standard problems that arise on the basis of certain knowledge and are a natural result of the process of cognition. To solve them, a certain model is used with the necessary adjustments for specific features.

non-programmable problems. Non-standard problems belong to this type of problems. That is, problems for which there are no algorithms.

Unsolvable problems are problems for which there are no solutions.

By the nature of the solution:

routine problems. Problems of this type are solved according to proven models and do not require a creative approach, since all procedures for solving such problems are known.

selective issues. Problems of this type are solved within a certain framework of alternative selection of models and algorithms for their solution.

adaptation problems. Problems of this type are solved by combining the use of a non-standard approach based on new ideas with proven models and algorithms for their solution.

Innovation problems. Problems of this type are solved by combining the use of a non-standard approach based on new ideas and the development of new models and algorithms for their solution.

According to the degree of formalization:

Well structured problems. These are problems in which the dependencies between the elements of the whole complex of tasks that make up the problem can receive numerical values ​​or symbols. When solving problems of this type, quantitative methods are used.

Weakly structured problems. These are problems, as a rule, complex, differing primarily in qualitative dependencies between the structural interelement connections of the problem. However, they contain both qualitative and quantitative elements, with the former predominant. In solving such problems, the possibility of building models is excluded. But not always. It all depends on the specifics of a particular problem and the acceptability of a combination of quantitative and heuristic methods.

Unstructured (or qualitatively expressed) problems. In this type of problem, the quantitative dependencies between the structural interelement relationships of the problem are completely unknown. Solving these problems involves the use of heuristic methods based on theoretical reasoning, logic, intuition, experience, etc.

There are also:

1. Explicit and implicit problems. Explicit ones contain maximum information about the problem itself, methods of its study and possible results of its solution; implicit - a minimum of information about the solution of the problem and methods of its study.

2. Developed and undeveloped problems. Undeveloped problems are characterized by incompleteness and incompleteness, and therefore they are sometimes called pre-problems.

Requirements for the formulation of scientific problems:

The presence of a reasonable conclusion that the chosen problem has not been solved in world science or the proposed solutions are unsatisfactory.

Analysis of previous research experience of the identified problem in order to avoid duplication

Justification of the relevance of the problem for society in addition to personal conviction that it needs to be addressed.

Identification of the main contradiction of the problem situation

Formulation of the goals and objectives of the study

Problem Statement usually includes three parts:

1) A system of initial statements or a description of the actual data.

2) Statement of the question - what needs to be found.

3) Methodological principle - a system of indications of possible ways of destruction.

Problem Solving Process

Introduction to the problem.

Clarification of the problem.

Formulation of the problem.

Selection and determination of the amount of necessary information

Working formulation of the problem.

Development of options for possible solutions to the problem, development of ideas.

Finding a Solution to a Problem

Checking the correctness (truth) of the solution to the problem

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a form of probable knowledge, it is a scientifically based assumption about the causes or regular connections of any phenomena of nature, society and thinking.

Scientifically based assumptions (hypotheses) must be distinguished from baseless fantasies in science.

Hypothesis requirements.

Consistency: this refers to both logical consistency and factual, i.e. A hypothesis must not contradict the facts it is intended to explain.

Fundamental verifiability. Science does not recognize conjectures that, in principle, cannot be verified and, therefore, substantiated or refuted.

Path of construction and validation hypotheses go through a series of stages:

1. Selection of a group of facts that do not fit into the previous theories or hypotheses and must be explained by a new hypothesis.

2. Formulation of a hypothesis (or hypotheses), that is, assumptions that explain these facts.

3. Vyvedenie from this hypothesis all the consequences arising from it.

4. Comparison of the consequences derived from the hypothesis with the available observations, experimental results, and scientific laws.

5. Turning a hypothesis into reliable knowledge or into a scientific theory, if all the consequences derived from the hypothesis are confirmed and there are no contradictions with the previously known laws of science.

Methods for confirming hypotheses.

1. Detection of the alleged object, phenomenon or property.

2. Derivation of consequences and their verification. In this case, a large role belongs to empirical facts.

These two methods are direct evidence of the truth of hypotheses.

3. Indirect confirmation of hypotheses: all false hypotheses are refuted, after which a conclusion is made about the truth of one remaining assumption. In this case, firstly, it is necessary to list all possible assumptions, and secondly, it is necessary to refute all false hypotheses.

The refutation of hypotheses is carried out by refutation (falsification) of the consequences arising from this hypothesis. This is possible if, firstly, all or many of the necessary consequences are not found, or, secondly, facts are found that contradict the deduced consequences.

