Character cognitive activity traditionally considered as the level of mental activity of students. The classification of teaching methods on the basis of precisely this criterion was proposed by prominent Soviet teachers I. Ya. Lerner and M. N. Skatkin.

This classification distinguishes the following teaching methods:

• explanatory and illustrative;
• reproductive;
• problem statement;
• partial search (heuristic);
• research.

When cognitive work under the guidance of a teacher leads only to the memorization of ready-made knowledge and their subsequent accurate reproduction, which can be both conscious and unconscious, then there is a rather low level of mental activity of schoolchildren and the corresponding reproductive method of teaching. At a higher level of tension in the thinking of students, when knowledge is obtained through independent activity, there is a heuristic or even research method of teaching.

Such a classification has received wide support in pedagogical circles and widespread use in practice.

Explanatory-illustrative and reproductive methods

The explanatory-illustrative method has several characteristics that characterize and distinguish it:

1. knowledge is offered to students in ready-made;
2. the teacher uses a variety of techniques for the perception of children educational information;
3. students perceive knowledge, comprehend it, fix it in their own memory and subsequently apply it, implementing it in practice.

In this case, all sources of information (word, visualization, technical means) are involved, and the logic of presentation can be developed both inductively and deductive method. The task of the teacher is limited only to the organization of the perception of knowledge by children.

The reproductive method of teaching is in many respects similar to the previous one, since knowledge is also offered to students in a ready-made form, and the teacher reveals them and gives the necessary explanations. However, a distinctive feature is that the aspect of mastering knowledge here is considered to be their correct recreation or reproduction. In addition, regular repetition is used to strengthen the acquired knowledge.

The main advantage of these methods is economy, as it provides the ability to transfer a large amount of knowledge and skills in a short period of time and with little effort.

Assimilation of knowledge, especially due to periodic repetition, becomes very strong.

Reproductive work, as you know, precedes creative work, so it is impossible to neglect it in training, but it is also not worth doing it in excess. In general, these methods can be successfully combined in the classroom and with other teaching methods.

Problem statement

The method of problem presentation is considered a transitional stage from performing work to creative work. At first, students are not yet able to solve problem problems on their own, so the teacher shows an example of solving a problem, outlining its path from beginning to end. And although students are not full participants in the process, but only observers of the course of reasoning, they receive an excellent lesson in resolving cognitive difficulties.

The problem statement can be carried out in two aspects: when the teacher himself or with the help of technical means demonstrates the logic of finding a solution to the problem or reveals the system of proofs of the truth of the knowledge being communicated, providing the final solution to the issue under consideration. In both cases of problem presentation by the teacher, the children observe the logic of the presentation and, if necessary, ask questions.

The general structure of the problem presentation is expressed in the following points: problem statement, solution plan, the process of solution itself, evidence of its correctness, disclosure of the value of the solution for the subsequent development of cognitive activity.

The problem presentation method aims to demonstrate to students the complex path of cognition, movement towards the truth. At the same time, the teacher himself poses the problem, specifically formulating it to the students, and directly solves it himself. Children watch the course of reasoning, comprehend and remember, getting an example of scientific thinking.

Partial search and research methods

The specifics of the partial search (heuristic) teaching method are the following features:

1. knowledge is not offered to students in a ready-made form, they must be obtained independently;
2. the teacher organizes not the presentation of new knowledge, but their search using various means;
3. under the guidance of a teacher, students independently reason, solve cognitive problems, analyze problem situations, compare, generalize, draw conclusions, as a result of which they form conscious strong knowledge.

The method is called partially exploratory because students cannot always solve the laborious task on their own. learning task from start to finish. In this regard, the teacher guides them in their work. Sometimes part of the knowledge is provided by the teacher, and part of the knowledge is obtained by the students themselves, answering the questions posed or solving problematic tasks. One of the variations of this method is the heuristic (opening) conversation.

