What is the essence of the deductive method of cognition. Summary: Inductive and deductive methods of building a theory

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Inductive and deductive teaching methods

Inductive and deductive teaching methods characterize an extremely important feature of the methods - the ability to reveal the logic of the movement of the content of educational material. The use of inductive and deductive methods means the choice of a certain logic for disclosing the content of the topic under study - from the particular to the general and from the general to the particular.

inductive method

Induction(from Latin inductio - guidance), the transition from a single knowledge about individual objects of a given class to a general conclusion about all objects of a given class; one of the methods of knowledge. The basis of induction is data obtained through observation and experiment. Inductive reasoning plays an important role in scientific research, which include, as a mandatory stage, the accumulation of experimental data, which serve as the basis for subsequent generalization in the form of classifications, scientific hypotheses etc. However, for the construction of scientific theories, only inductive generalizations are not enough, since the conclusions made by inductive reasoning often turn out to be false after the discovery of new facts. The use of induction is also limited by the fact that the conclusions obtained in the course of inductive reasoning are not necessary in themselves, therefore the inductive method of cognition must be supplemented by deduction, comparison, etc.

A distinction is made between complete induction (when a conclusion is made as a result of studying all subjects of a given class without exception) and incomplete induction (a general conclusion is made on the basis of considering only a few, often far from all, phenomena of a given kind). Since it is usually almost impossible to exhaust all the specific variety of facts, incomplete induction is used in the real process of cognition. Inference by incomplete induction is always in the nature of probable knowledge. The reliability of conclusions on incomplete induction increases with the selection of sufficiently a large number cases in relation to which an inductive generalization is built, and the facts from which the conclusion is drawn must be diverse, reflecting not random, but beings, signs of the phenomenon under study. Compliance with these conditions will help to avoid such common mistakes in teaching practice as hasty conclusions, confusion of a simple sequence of any phenomena with cause-and-effect relationships between them, etc.

Induction is widely used in school teaching. Many teaching texts and teacher explanations are built according to the inductive type. For example, when explaining the concept of specific gravity are taken different substances in equal volumes and weighed. The different weights of these substances make it possible to put forward a general proposition about the relationship between the weight of a substance and its volume, i.e., the concept of specific gravity. This is an example of incomplete induction (not all, but only some substances are taken). As in science, it is incomplete induction that is most often used in schooling. Most widely, induction is used in the so-called. experimental sciences and related subjects. In the lower grades, when children still have a small amount of knowledge about the world, acquaintance with various facts from the life of nature and society is useful, because it enriches the child's experience, contributes to the development of the ability to observe and analyze the phenomena being studied. This factual knowledge serves as the basis for the assimilation of generalizing provisions. In the senior classes, induction is resorted to in those cases when it is necessary to show a general pattern for all the phenomena of a certain group, but students cannot yet be offered proof of this position. The use of induction in teaching makes it possible to make a generalizing conclusion obvious, convincing, arising from the facts considered and therefore demonstrative for students. This important feature of induction has been emphasized by many educators. So, N. F. Bunakov wrote about the study of grammar: "The inductive method ... proceeds from specific facts, that is, from the language itself as an object of study, from its various natural phenomena, first of all, using the students' observation, turning it to the phenomena of the language , to the knowledge of its forms, to the disclosure of their meaning, then they direct their thoughts to comparison, classification and generalization" (Izbr. ped. soch. 1953, pp. 173-74).

So, when using the inductive method of teaching, the activities of the teacher and students proceed as follows:

Teacher	Student
1 option	Option 2
First, he sets out facts, demonstrates experiments, visual aids, organizes exercises, gradually leading students to generalizations, definitions of concepts, and formulation of laws.	At first they assimilate private facts, then draw conclusions and generalizations of a private nature.
2 options	Option 2
It puts before students problematic tasks that require independent reasoning from particular provisions to more general ones, to conclusions and generalizations.	Independently reflect on the facts and draw accessible conclusions and generalizations.

The weakness of the inductive method of teaching is that they require more time to learn new material than deductive ones. They contribute to the development of abstract thinking to a lesser extent, since they are based on concrete facts, experiments and other data.

Induction cannot be turned into universal method in learning. In accordance with current trends to an increase in the curricula of information of a theoretical nature and with the introduction into practice of the corresponding problem-type teaching methods, the role of other logical forms presentation of educational material, primarily deduction, as well as analogies, hypotheses, etc.