Theory.

Theory- a knowledge system that satisfies the requirements of consistency, logical consistency, simplicity and that performs the functions of description, explanation and prediction, contributes to the integration of knowledge.

A. Einstein noted that “the theory has two goals: 1. To cover, as far as possible, all phenomena and relationships (completeness). 2. To achieve this, taking as a basis as few logically interconnected logical concepts as possible and arbitrarily established relationships between them (basic laws and axioms

The analysis of the structure and development of the theory is of twofold importance. Firstly, it serves as a prerequisite for understanding the patterns of the movement of cognition as a whole: after all, theory is such a form of the movement of thinking in which the synthesis of cognition is carried out. Secondly, the definition of the epistemological essence and functions of the theory is necessary for understanding other forms of thinking: concepts, judgments, conclusions.

In the methodology of science, the following main elements of the structure of the theory are distinguished:

1) fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms;

2) idealized objects, abstractions of essential properties and connections of the studied subjects;

3) a set of certain rules and methods of evidence and explanation;

4) philosophical attitudes, socio-cultural and value factors;

5) a set of laws and statements derived as consequences from the basic axioms.

The key element of the theory is law. Actually, the theory can be defined as a system of laws expressing the essence, deep connections of the object under study. Law- this is an objective, essential, necessary, stable, that is, repetitive, connection between the processes and phenomena of the world. Cognition of laws is a complex, contradictory process of reflecting reality. According to the degree of generality laws are divided into public, general and private, and by the nature of the predictions arising from them - on dynamic and statistical. In laws of the dynamic type, predictions have a precisely defined unambiguous character. Dynamic laws characterize the behavior of relatively isolated systems consisting of a small number of elements and in which one can abstract from a number of factors.

In statistical laws, predictions are probabilistic in nature. Such a nature of predictions is due to the action of many random factors, and a statistical regularity arises as a result of the interaction of a large number of elements that make up the collective, and therefore characterize not so much the behavior of each element as the collective as a whole.

It is usually considered that standard method testing theories is experience. However, often the theory cannot be verified by direct experiment, and therefore they are limited to the requirement of fundamental confirmation (verifiability). According to K. Popper, an important role in the evaluation of theories is played by fundamental refutation. A theory includes prohibitions, and that is what makes it testable.

In general, preference is given to the theory that:

1) reports new information;

2) is logically more stringent;

3) has greater explanatory and predictive power;

4) can be verified by comparing predictions with observations.

The theory that best competes with other theories is chosen.

W. Heisenberg believed that a scientific theory should be consistent (in the formal-logical sense), have simplicity, beauty, compactness, a certain (always limited) scope of its application, integrity and “final completeness. But the strongest argument in favor of the correctness of the theory is its "multiple experimental confirmation."

scientific theory is an amazing achievement of the human mind. A scientist, relying on a small number of axioms, using experimental generalizations in the process of reasoning, using logical rules, derives all sorts of empirical consequences. This is especially evident if the law is written in a mathematical form that connects the postulate with the necessary conditions for the existence of an “ideal object”. It is not surprising that starting from Newton, not only competition, but also conflicts arose between theorists and experimenters. For example, I. Newton often corrected the data of astronomers-observers, and this caused hostility. People who spent all their time observing and measuring could not understand the "easiness" with which theorists sitting at desk, calculated and predicted the actual events for which they had been hunting for so long and diligently.

In fact, the work of theoretical researchers was not so easy. I. Newton for many years corrected his main work "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" and at the same time, of course, took into account the observations and measurements obtained by astronomers-observers.

The method of science is the unity of analysis and synthesis. First, the scientist identifies in a complex phenomenon some logically initial "simple" axioms. And then the conditions under which the real process is carried out are revealed. Finally, a quantitative relationship is revealed between the phenomenon occurring under "ideal" conditions and interfering factors. Thus, by decomposing the complex into the simple and mathematically adding the simple into the complex, science achieves accurate calculations and predictions.

The construction of a scientific theory goes through a number of stages. On the basis of empirical data, their classification, generalization, logical and mathematical processing are carried out. The theorist seeks to divide empirical generalizations into basic and derivative ones, to build a logically interconnected system consisting of hypothetical and experimentally verified statements.

Functions of scientific theory:

Synthetic function - combining individual reliable knowledge into a single system.

Explanatory function - revealing the essence of the object under study, establishing the causal, genetic, functional and other relationships of this phenomenon and a number of conditions and factors.