The essence of the research method of teaching is as follows:

1. the teacher, together with the students, determines the problem that needs to be solved in a certain period of study time;
2. knowledge is not communicated to students, they must themselves obtain it in the course of solving (research) the problem;
3. the work of the teacher is reduced to the operational management of the solution of problematic tasks;
4. the educational process is characterized by high intensity, learning is combined with cognitive interest, the acquired knowledge is distinguished by depth, strength, and effectiveness.

The research method of teaching is designed for the creative assimilation of knowledge. Its shortcomings can be considered high costs time and energy of teachers and students. In addition, its application in the educational process requires the teacher to high level professional training.

A reproductive method of learning is a method in which the application of previously learned is carried out based on a pattern or rule. When using this method, the activity of students has the character of an algorithm.

The reproductive method of teaching is mainly used for the successful formation of children's skills and abilities. school age, contributes to the accurate reproduction of the acquired knowledge, their use according to the established pattern or in reworked, but sufficiently recognizable situations. The teacher, using the task system, competently organizes learning activities schoolchildren to repeatedly reproduce the knowledge given to them or demonstrated the indicated methods of school activity. Even the name of this method describes only the activity of the student, but full description method, it is clear that it allows for the organizational, inciting activity of the teacher. A qualified teacher practices the printed and spoken word, subject learning tools, his students use the same tools to correctly complete tasks, as if they had a model that the teacher told them or showed them. The reproductive method emerges during the oral reproduction of the knowledge communicated to the students, during the reproductive conversation, while solving complex physical problems. This method is also used in the organization of laboratory and practical work, the execution of which implies the presence of fairly accurate and detailed instructions.

In order to increase the effectiveness of the reproductive method, teachers and methodologists are developing a special structure of reproductive teaching methods, which includes exercises and tasks (called "didactic materials"), programmed materials that can establish feedback and complete self-control. However, it is necessary to remember the long-known truth that the number of repetitions is not always directly proportional to the quality of the acquired knowledge. At general meaning reproductions, the use of a large amount of tasks, tasks, exercises of the same type reduces the interest of students in the material being assimilated. Therefore, it is necessary to strictly dose measures for the use of the reproductive method of education, while keeping records of the individual capabilities of schoolchildren. During teaching in schools, the reproductive method is usually used in a smooth combination with explanatory-illustrative. During one standard lesson, an experienced teacher is able to explain to students new material, using the explanatory and illustrative method, to consolidate the newly studied, organizing its reproduction, can also again continue the explanation of new information. Such an exemplary change in teaching methods contributes to a change in the type and form of students' activities, makes the school lesson more dynamic, and in this way increases students' interest in the subject being studied.

In order to acquire skills, abilities and knowledge, through a system of special tasks, the activities of trained students are organized to repeatedly reproduce the knowledge given to them of their activities. The teacher should know what the reproductive method of teaching is - he presents tasks, and the student, in turn, performs them - solves problems, actively makes plans, and so on. How difficult the task is, how much time, how many times and at what time intervals he must repeat this work directly depends on the mental abilities of the student. Scientists have found that the assimilation of new words with careful study foreign language requires that these words meet approximately 20 repetitions at some specific time. In a word, we can say that the reproduction and repetition of the method of activity according to the model are the main feature of the reproductive method of teaching. This teaching method enriches students with knowledge, skills and abilities, forms their main mental operations, such as comparison and generalization, analysis and synthesis, but cannot guarantee the development creativity.

Reproductive education of schoolchildren usually includes full perception facts and phenomena, their process of understanding (establishing the necessary connections, highlighting the main and main point, and so on), which accordingly leads to its understanding. main feature reproductive education is to correctly convey to the students some obvious knowledge. The student must memorize new educational material, overload his memory, while other mental processes, such as alternative, as well as independent thinking, in turn, should be blocked. The reproductive nature of thinking characterizes the active acceptance and memorization of new information presented by teachers and other sources. The use of this method is not possible without the use of verbal, practical and visual ways and teaching methods, which are the material basis of such methods. The following main features are distinguished in the technologies of teaching the reproductive direction. The main and significant advantage of this method is economy. Due to this, it is possible to transfer a considerable amount of knowledge in a minimum period of time with a very small outlay of one's own efforts. With repeated repetition, the strength of the acquired knowledge can be strong.