Inductive study of a topic is especially useful in cases where the material is predominantly factual in nature or is associated with the formation of concepts, the meaning of which can only become clear in the course of inductive reasoning. Widely applicable inductive methods to study technical devices and performing practical tasks.

deductive method

inductive deductive schooling

Deduction(from lat. deductio - inference), the transition from general knowledge about the objects of a given class to a single (private) knowledge about a separate object of the class; one of the methods of knowledge. Deductive reasoning can be used to foresee, on the basis of general laws, facts that have not yet occurred, to substantiate, prove certain provisions, as well as to test the planned assumptions and hypotheses. Thanks to deduction, important discoveries have been made in science.

Deduction is widely used in education as one of the main forms of presentation of educational material. In the course of physics, for example, the presence of gravity on Earth, and hence the law of falling bodies, is explained by the law of universal gravitation, i.e. in a deductive way. In deductive reasoning, new knowledge is obtained indirectly, without recourse to direct experience. The deductive approach to the construction of an educational subject allows, instead of describing a set of separate individual facts, to state general principles, concepts and skills in relation to the relevant field of knowledge, the assimilation of which will then allow students to analyze all particular options as their manifestations. The use of the deductive method is especially useful in the study of theoretical material, in solving problems that require the identification of consequences from some more general provisions. It allows students to acquire knowledge of a general and abstract nature earlier and from them to derive more specific and specific knowledge. It opens great opportunities to reduce the volume of educational material and the time required for its assimilation.

Deduction plays an important role in the formation logical thinking, contributing to the development of students' ability to use already known knowledge when assimilating new ones, to logically substantiate certain specific provisions, proving the correctness of their thoughts. Deduction brings up the approach to each specific case as a link in the chain of phenomena, teaches to consider them in interconnection with each other. As a result of deductive reasoning, the student obtains data that go beyond the initial conditions, and, using them, comes to new conclusions. Including objects of initial positions in all new connections, he discovers new properties in them. This contributes to the development of activity and "productivity" of thinking. A prominent place is occupied by deduction in the formation of students' causal thinking. Mastering deduction reveals to students the objective connections and relationships between the studied facts and phenomena. Deduction helps to apply the knowledge that students have in practice, to use general theoretical provisions, which are often abstract in nature, to specific phenomena that students have to deal with in life, in educational activities. Deduction is one of the main ways that determine the connection school knowledge with life.

So, when using the deductive method, the activities of the teacher and students are as follows:

When obtaining knowledge by deductive means, it is very important to monitor the correctness of the premises: a formally correct deductive conclusion made from false premises will be incorrect. It is necessary to be able to correctly attribute particular cases to the category of phenomena to which this general provision applies. This is what presents the greatest difficulties for students: they cannot always understand this particular case as a manifestation of what is already known to them. general rule. Full mastery by students of the intended content, including that built on the deductive principle, depends on compliance with the general psychological and pedagogical requirements for the process of assimilation.

But this does not mean that it is necessary to move on to a deductive study of the entire material. Its rational combination with the inductive approach must be found, since without the inductive approach, it is impossible to successfully prepare students for solving more complex problems.

It is necessary to use the inductive-deductive method, when a transition is made from particular cases to a general position, and then other particular facts are comprehended. For example, the concept of the type of tasks is formed inductively (students solve a number of tasks of this type, highlighting the typical, essential for them). Then, encountering any task, the student, analyzing its content, finds those essential features that are characteristic of tasks of this type and determine the type of task. Thus, a general law obtained inductively becomes the basis for obtaining new conclusions by deductive means.

As can be seen from the characteristics of the activities of the teacher and students, when using deductive or inductive teaching methods, visual and practical methods are used. But at the same time, the content of the educational material is revealed in a certain logical way - inductively or deductively. Therefore, we can talk about an inductively or deductively constructed conversation, about a deductive and problem-based story, about a reproductive or search-based practical work. In the currently used system of teaching methods, several methods conventionally identified in the classification are combined. And what I say about the application of the deductive or inductive method in this situation is determined by the leading didactic task set by the teacher at this stage of education. If, for example, the teacher decided to focus on the development of deductive thinking of a generalized nature, then he uses the deductive method, combining it with the problem-search method, implemented through a specially constructed conversation.