Predictive or prognostic function - a conclusion about the existence of objects unknown to science, their properties, relationships between processes, etc.

practical function. The purpose of any theory is to be put into practice.

Methodological function - formulation on the basis of the theory of methods, techniques, operations, methods of research work.

There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first stage of the cognitive process is the definition of what we do not know. It is important to clearly and rigorously define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. problem(from the Greek. problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that needs to be resolved.

The second step in is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis - this is a scientifically based assumption that needs to be tested.

If a hypothesis is proved by a large number of facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such are, for example, evolutionary theory, the theory of relativity, quantum theory and etc.

When choosing the best theory, the degree of its testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.

Scientific facts

Distinguish between objective and scientific facts. objective fact is a real-life object, process or event. For example, the death of Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. scientific fact is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of a generally accepted system of knowledge.

Estimates are opposed to facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. Scientific facts usually fix the objective world as it is, and assessments reflect the subjective position of a person, his interests, the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.

Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of moving from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or reject it as incorrect.

Method(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is the rule, method, method of knowledge. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allows you to explore an object. F. Bacon called the method "a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark."

Methodology is a broader concept and can be defined as:

• a set of methods used in any science;
• general doctrine of method.

Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other hand, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical methods of cognition) and theoretical (logical procedures).

Empirical methods of knowledge

basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrumental data. These methods include:

• observation- purposeful perception of phenomena without interference in them;
• experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
• measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured value to
• standard (for example, a meter);
• comparison- identifying the similarities or differences of objects or their features.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even for simple observation, preliminary theoretical foundations are necessary - the choice of an object for observation, the formulation of a hypothesis, etc.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods based on rational knowledge (concept, judgment, conclusion) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

• analysis- the process of mental or real dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
• synthesis - connection of the sides of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
• - combining various objects into groups based on common features (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
• abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object with the aim of in-depth study of one specific side of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
• formalization - displaying knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
• analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect on the basis of their similarity in a number of other respects;
• modeling— creation and study of a substitute (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);
• idealization- creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it ( geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
• deduction - moving from the general to the particular;
• induction- the movement from the particular (facts) to the general statement.

Theoretical Methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, and therefore is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Methods-approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, hermeneutic, etc. The most common methods-approaches are philosophical methods:

• metaphysical- consideration of the object in mowing, static, out of connection with other objects;
• dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interconnection, internal inconsistency and unity.

Absoluteization of one method as the only true one is called dogma(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical piling up of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.

In the process of cognition, a person uses certain techniques and methods. Under the methods of scientific knowledge are understood, as a rule, general logical operations (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy, etc.). Methods are called more complex cognitive procedures, including a whole system of techniques, principles and rules of research. It can be said that:

Methodis a system of principles, techniques, rules, requirements that guide the process of scientific knowledge.

Methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into three groups: special, general scientific and universal. Special Methods applicable only in certain sciences. Like, for example, the method of spectral analysis in chemistry, or the method of statistical modeling. General scientific methods have a universal character and are applicable in all sciences (experiment, observation, modeling, etc.). They essentially provide a research technique. Whereas generic methods give methodological framework research, as they are a general philosophical approach to understanding the world. This category includes the method of dialectics, phenomenology, etc.

Methodology is closely connected with philosophy, and especially with such sections of it as epistemology (theory of knowledge) and dialectics. Methodology is already a theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the very nature of knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the boundaries of knowledge, the criteria for its truth.

Thus, methodology can be considered as: 1) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition; 2) a set of methods and techniques used in science. Science cannot be universal method, as already mentioned, our knowledge of the world is constantly changing, and therefore the methodology itself is in continuous development. In the history of science known metaphysical method Aristotle, who considered it as the doctrine of the most general laws of being, not directly derived from experience; inductive method F. Bacon, which, unlike metaphysics, was based on the requirement to build scientific conclusions from empirical research; R nationalist R. Descartes' method was based on rules that allow distinguishing the false from the true with the help of deductive reasoning. Dialectical method Hegel and Marx assumed the study of the phenomenon in their inconsistency, integrity and development. Phenomenological method E. Husserl, who studies spiritual entities given to consciousness as independent of the real world. According to this method, the reality is not that which exists independently of consciousness, but that to which it is directed.