During the reproductive construction of the story, the teacher in a ready-made form presents facts, important definitions of some concepts, smoothly focuses the attention of schoolchildren on the main things that should be learned in the first place, and most importantly, so that the assimilation takes place in a solid way. With reproductive methods, the visibility of schooling is used in order to more actively and accurately memorize the information received. Special reproductive exercises most effectively contribute to the processing of practical skills, computer skills, since the transformation of skills into skills also requires repeated actions according to the established pattern. Reproductive methods are used to a particular extent in cases where the contents of the school educational material is informative, accurate and detailed description methods of all practical actions on computers, is the most difficult for schoolchildren to carry out an independent search and processing of knowledge. On the basis of the reproductive method, programmed learning most often occurs. The method of reproductive direction in the informatics lesson is used when working with the use of simulator programs, for example, such as keyboard trainer, training and control programs, for example, the principle of computer operation, control of knowledge of practical and theoretical material, the implementation of all kinds of introductory and training tasks, exercises with further commentary.

Introductory exercises are used when you first get acquainted with the software and are usually performed under the strict guidance of your teacher. Tasks with comments are used in the development of students' skills to work correctly with operations that are difficult to master normally. Thus, commenting will be useful during formatting activities, as well as copying the taken text. Commenting brings the student to a clear understanding of each of his actions, enables teachers to make significant amendments to various activities students, competently eliminate incorrect actions and interpretations. Training tasks are aimed at repeated repetition of the necessary actions and operations in order to develop skills and abilities. Such exercises are combined into one system of presented tasks, which involve a gradual increase in the degree of complexity, as well as creative independence in the activities of students.

In order to improve performance reproductive way methodologists and didactists, together with psychologists, develop such systems of tasks, exercises, programmed materials that provide proper self-control, in other words, feedback. Great attention is paid to improving the methods of instructing all students. In addition to oral explanations and demonstrations of working methods, it is for these purposes that written instructions and instructions are used. detailed diagrams and constructions, screening of film clips and others, in the classroom labor activity- such simulators that will provide a full opportunity to quickly master the right skills and skills. In general, the reproductive method of teaching does not make it possible to adequately develop the mental thinking of schoolchildren, and this especially concerns independence and flexibility of thinking, the formation of research skills in students. With the intensive use of these methods, there are often cases when this leads to the formalization of the educational process of mastering new knowledge, and sometimes simply to ordinary cramming.

Therefore, along with the teaching method discussed above, it is also necessary to apply such teaching methods that organize the active search activity of students.

There are five specific teaching methods: information-receptive; reproductive; problem statement; partial search or heuristic and research.

Information-receptive - explanatory and illustrative way of organizing joint activities teacher and students, in which the teacher reports ready-made information, and students perceive, understand and fix it in memory. Information is communicated in the form of a story, lecture, explanation, with the help of printed aids (textbook, study guide, etc.), visual aids (pictures, diagrams, films and filmstrips, natural objects in the classroom and during excursions), practical showing methods of activity (method of solving a problem, proving a theorem, demonstrating how to work on a machine, etc.).

I.r. m. of training - one of the most. economical ways of transferring the generalized and systematizing. human experience; can be used on almost any type of account. classes and in explaining the different material; its effectiveness has been proven by centuries of practice. In modern conditions, an opportunity has been created for the concentrated transmission of information by modern technical means learning (TSO), film and television.

Along with the TCO, a demonstration of three-dimensional layouts, operating models is used. But character is known. activities with all means of learning one - the conscious perception of ready-made information that provides the necessary guidelines. Without this method, it is impossible to ensure the assimilation of a new account. material, however, it should be used in combination with other teaching methods.

This method allows students to perceive educational material sensually. They look, feel, read, observe, correlate new information with the information they have. This method is one of the most economical ways of transferring experience. This method is one of the most common today and is widely reflected in the pedagogical literature. However, it is necessary that students today not only assimilate the information offered to them, but also assimilate its structure, methods of finding it and methods of applying it.