Literature

1. Shardakov M. H., Essays on the psychology of learning, M., 1951.

2. Babansky Yu. K., Teaching methods in modern. general education school. M., 1985.

3. G. Kayberg, Probability and inductive logic, trans. from English, M., 1978.

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Story

The term is first found in Socrates (ancient Greek. Έπαγωγή ). But Socrates' induction has little in common with modern induction. Socrates by induction means finding general definition concepts by comparing particular cases and excluding false, too narrow definitions.

inductive method

There are two types of induction: complete (induction complete) and incomplete (inductio incomplete or per enumerationem simplicem). In the first we conclude from a complete enumeration of the species of a known genus to the whole genus; it is obvious that with such a method of reasoning we get a completely reliable conclusion, which at the same time expands our knowledge in a certain respect; this method of reasoning cannot be doubted. By identifying the subject of a logical group with the subjects of particular judgments, we will be entitled to transfer the definition to the entire group. On the contrary, incomplete reasoning, proceeding from the particular to the general (a method of reasoning forbidden by formal logic), should raise the question of law. Incomplete I. in construction resembles the third figure of the syllogism, differing from it, however, in that I. strives for general conclusions, while the third figure allows only private ones.

The inference according to incomplete I. (per enumerationem simplicem, ubi non reperitur instantia contradictoria) is apparently based on habit and gives the right only to a probable conclusion in the entire part of the assertion that goes beyond the number of cases already investigated. Mill, in explaining the logical right to conclude on incomplete I., pointed to the idea of a uniform order in nature, by virtue of which our faith in an inductive conclusion should increase, but the idea of a uniform order of things is itself the result of incomplete induction and, therefore, cannot serve as the basis of I. . In fact, the basis of incomplete I. is the same as that of the complete one, as well as the third figure of the syllogism, that is, the identity of particular judgments about an object with the entire group of objects. “In incomplete I., we conclude on the basis of real identity not just some objects with some members of the group, but such objects, the appearance of which before our consciousness depends on the logical characteristics of the group and which appear before us with the authority of the representatives of the group.” The task of logic is to indicate the boundaries beyond which the inductive conclusion ceases to be legitimate, as well as the auxiliary methods used by the researcher in the formation of empirical generalizations and laws. There is no doubt that experience (in the sense of experiment) and observation are powerful tools in the study of facts, providing material through which the researcher can make a hypothetical assumption that is supposed to explain the facts.

Any comparison and analogy that points to common features in phenomena, while the generality of phenomena suggests that we are dealing with common causes; thus, the coexistence of phenomena, to which analogy points, does not in itself yet contain an explanation of the phenomenon, but provides an indication where explanations should be sought. The main relation of phenomena, which I. has in mind, is the relation of causality, which, like the most inductive conclusion, rests on identity, for the sum of conditions, called the cause, if it is given in full, is nothing but the effect caused by the cause . The legitimacy of the inductive conclusion is beyond doubt; however, logic must strictly establish the conditions under which an inductive conclusion can be considered correct; the absence of negative instances does not yet prove the correctness of the conclusion. It is necessary that the inductive conclusion be based on the possible more cases, so that these cases are as diverse as possible, so that they serve as typical representatives of the entire group of phenomena that the conclusion concerns, etc.

For all that, inductive conclusions easily lead to errors, from which the most common ones arise from the multiplicity of causes and from the confusion of the temporal order with the causal. In inductive research we are always dealing with effects for which we must find causes; finding them is called an explanation of the phenomenon, but a well-known consequence can be caused by a number of different causes; The talent of the inductive researcher lies in the fact that he gradually chooses from a multitude of logical possibilities only the one that is really possible. To human limited knowledge, of course, different causes can produce the same phenomenon; but complete adequate knowledge in this phenomenon is able to see signs pointing to its origin from only one possible cause. The temporal alternation of phenomena always serves as an indication of a possible causal connection, but not every alternation of phenomena, even though it is correctly repeated, must necessarily be understood as a causal connection. Quite often we conclude post hoc - ergo propter hoc, in this way all superstitions arose, but here is the correct indication for inductive inference.

Notes

Literature

Vladislavlev M.I. English inductive logic // Journal of the Ministry of National Education. 1879. Ch.152.November.S.110-154.
Svetlov V.A. Finnish school of induction // Questions of Philosophy.1977. No. 12.
Inductive logic and shaping scientific knowledge. M., 1987.
Mikhalenko Yu.P. Antique doctrines of induction and their modern interpretations // Foreign Philosophical Classical Studies. Critical Analysis. M., 1990. S.58-75.