As is obvious from the above examples, the methodology of scientific research is based on the level of scientific knowledge, therefore, each era in science has its own methodological approaches. They cannot be absolutized, used as some kind of templates for scientific research, adjusting the results to fit it, but at the same time, they should not be neglected. Methodology is extremely important in scientific knowledge, it is no accident that F. Bacon likened it to a lamp that illuminates the path of a scientist to the truth, which protects him from a false direction.

Let us briefly consider the general scientific methods of scientific research. They are divided into theoretical, empirical and general logical. empirical:

1. Observation- this is the study of an object through the senses (sensations, perceptions, ideas), during which knowledge is obtained both about its external properties and signs, and about its essence. The cognitive result of observation is the description of information about the object. Observation is not only a passive research method, but implies the presence of a target setting, its selective nature, which gives it the features of an active cognitive process. It builds on existing knowledge and methods. In the course of observations, the scientist not only registers the results, but also selects, classifies them, interprets them from the standpoint of a particular scientific theory, therefore it is no coincidence that they say that “a scientist observes not only with his eyes, but also with his head.”

2. Experiment- a method of scientific study, in which conditions are artificially recreated that make it possible to observe the object or phenomenon under study, revealing its qualitative features. Thus, the experiment is a continuation of observation, but unlike it, it allows you to repeatedly reproduce the object under study, change the conditions for its existence, which makes it possible to reveal such properties of it that, in vivo impossible to fix. The experiment serves as a test of hypotheses and theories, and also provides material for obtaining new scientific knowledge, thus it is a link between the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge. At the same time, it is both scientific and practical human activity. The boundary between them is very mobile, and often in the course of some large-scale production or social experiments, changes occur in society, the economy, and the environment.

3. Comparison- a cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences. It makes sense only in the totality of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out according to the features that are essential for this consideration. At the same time, objects compared on one basis may be incomparable on another.

Comparison is the basis of such a logical device as analogy (see below), and serves as the starting point for the comparative historical method. Its essence is the identification of the general and the particular in the cognition of various stages (periods, phases) of the development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena.

4. Description- a cognitive operation consisting in fixing the results of an experience (observation or experiment) using certain notation systems adopted in science.

5. Measurement- a set of actions performed using certain means in order to find the numerical value of the measured quantity in the accepted units of measurement.

It should be emphasized that the methods of empirical research are subject to certain conceptual ideas.

Theoretical Methods:

1) scientific hypothesis - an assumption put forward as a preliminary explanation of a phenomenon, process, scientific fact, the truth of which is not obvious and needs to be confirmed or verified. A hypothesis is both a form of knowledge characterized by unreliability and a method of scientific research. A hypothesis arises at the stage of familiarization with empirical material, if it cannot be explained from the standpoint of already existing scientific knowledge. Then they move from the assumption to its verification at the logical and experimental levels. Although there are not always opportunities for experimental verification, and for a long time some scientific ideas exist only as hypotheses. So Mendeleev, on the basis of the law he discovered on the change in the atomic weight of chemical elements, expressed a hypothesis about the existence of a number of elements still unknown to science, which was confirmed only in our time.

2) Axiomatic Method- a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions - axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are derived from them in a purely logical way, through proof. To derive theorems from axioms (and in general some formulas from others), special rules of inference are formulated. Therefore, the proof in the axiomatic method is a certain sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom or is obtained from the previous formulas according to some rule of inference.

The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing already obtained scientific knowledge. It is of limited use because it requires a high level of development of the axiomatized content theory. The famous French physicist Louis de Broglie drew attention to the fact that "the axiomatic method can be good method classification or teaching, but it is not a method of discovery."

One of the methods deductive construction scientific theories, in which a system of basic terms is first formulated, and then with their help a set of axioms (postulates) is formed - provisions that do not require proof, from which other statements of this theory are derived. And then the postulates are transformed into theorems.

3). abstraction- the process of mental selection of individual features and properties of an object for the most profound understanding of them. As a result of this process, various kinds of "abstract objects" are obtained, which are both individual concepts and categories ("whiteness", "development", "contradiction", "thinking", etc.), and their systems. The most developed of them are mathematics, logic, dialectics, philosophy.

Finding out which of the considered properties are essential, and which are secondary - main question abstraction. This question in each specific case is decided primarily depending on the nature of the subject under study, as well as on the specific objectives of the study.

4. Idealization - limiting abstraction from the real properties of the object and the formation of ideal objects for operating theoretical thinking. For example, the concept material point does not correspond to any object that exists in reality, but it allows us to give a theoretical explanation of the behavior of material objects in mechanics, astronomy, geography, etc. An idealized object ultimately acts as a reflection of real objects and processes. Having formed theoretical constructs about such objects with the help of idealization, one can further operate with them in reasoning as with reality. an existing thing and build abstract schemes of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them.