Therefore, together with the information-receptive method, reproductive method(from the word reproduction - reproduction). The information-receptive method by itself does not form the skills and abilities of students to use the acquired knowledge and does not guarantee their conscious and lasting memorization, therefore the teacher is forced to organize the activities of students to repeatedly reproduce the acquired knowledge, i.e. use the reproductive method of teaching. For this, a variety of exercises, laboratory, practical work, programmed control, various forms self-control, etc. These two methods (information-receptive and reproductive) are most often used in conjunction, but the first always precedes the second. Together they contribute to the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities in students, form the basic mental operations (analysis, synthesis, generalization, transfer, classification, etc.), but they do not guarantee the development of students' creative abilities. Therefore, other methods are used to develop activities.

Problem presentation. Its essence lies in the fact that the teacher poses a problem to the students and solves it himself, but at the same time he shows the course of his thoughts and reasoning. Otherwise, this method can be called story-reasoning. When using this method, students control the train of thought of the teacher, follow the logic of his reasoning.

Using this method allows students to learn the way and logic of problem solving. of this type, but still without the ability to apply them independently. Therefore, this method is used, as a rule, in the study of complex educational issues. any means can be used by the teacher: a word (logical reasoning), the text of a book, tables, a movie, magnetic recordings, etc.

With this method, students not only perceive, comprehend and remember ready-made information, but also follow the logic of evidence, the movement of the teacher’s thought, controlling its persuasiveness.

Partial search (or heuristic) method . With this method, the way to find a solution to the problem is determined by the teacher, but the solutions to individual questions are found by the students.

Students independently solve a complex educational problem not from beginning to end, but only partially. The teacher guides the students through the individual search steps. Part of the knowledge is communicated by the teacher, and part of the knowledge is obtained by the students on their own, answering the questions posed or solving problematic tasks.

Thus, the essence of the teaching method is that:

• - not all knowledge is offered to students in finished form, they partially need to be obtained independently;
• - The activity of the teacher is operational management problem solving process.

The process of thinking acquires a productive character, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves on the basis of work on programs (including computer ones) and teaching aids.

The main purpose of the method- Gradual preparation of students for independent formulation and problem solving. One of the modifications of this method is the heuristic conversation.

research method. This is a way of organizing the creative activity of students to solve new problems for them. When performing them, students must independently master the elements scientific knowledge(be aware of the problem, put forward a hypothesis, build a plan for testing it, draw conclusions, etc.). The main feature of this method, unlike the two previous ones, is to teach students to see problems, to be able to set tasks on their own.

Jobs performed using research method, should include all elements of an independent research process (problem statement, justification, assumption, search for relevant sources necessary information, the process of solving the problem).

When using this method, such traditional teaching aids as the word, visualization, and practical work are used.

All these five methods are divided into two groups: reproductive (information-receptive and reproductive) and productive (partial search and research), and the method of problem presentation, being intermediate, can be classified as both reproductive and productive.

All these methods in the learning process are implemented in the closest relationship. An example of the most common traditional lesson: the teacher interviewed the students, told the new material, gave an exercise to consolidate this new material, and then set the students a creative task. You may notice in this case that the teacher used the methods in the lesson in the following order: 2-1-2-5. Or another example of a lesson: the teacher posed a problem to the students and had a heuristic conversation with them to resolve it, then showed a fragment of the film confirming the correctness of the reasoning, and offered the students a creative task: 4-1-5.

reproductive method.

The previous teaching method does not form the skills and abilities to use the acquired knowledge. This task is performed by the reproductive method. It ensures the development of schoolchildren's skills and abilities to apply knowledge according to a model or in a similar situation (as opposed to creative application). In practice, it looks like this: the teacher gives the appropriate tasks, and the students complete them. Namely:

They reproduce the material explained by the teacher (orally or in writing - at the blackboard, from the spot, on cards, etc.);

Solve similar problems, exercises;

Work with visibility (previously used by the teacher);

Reproduce experiences and experiments;

They reproduce the actions of the teacher in working with tools, mechanisms, etc.