3. Dialectical, formal and mathematical logic

An important means of cognition is dialectical logic - this is the science of the general laws and forms of the movement of thinking, of the ways of cognition of the surrounding world by thought. It is dialectics that considers the entire natural, historical and spiritual world as a single process. Dialectical logic requires, firstly, a comprehensive study of the object in all the variety of connections and "mediation", and secondly, its consideration in self-development, i.e. in constant movement, change and transformation. Dialectical logic reveals the contradictory nature of thinking itself, which is manifested in the opposites of ways of knowing: analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, concrete and abstract, historical and logical.

Dialectical logic, like dialectics, is either idealistic or materialistic. In the first case, if we bring the matter to the utmost simplicity, we are talking about the development, the movement of logical forms in which their content is expressed - the essential connections and relations of the things themselves. At the same time, the subject, the object, and the absolute idea find their expression in the concept.

Dialectical logic is not opposed to formal logic and does not exclude its necessity. Dialectical logic uses the results of formal logic in establishing the universal laws of the movement of thought towards truth. Formal logic, which studies forms of thinking, concepts, judgments, inferences, proofs, considers them from the point of view of the logical structure, abstracting from the specific content expressed in them. Take, for example, two judgments: "any labor is useful" and "any commodity is sold", each of which has its own content, different from the other, but from the point of view of formal logic, both of these judgments belong to the same logical form and in this respect do not differ from each other.

The main task of formal logic is the observance of certain rules of inference: from true judgments-premises, true judgments-conclusions must always be obtained. In formal logic, formalization is of particular importance, or a way of fixing the content of knowledge by highlighting its form and expressing the latter in a special language (formalisms) and developing rules for operating with such a language. Formalization acquires special meaning with the development of mathematical logic (mathematical formalization).

Mathematical logic is a set of artificial formalized languages, for which such logical properties as provability, deducibility, consequence, etc. are established. Unlike classical mathematical logic, which was based on the principle of ambiguity (recognizing a judgment as either true or false), modern mathematical logic is guided by the principle of ambiguity, which allows three or more truth values (multivalued logic), and considers relationships, for example, between necessity, chance, possibility, reality and other concepts (model logic). The development of modern mathematics (set theory, probability theory, abstract algebra) led to the emergence, for example, of the theory of algorithms. The use of the mathematical apparatus in economic research undoubtedly increases the importance of mathematical logic and necessitates formalization economic processes.

At the same time, I would like to draw attention to the fact that in economic theory, regardless of the logic used, far from everything and not always lends itself to quantitative analysis, while the qualitative components of economic processes and phenomena often predetermine the movement of economic systems.

Story

The term is first found in Socrates (ancient Greek. Έπαγωγή ). But Socrates' induction has little in common with modern induction. Socrates by induction means finding a general definition of a concept by comparing particular cases and excluding false, too narrow definitions.

inductive method

Any comparison and analogy that points to common features in phenomena serves as the same tool, while the commonality of phenomena makes us assume that we are dealing with common causes; thus, the coexistence of phenomena, to which analogy points, does not in itself yet contain an explanation of the phenomenon, but provides an indication where explanations should be sought. The main relation of phenomena, which I. has in mind, is the relation of causality, which, like the most inductive conclusion, rests on identity, for the sum of conditions, called the cause, if it is given in full, is nothing but the effect caused by the cause . The legitimacy of the inductive conclusion is beyond doubt; however, logic must strictly establish the conditions under which an inductive conclusion can be considered correct; the absence of negative instances does not yet prove the correctness of the conclusion. It is necessary that the inductive conclusion be based on as many cases as possible, that these cases be as diverse as possible, that they serve as typical representatives of the whole group of phenomena to which the conclusion concerns, etc.

For all that, inductive conclusions easily lead to errors, from which the most common ones arise from the multiplicity of causes and from the confusion of the temporal order with the causal. In inductive research we are always dealing with effects for which we must find causes; finding them is called an explanation of the phenomenon, but a well-known consequence can be caused by a number of different causes; The talent of the inductive researcher lies in the fact that he gradually chooses from a multitude of logical possibilities only the one that is really possible. To human limited knowledge, of course, different causes can produce the same phenomenon; but complete adequate knowledge of this phenomenon is able to see the signs that indicate its origin from only one possible cause. The temporal alternation of phenomena always serves as an indication of a possible causal connection, but not every alternation of phenomena, even though it is correctly repeated, must necessarily be understood as a causal connection. Quite often we conclude post hoc - ergo propter hoc, in this way all superstitions arose, but here is the correct indication for inductive inference.