4.Formalization- displaying meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created to accurately express thoughts in order to exclude the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages ​​(the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.). The use of special symbols makes it possible to eliminate the ambiguity of words in ordinary, natural language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.

5. Generalization- establishing the general properties of the features of objects. Moreover, any signs (abstract-general) or essential (concrete-general, law) can be distinguished. This technique is closely related to abstraction.

6) Analogy- a method that allows, based on the similarity of objects in some respects, properties in some respects, to assume their similarity in other respects. The conclusion by analogy is problematic and requires further justification and verification.

7) Modeling- a research method in which the object under study is replaced by its analogue, i.e. model, and the knowledge gained from studying the model is transferred to the original. It is used in cases where the study of the original is difficult. With the spread of computers, computer modeling has become widespread.

Boolean methods:

1. Deduction(inference) - a method in which reasoning is built from the general to the particular. It provides an opportunity to explain cause and effect relationships

2. Induction(guidance) - a method in which reasoning ascends from the particular to the general. This method is associated with generalizations of the results of observations and experiments. In induction, the data of experience “lead” to the general, induce it. Since experience is always infinite and incomplete, inductive conclusions always have a problematic (probabilistic) character. Inductive generalizations are usually considered as empirical truths (empirical laws). Whereas the method of deduction lies in the fact that from true premises it always leads to a true, reliable conclusion, and not to a probabilistic (problematic) one. Deductive reasoning makes it possible to obtain new truths from existing knowledge, and, moreover, with the help of pure reasoning, without resorting to experience, intuition, common sense, etc.
Analysis - method of scientific research, consisting in the mental decomposition of the whole into parts.

3. Synthesis - method of scientific knowledge, consisting in the knowledge of it as a whole.

Analysis and synthesis are interrelated and complement each other. The form of their relationship is classification or the distribution of facts, phenomena into classes (departments, categories) depending on common features. Classification captures regular relationships between individual classes of objects and phenomena and provides material for identifying scientific laws. The most striking example is the periodic system of D.I. Mendeleev.

The method of theoretical synthesis allows you to combine specific objects by placing them in a certain relationship, system. Such a method is called systematization. The system method involves: a) identifying the dependence of each element on its place and functions in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are not reducible to the sum of the properties of its elements; b) analysis of the extent to which the behavior of the system is determined both by the characteristics of its individual elements and by the properties of its structure; c) study of the mechanism of interaction between the system and the environment; d) study of the nature of the hierarchy inherent in this system; e) providing a comprehensive multi-aspect description of the system; f) consideration of the system as a dynamic, developing integrity.

The specificity of the system approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the study on revealing the integrity of the developing object and the mechanisms that ensure it, on identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them into a single theoretical picture.

In the process of scientific knowledge, the above methods are applied by scientists in a complex way. None of them in itself guarantees successful results, so the researcher should strive to master a variety of research methods and techniques, and also take into account the specifics of cognition in different areas scientific knowledge.
So, in the social sciences and humanities, the results of observation depend to a greater extent on the personality of the observer, his attitudes in life, value orientations, and others. subjective factors. These sciences distinguish simple (ordinary) observation, when facts and events are recorded from the outside, and participatory (participant observation) when the researcher turns on, "gets used" to a certain social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events "from the inside". In psychology, such forms of observation as self-observation (introspection) and empathy are used - penetration into the experiences of other people, the desire to understand their inner world - their feelings, thoughts, desires, etc.

Social experiments are developing more and more widely, which contribute to the introduction of new forms of social organization and optimization of social management. The object of a social experiment, in the role of which a certain group of people acts, is one of the participants in the experiment, whose interests have to be taken into account, and the researcher himself is included in the situation he is studying.

In psychology, to identify how a particular mental activity is formed, the subject is placed in various experimental conditions, offering to decide certain tasks. In this case, it becomes possible to experimentally form complex mental processes and study their structure more deeply. This approach has received in educational psychology the name of the formative experiment.

Social experiments require the researcher strict observance moral and legal norms and principles. Here (as in medicine) the requirement is very important - "do no harm!".

In the social sciences and humanities, in addition to the philosophical and general scientific ones, specific means, methods and operations are used, due to the peculiarities of the subject of these sciences. Among them:

1. Idiographic method- description of the individual characteristics of individual historical facts and events.

2. Dialog("question-answer method").

4.Document analysis- qualitative and quantitative (content analysis).