Thus, the didactic essence of the reproductive method lies in the fact that the teacher constructs a system of tasks for the reproduction of knowledge and actions already known and realized by students thanks to the explanatory and illustrative method. Pupils, performing these tasks, develop in themselves the appropriate skills and abilities.

The reproductive method is also very economical in time, but at the same time it does not guarantee the development of children's creative abilities.

Both methods - explanatory-illustrative and reproductive - are initial. Although they do not teach schoolchildren how to carry out creative activity, they are at the same time its prerequisite. Without an appropriate fund of knowledge, skills and abilities, it is impossible to assimilate the experience of creative activity.

Problem presentation method.

Problem presentation method is transitional from performing to creative activity. The essence of this method lies in the fact that the teacher sets the task and solves it himself, thereby showing the train of thought in the process of cognition:

Puts forward possible ways to solve it (hypotheses);

With the help of facts and logical reasoning, checks their reliability, reveals the correct assumption;

Draws conclusions.

Students not only perceive, realize and memorize ready-made knowledge, conclusions, but also follow the logic of evidence, the movement of thought of the teacher or the means replacing him (cinema, television, books, etc.). And although students in this method are not participants, but only observers of the teacher's thinking, they learn to solve problems.

Reproductive and problem-search teaching methods are singled out primarily on the basis of an assessment of the degree of creative activity of schoolchildren in the cognition of new concepts, phenomena and laws.
reproductive methods. The reproductive nature of thinking involves the active perception and memorization of the information provided by the teacher or other source of educational information. The application of these methods is impossible without the use of verbal, visual and practical teaching methods and techniques, which are, as it were, the material basis of these methods.
In the reproductive construction of the story, the teacher formulates facts, evidence, definitions of concepts in a ready-made form, focuses on the main thing that needs to be learned especially firmly.
A lecture is structured in a similar way, in which certain scientific information is presented to the audience, appropriate notes are made on the blackboard, fixed by the audience in the form of brief notes.
A reproductively organized conversation is conducted in such a way that the teacher relies on facts already known to students, on previously acquired knowledge, and does not set the task of discussing any hypotheses or assumptions.
Visualization in the reproductive method of teaching is also used in order to more actively and firmly memorize information. An example of such clarity, for example, is the supporting notes used in the experience of the teacher V. F. Shatalov. They consistently display especially bright numbers, words and sketches that activate the memorization of the material.
Practical exercises of a reproductive nature are distinguished by the fact that in the course of their practice, students apply previously or just learned knowledge according to the model. At the same time, in the course of practical work, students do not independently increase their knowledge. Reproductive exercises especially effectively contribute to the development of practical skills and abilities, since the transformation of skill into a skill requires repeated actions according to the model.
Reproductive methods are used especially effectively in cases where the content of the educational material is predominantly informative, is a description of the methods of practical actions, is very complex or fundamentally new so that students can carry out an independent search for knowledge.
On the basis of reproductive methods, programmed learning is most often carried out.
In general, reproductive methods of teaching do not allow to develop the thinking of schoolchildren to the proper extent, and especially independence, flexibility of thinking; to develop students' skills in search activity. With excessive use, these methods contribute to the formalization of the process of mastering knowledge, and sometimes just cramming. It is impossible to successfully develop such personality traits as creative approach to business, independence by reproductive methods alone. All this requires the use, along with them, of teaching methods that ensure the active search activity of schoolchildren.
Problem-search methods of teaching. Problem-search methods are used in the course of problem learning. When using problem-search teaching methods, the teacher uses the following techniques: he creates a problem situation (poses questions, proposes a task, an experimental task), organizes a collective discussion of possible approaches to resolving a problem situation, confirms the correctness of the conclusions, puts forward a ready-made problem task. Students, based on previous experience and knowledge, make assumptions about ways to resolve the problem situation, generalize previously acquired knowledge, identify the causes of phenomena, explain their origin, choose the most rational option for resolving the problem situation.
Problem-search teaching methods are also applied in practice with the help of verbal, visual and practical teaching methods. In this regard, it is customary to talk about methods of problematic presentation of educational material, about problematic and heuristic conversations, about the use of visual methods of a problem-search type, about conducting problem-search practical work or even exploratory work.