Notes

Literature

Vladislavlev M.I. English inductive logic // Journal of the Ministry of National Education. 1879. Ch.152.November.S.110-154.
Svetlov V.A. Finnish school of induction // Questions of Philosophy.1977. No. 12.
Inductive logic and the formation of scientific knowledge. M., 1987.
Mikhalenko Yu.P. Antique doctrines of induction and their modern interpretations // Foreign Philosophical Classical Studies. Critical Analysis. M., 1990. S.58-75.

A set of techniques for the withdrawal of Ph.D. conclusions or in the study of Ph.D. question, when one moves from particular facts to general propositions, from judgments about individual phenomena to general conclusions. A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

inductive method- indukcijos metodas statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: angl. inductive method vok. inductive method, f rus. inductive method, m; method of induction, m pranc. method inductive, f … Fizikos terminų žodynas

inductive method- induktyvusis metodas statusas T sritis Kūno kultūra ir sportas apibrėžtis Judesių, veiksmų ir jų derinių mokymo, naudojimo, tobulinimo būdas, kai žinios apie veiksmus, jų derinius, pratimą yra uždavinys, kurio sprendimą mokinys, sportininkas turi ... Sporto terminų žodynas

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See Induction, Inductive logic. Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 x t. M .: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960 1970 ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

inductive method- a method of cognition built on induction (see Induction). Proposed by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), an English philosopher, the founder of English materialism. In general, induction appears in Bacon not only as one of the types of logical inference, ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary in psychology and pedagogy

inductive method- a method of obtaining generalizing knowledge based on individual data. V sociological research predominantly empirical I. m. These include, first of all, the methods of collecting and summarizing primary data. They provide identification... sociological reference book

inductive method- ♦ (ENG inductive method) the use of probabilistic assumptions as a means to draw conclusions. In theological doctrines, such as the doctrine of humanity, this approach is based not on doctrinal propositions, but on the study of ... ... Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms

INDUCTIVE LEARNING METHOD- INDUCTIVE LEARNING METHOD. A practical method of teaching that provides for such familiarization of students with educational material, in which, as a result of observing the facts of the language, students are led to generalizations and conclusions; the basis of the problem ... ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

Inductive method (induction) characterizes the path of cognition from the fixation of experimental (empirical) data and their analysis to their systematization, generalizations and general conclusions drawn on this basis. This method also consists in the transition from some ideas about certain phenomena and processes to others - more general and most often deeper. The basis of the functioning of the inductive method of cognition is experimental data. Thus, the fundamental ideas about modern capitalism, which make up the content of the relevant theories, were obtained as a result of scientific generalization of the historical experience of development capitalist society in the last 100 plus years.

However, inductive generalizations will be completely flawless only if all the scientifically established facts on the basis of which these generalizations are made are thoroughly studied. It is called complete induction. Most often, this is very difficult, and sometimes impossible.

Therefore, in cognitive activity, including in the study of various phenomena and processes of social life, the method is more often used incomplete induction - the study of some part of phenomena and the extension of the conclusion to all phenomena of a given class. Generalizations obtained on the basis of incomplete induction, in some cases, can be quite definite and reliable, in others - more probabilistic.

The validity of inductive generalizations can be tested by applying deductive research method, the essence of which lies in the derivation from some general provisions that are considered reliable, certain consequences, some of which can be verified empirically.

If the consequences arising from inductive generalizations are confirmed by the practical experience of people (experiment or real processes of social life), then these generalizations can be considered reliable, i.e. corresponding to reality.

Therefore, induction and deduction are two opposite and at the same time complementary methods of scientific research.

Analogy- this is a certain type of comparison of phenomena and processes, including those occurring in society: having established the similarity of some properties of certain phenomena (processes), a conclusion is made about the similarity of them and other properties.

An important role in the study of social phenomena is played by the so-called historical analogy. Thus, knowing the history of the development of capitalism in Great Britain (one of the first capitalist countries in Europe), many scientists compared with it the history of the development of capitalism in France, Germany, the USA and other countries. It was recorded that in these countries, as in Great Britain, the economy developed from free competition of small and medium-sized industrial, commercial and financial enterprises to the domination of industrial, commercial and financial monopolies that then formed. On this basis, it was concluded that other properties of the economy of France, Germany and the United States are similar to the economy of Great Britain. Many Western economists point out that at present, in the United States and England, essentially similar models of the development of the capitalist economy have been formed.