5. Polls- interview, questionnaire, mail, telephone, etc. polls. There are mass and specialized surveys, in which the main source of information is competent professional experts.

6. Projective Methods(characteristic of psychology) - a method of indirect study of a person's personal characteristics based on the results of his productive activity.

7. Testing(in psychology and pedagogy) - standardized tasks, the result of which allows you to measure some personal characteristics (knowledge, skills, memory, attention, etc.). There are two main groups of tests - intelligence tests (the famous IQ coefficient) and achievement tests (professional, sports, etc.). When working with tests, the ethical aspect is very important: in the hands of an unscrupulous or incompetent researcher, tests can cause serious harm.

8. Biographical and autobiographical methods.

9. Method of sociometry- application of mathematical tools to the study social phenomena. Most often used in the study of "small groups" and interpersonal relationships in them.

10. Game Methods- used in the development of management decisions - simulation (business) games and games open type(especially when analyzing non-standard situations). Among the game methods, psychodrama and sociodrama are distinguished, where participants play individual and group situations, respectively.

Thus, in scientific knowledge there is a complex system of diverse methods of different levels, spheres of action, orientation, etc., which are always implemented taking into account specific conditions and the subject of research.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and "mental operations". The absence of direct practical interaction with objects determines the peculiarity that an object at a given level of scientific knowledge can only be studied indirectly, in thought experiment but not in real. However, living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process.

At this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects, phenomena are revealed by processing the data of empirical knowledge. This processing is carried out with the help of systems of "higher order" abstractions - such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc. However, "at the theoretical level, we will not find a fixation or an abbreviated summary of empirical data; theoretical thinking cannot be reduced to a summation of empirical this material. It turns out that theory does not grow out of empiricism, but, as it were, next to it, or rather, above it and in connection with it.

The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. “The theoretical level of knowledge is aimed at the formation of theoretical laws that meet the requirements of universality and necessity, i.e. work everywhere and all the time." The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

Methods of knowledge used at the theoretical level of scientific knowledge. This, in particular, abstraction- a method that boils down to a distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object with the aim of in-depth study of one specific side of it. The result of abstraction is the development of abstract concepts that characterize objects from different angles. In the process of cognition, such a technique is used as analogy- inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect on the basis of their similarity in a number of other respects. Associated with this approach is the method modeling, which is especially prevalent in modern conditions. This method is based on the principle of similarity. Its essence lies in the fact that not the object itself is directly investigated, but its analogue, its substitute, its model, and then the results obtained during the study of the model are transferred to the object itself according to special rules. Modeling is used in cases where the object itself is either difficult to access, or its direct study is economically unprofitable, etc. There are a number of types of modeling: 1). Object modeling, in which the model reproduces the geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics of an object.

2). Analog modeling, in which the model and the original are described by a single mathematical relationship. 3). Symbolic modeling, in which schemes, drawings, formulas act as models. 4). Mental modeling is closely connected with the symbolic, in which models acquire a mentally visual character. 5). Finally, a special type of modeling is the inclusion in the experiment not of the object itself, but of its model, due to which the latter acquires the character of a model experiment. This type of modeling indicates that there is no hard line between the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Idealization is organically connected with modeling - the mental construction of concepts, theories about objects that do not exist and are not feasible in reality, but those for which there is a close prototype or analogue in real world. All sciences operate with this kind of ideal objects - an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, a socio-economic formation, the state, etc.

An important place in modern science occupies a system method research or (as is often said) a systematic approach. This method is both old and new. It is quite old, since its forms and components, such as the approach to objects from the point of view of the interaction of the part and the whole, the formation of unity and integrity, the consideration of the system as the law of the structure of a given set of components existed, as they say, from the ages, but they were scattered. The special development of a systematic approach began in the middle of the 20th century with the transition to the study and practical use of complex multicomponent systems. Systems approach is a way of theoretical representation and reproduction of objects as systems. Basic concepts of the system approach: "element", "structure", "function", etc. - were discussed earlier in the topic "Dialectics and its alternatives". The focus of the systematic approach is not the study of the elements as such, but primarily the structure of the object and the place of the elements in it. In general, the main points of the systematic approach are as follows: 1). The study of the phenomenon of integrity and the establishment of the composition of the whole, its elements. 2). The study of the patterns of connection of elements into a system, i.e. object structure, which forms the core of the system approach. 3). In close connection with the study of the structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural - functional analysis of the system. 4). Study of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems. A special place in the methodology of science is occupied by methods for constructing and substantiating a theory.