The presentation of educational material by the method of a problem story and a problem-based lecture assumes that the teacher in the course of the presentation reflects, proves, generalizes, analyzes the facts and leads the students' thinking, making it more active and creative.
One of the methods of problem-based learning is heuristic and problem-search conversation. In the course of it, the teacher poses a series of consistent and interrelated questions to the students, answering which they must make any assumptions and then try to independently prove their validity, thereby making some independent progress in the assimilation of new knowledge. If in the course of a heuristic conversation such assumptions usually concern only one of the main elements new topic, then during the problem-search conversation, students resolve a whole series of problem situations. Therefore, the differences between these conversations are conditional and relate only to the degree of application of problem situations.
Visual aids with problem-search methods of teaching are no longer used to enhance memorization, but to set experimental tasks that create problem situations in the classroom. In addition, visual aids have been produced more and more recently, on which, in the form of a series of drawings and diagrams, a certain educational situation is depicted that requires students to think independently in order to make some generalizations, identify dominant causes, etc.
Problem-search exercises are used when students can independently, on the instructions of the teacher, perform certain types of actions that lead them to assimilate new knowledge. Such exercises, for example, are widely presented in the physics textbook for grade VIII, where in the process of solving practical problems, schoolchildren do not use, namely, they learn new elements of knowledge, which are then comprehended and applied in practice when performing training exercises. Problem-search exercises can be used not only when approaching the assimilation of a new topic, but also when fixing it on a new basis, that is, when performing exercises that deepen knowledge.
A valuable type of problematic practical work is research laboratory works, during which students, for example, independently find out the laws of swimming of bodies, the laws of oscillation of a mathematical pendulum, etc. Such laboratory work is carried out before studying the theory and puts students in front of the need to make some educational discoveries. Experimental work at the school site, when students solve accessible research problems, is of a similar nature.
Problem-search methods are mainly used to develop the skills of creative educational and cognitive activity, they contribute to a more meaningful and independent mastery of knowledge. These methods are especially effectively used in cases where the content of the educational material is aimed at the formation of concepts, laws and theories in the relevant field of science, and not at the communication of factual information, the development of laboratory and experimental skills and skills of labor activity; when the content of the educational material is not fundamentally new, but logically continues what was previously studied, on the basis of which students can take independent steps in the search for new knowledge; when the content is available for independent search of schoolchildren, i.e. problem situations are in the zone of proximal development of the cognitive abilities of schoolchildren; when the content reveals causal and other relationships between phenomena, leads to generalizations, etc. Search methods are used in cases where teachers have prepared students for activities to resolve problem situations.
Compared with reproductive methods, search education has a number of weaknesses that do not allow it to be the only type of education at school. To weaknesses search methods, in comparison with reproductive methods, should include significantly more time spent on studying educational material; their insufficient effectiveness in solving problems of the formation of practical skills, especially of a labor nature, where display and imitation have great importance; their weak effectiveness in mastering fundamentally new sections of educational material, where the principle of apperception (reliance on previous experience) cannot be applied, in the study of complex topics where the teacher’s explanation is extremely necessary, and independent search is inaccessible to most students.
In general, the foregoing leads to the need to combine search methods with their other types described above. Practice shows that such a combination turns out to be necessary in many cases, since the content of the same topic contains elements of material containing problem situations, while others do not allow this to be done due to complexity, lack of a base for students to make independent decisions, or vice versa , because of elementarity, simplicity, their purely informative orientation. Therefore, the teacher intersperses elements of the search activity of students into the explanation or, conversely, introduces direct information about issues that are inaccessible to students into the process of independent search for knowledge. own discovery schoolchildren. But this does not mean that only a combination of problematic and reproductive methods is always necessary. There are such tasks of teaching, such content of the material, such specifics of schoolchildren's preparedness, in which reproductive or search methods of teaching proper can and should be applied, so to speak, in their pure form.