It is clear that it is necessary to take into account the specific features of the development of socio-economic and political processes in different countries. It is not necessary to reduce the study of these processes only to the search for historical analogies. In addition, the analogy method is most often used along with other general scientific methods for studying social phenomena and processes. At the same time, the scientific efficiency of applying the analogy method is quite high.

Modeling- this is a reproduction in a specially created object (model) of the properties of the phenomenon or process under study. As a model (from lat. modulus- measure, sample, norm) can be any material system (aircraft model, power plant, etc.) or mental construct(graph, drawing, mathematical formula) that reproduces the properties of the phenomenon or process under study, including economic, political, etc.

Both material and ideal model built on the principle analogy, those. the similarities of the properties fixed in them with the properties of the phenomenon or process studied with their help. The data obtained are used in the further study of this phenomenon or process.

Their study by means of simulation is, as a rule, heuristic character that opens up something new. In particular, when analyzing the model itself, properties are found that are absent in its individual parts and their simple sum. This is the effect of the principle: "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." It turns out that "the model encodes the information that people did not know before", because of this, the model "contains potential knowledge, which a person, by examining it, can acquire, make visual and use in his practical needs. This is precisely what determines the predictive ability of the model description.

In the study of the phenomena of social life, the so-called causal models. They help to reveal objective causal relationships and interdependencies between social phenomena, the generation of some of them by others, as well as the emergence of new properties in them. However, such models do not always make it possible to draw conclusions about the phenomenon under study as a whole, since, while revealing its objective aspects, they do not fix subjective factors relating to the consciousness of people whose actions determine the content and direction of any social phenomena and processes.

This difficulty is sometimes resolved by sociologists and political scientists in the following way: when analyzing the processes taking place in the whole society (on macro level) cause-and-effect models are used that reveal the objective factors of people's activity and behavior, and when analyzing the processes occurring in individual teams (on microlevel) along with cause-and-effect, "cognitive models of interactions between individuals" are used, with the help of which the motives, beliefs and goals of subjects of economic, political and other activities are revealed.

In the study of socio-economic and political processes are also used "models life cycle", with the help of which the features of the functioning of social phenomena on different stages their development (for example, models of the life cycle of organizations operating in the field economic business; life cycle of ethnic groups, civilizations, etc.). The main phases (stages) of the development of a particular phenomenon are modeled. These models themselves are built on the basis of data on the main parameters of the development of some social phenomenon. The new data obtained on the basis of modeling are used for a more specific analysis of this phenomenon.

In the study of economic processes, the so-called wave dynamics models, reproducing the wave-like nature of the functioning of the economy, depending on economic, political and other conditions. The idea of this nature of the development of the economy was scientifically substantiated by the famous Russian scientist N. D. Kondratiev, who revealed, in particular, the presence of "long waves" in its development ("Kondratiev waves"), depending on the mass introduction into production new technology and technology, structural changes due to the emergence of new sectors of the economy, as well as from all sorts of political factors and social upheavals.

Method ascending from the abstract to the concrete as if unites in a certain ratio the previous general scientific methods of research.

Socio-economic and political processes are initially perceived by the subject as a certain set of phenomena that he constantly encounters in everyday life. His empirical, sensory-concrete ideas about these phenomena that arise at the same time reflect the TS or their other aspects and contain some knowledge about the socio-economic and political processes emerging from these phenomena, but they are rather superficial.

The process of cognition does not stop there and moves on - from sensory-concrete representations about a particular phenomenon or process mental-abstract knowledge about its individual aspects, properties, etc. Any scientific abstraction, expressed in the form of one or another concept, more deeply reflects the properties of the phenomenon or process under study than empirical ideas about them, because it expresses their necessary and essential properties, separating them from everything random and insignificant.

Consequently, there is a deeper knowledge of the content and essence of a particular phenomenon and process. Operations such as analysis and synthesis, corresponding inductive and deductive reasoning, analogy, and the construction of mental models are performed. As a result, abstract concepts, lining up in a certain system, contribute to the emergence of holistic knowledge about the phenomenon or process under study, reflecting the internal connections and interactions of their constituent elements. This cognitive process is characterized as Ibid. pp. 126-134.

Cm.: Kondratiev N. D. Problems of economic dynamics. M., 1989.

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