Among them, an important place is explanation- the use of more specific, in particular, empirical knowledge to understand more general knowledge. The explanation can be: a) structural, for example, how the motor works; b) functional: how the motor works; c) causal: why and how it works. When constructing a theory of complex objects, an important role is played by the method of ascent from abstract to concrete. On the initial stage cognition proceeds from the real, objective, concrete to the development of abstractions that reflect individual aspects of the object being studied. Cutting through the object, thinking, as it were, mortifies it, presenting the object as a dismembered, dismembered scalpel of thought. Now the next task is to reproduce the object, its integral picture in the system of concepts, based on the abstract definitions developed at the first stage, i.e. move from the abstract to the concrete, but already reproduced in thinking, or to the spiritually concrete.

It is this way from the general abstractions of goods, money, etc. to a holistic, rich picture of capitalism is done by Marx in Capital. At the same time, the very construction of a theory can be carried out either by logical or historical methods, which are closely related to each other. With the historical method, theory reproduces the real process of the emergence and development of an object up to the present time, with the logical method it is limited to reproducing the aspects of the object as they exist in the object in its developed state. The choice of method, of course, is not arbitrary, but dictated by the objectives of the study. Historical and logical methods are closely related. After all, as a result, as a result of development, everything positive that accumulated in the process of the development of the object is preserved. It is no coincidence that the body in its individual development repeats the evolution of the living from the level of the cell to state of the art. Therefore, we can say that the logical method is the same historical method, but purified from historical form. In turn, the historical method, in the final analysis, gives the same real picture of the object as the logical method, but the logical method is burdened with a historical form.

In the construction of a theory, as well as ideal objects, an important role belongs to axiomatizations- a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions - axioms or postulates, from which all other statements of the theory are derived deductively in a purely logical way, through proof. As noted above, this method of constructing a theory involves extensive use of deduction. Euclid's geometry can serve as a classic example of constructing a theory by the axiomatic method.

Empirical research, revealing new data with the help of observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them), puts before him new more challenging tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirical knowledge, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

Scientific knowledge, as a process, is associated with the activity of the cognizing subject, and the subject can gain knowledge empirically (empirically) and through complex logical operations, creative processing of the obtained initial data, i.e. in theory. Hence it follows that scientific knowledge has empirical and theoretical levels, which are organically interconnected. Scientific knowledge differs from ordinary knowledge in its purposefulness, concreteness, clear fixation of the results of knowledge with obligatory theoretical rethinking and making adjustments to the arsenal of science.

The empirical level is a kind of stage in collecting data on natural or social objects that scientists lack in order to create a complete picture of the phenomenon or process under study. Therefore, the very process of the empirical stage of research is directed and controlled by theory. However, this does not mean that the theory fetters empirical research, limits them. The empirical stage of collection has a relative independence, and the collected material does not have to correspond to one or another theoretical concept. The inconsistency of the experimental material with one or another form of theoretical knowledge indicates the imperfection of knowledge.

At the empirical level, the object under study is reflected mainly from the side of its external connections and manifestations, accessible to living contemplation. The main thing for the empirical stage is fact-fixing activity.

Empirical knowledge is very closely related to such theoretical methods as analysis and synthesis, which can even be called theoretic-empirical. The same can be said about the experiment as a method of cognition that combines the experimental acquisition of knowledge with a preliminary understanding of the conditions for its implementation and, accordingly, the laying of a certain hypothetical knowledge as the basis for specific actions. This confirms the indisputable fact of any cognition that experience (practice) is the initial and final stage of cognition.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is associated with the comprehension of empirical material, its processing on the basis of concepts, laws, theories.

Empirical data, being repeatedly and from different angles rethought, rechecked, are transformed from a single, private into a general and form the basis of private or general laws, theories.

Theoretical understanding is carried out on the basis of an arsenal of methods of theoretical knowledge, which is replenished from year to year. Relatively recently, a systematic approach has entered scientific life, and a synergistic approach is even younger.

To methods empirical level Knowledge includes observation, comparison and experiment.

Observation is the expedient perception of the phenomena of reality, associated with their description and measurement. In medicine, the method of natural observation is used, the objects of which can be patients who are being treated, various objects. external environment, microorganisms, tissues of a living organism, excretion products. Just as diverse are the specific methods of natural observation (microscopy, biochemical, hematological, etc.). The natural observation method involves the study of an object in its usual conditions.

Comparison - identification of similar and different sides in processes, objects, phenomena.

An experiment is an active, purposeful practical activity in which the researcher chooses or shapes the object of study and the conditions in which it functions. The experiment can be carried out in natural, model or natural-model forms. A medical (medical-biological) experiment is a type of scientific activity taken on biological objects in order to discover and study the objective laws of the occurrence, course and outcome of the disease, as well as to determine the effectiveness of therapeutic (therapeutic or surgical) means. The number of experimental studies should include clinical trials of means and methods of providing medical care (which must be preceded by experiments on animals in order to test for a pathological effect on a living organism).

To methods theoretical level knowledge includes the following.

Abstraction is a mental abstraction of individual elements, properties, relationships and consideration of them in a "pure form", separately from each other.

Analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the real or mental division of an object into its component parts, and synthesis is their combination into a single whole.

Idealization is the mental construction of concepts about objects that do not exist and are not realizable in reality, but have prototypes in the objective world.

Induction and deduction. Induction is the movement of thought from the singular to the general, and deduction is the movement of thought from the general to the singular.

Analogy - establishing the similarity of features, sides, properties, relationships in the considered non-identical objects. Inference by analogy gives not reliable, but probabilistic knowledge.

Mental modeling is the construction and study of a secondary (theoretical) object, similar in essential features to the primary object under study.

The system approach is the consideration of an object as an element of the system with the clarification of the place and function of each element, the internal hierarchy and the laws of functioning.

The synergetic method is a method for revealing the self-organization of open non-equilibrium systems of any nature.

When considering theoretical methods, it should be taken into account that the systemic and synergetic methods are a manifestation of the methodological significance of systems theory and synergetics.

Scientific knowledge is a process during which the content of knowledge is enriched and the forms of its existence are changed. The main forms in which scientific knowledge exists are: problem, hypothesis, theory. But this chain of forms of knowledge cannot exist without factual material and practical activities to test scientific hypotheses. Forms of scientific knowledge cannot be considered outside the process of scientific knowledge, which includes empirical and theoretical stages.

The empirical stage is associated with obtaining facts, and therefore at this stage there is such a form of scientific knowledge as a fact of science.

The fact of science differs from the fact of reality, since the facts of reality are recorded as events, phenomena of life, but without them. detailed description. The facts of science are the facts of reality, reflected, verified and fixed in the language of science. The facts of science do not always agree with existing views on a particular issue, object or phenomenon. Getting into the field of view of scientists, the fact of science excites theoretical thought and contributes to the transition of research from the empirical to the theoretical stage.

From the contradiction of theoretical knowledge and the facts of science, such a form of scientific knowledge as a problem arises. The problem is knowledge that reflects the discrepancy between the facts of science and existing concepts, views on the phenomenon or process under study.

The solution of the problem is carried out by putting forward working hypotheses with their subsequent verification. A hypothesis is a form of scientific knowledge formulated on the basis of a series of facts and containing an assumption, the true meaning of which is uncertain and needs to be proven.

In the course of proving the hypotheses put forward, some of them become a theory, since they carry true knowledge, while others are refined, changed, concretized. Still others, if the test gives a negative result, are rejected, marking a delusion. The pinnacle of scientific knowledge is theory, as the logical conclusion of a thorny path of trial and error. Theory is the most developed holistic form of scientific knowledge, which gives a complete reflection of the essential, regular connections of a certain area of ​​reality.

A truly scientific theory must be objectively true, logically consistent, integral, possess relative independence, be developing knowledge and influence practice through the activities of people.

Thus, cognition marks the active development of objective and subjective reality by a person. In his pursuit of knowledge, a person uses the capabilities of the senses and the power of the mind. Constantly improving tools cognitive activity, he strives to know everything, from the microcosm to the depths of the universe, but at the same time he is not satisfied with any knowledge, but only true knowledge that can serve as the basis for further cognitive activity. Striving for knowledge, a person learns to understand those who lived and those who live, to explain to himself and others what he understood from the intricacies of life, since knowledge and understanding is the spiritual life of a person, without which his physical existence loses content and meaning. The main pillar of a person on the path to knowledge is science as a system of constantly expanding and deepening knowledge about the world and the processes taking place in it. Understanding the process of obtaining scientific knowledge, as well as the forms of its existence, elevates a person, contributes to his involvement in scientific creativity, and, therefore, opens up opportunities for success in the specific area in which he is engaged.