The empirical level of knowledge is based on. The empirical level of knowledge in science

Science is the engine of progress. Without the knowledge that scientists transmit to us every day, human civilization would never have reached at least some significant level development. Great discoveries, bold hypotheses and assumptions - all this propels us forward. By the way, what is the mechanism of cognition of the surrounding world?

General information

In modern science, empirical and theoretical methods are distinguished. The first of them should be recognized as the most effective. The point is that the empirical level scientific knowledge provides an in-depth study of the object of interest, and this process includes both the observation itself and a whole set of experiments. As it is easy to understand, the theoretical method provides for the knowledge of an object or phenomenon through the application of generalizing theories and hypotheses to it.

Often, the empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by multiple terms in which the most important characteristics of the subject under study are recorded. It must be said that this level in science is especially respected for the fact that any statement of this type can be verified in the course of a practical experiment. For example, this thesis can be attributed to such expressions: "A saturated solution of table salt can be made by heating water."

Thus, the empirical level of scientific knowledge is a set of methods and methods for studying the surrounding world. They (methods) are based primarily on sensory perception and accurate data from measuring instruments. These are the levels of scientific knowledge. Empirical, theoretical methods allow us to learn about various phenomena, open up new horizons of science. Since they are inextricably linked, it would be foolish to talk about one of them without telling about the main characteristics of the other.

Currently, the level of empirical knowledge is constantly increasing. Simply put, scientists learn and classify more and more information, on the basis of which new scientific theories are built. Of course, the ways in which they receive data are also improving.

Empirical cognition methods

In principle, you can guess about them yourself, based on the information that has already been given in this article. Here are the main methods of scientific knowledge of the empirical level:

1. Observation. This method is known to everyone, without exception. He assumes that an outside observer will only impartially record everything that happens (in natural conditions) without interfering with the process itself.
2. Experiment. In some ways it is similar to the previous method, but in this case everything that happens is placed in a rigid laboratory framework. As in the previous case, the scientist is often an observer who records the results of some process or phenomenon.
3. Measurement. This method assumes the need for a standard. A phenomenon or object is compared with it to clarify discrepancies.
4. Comparison. Similar to the previous method, but in this case the researcher simply compares any arbitrary objects (phenomena) with each other, without needing reference measures.

Here we briefly analyzed the main methods of scientific knowledge of the empirical level. And now we will consider some of them in more detail.

Observation

It should be noted that it can be of several types at once, and the specific one is selected by the researcher himself, focusing on the situation. Let's list all the types of observation:

1. Armed and unarmed. If you have at least some idea of ​​science, then you know that "armed" is called such observation, in which various devices and devices are used, which make it possible to record the results obtained with greater accuracy. Accordingly, "unarmed" refers to observation that is carried out without the use of something like that.
2. Laboratory. As the name implies, it is carried out exclusively in an artificial, laboratory environment.
3. Field. Unlike the previous one, it is performed exclusively in natural conditions, “in the field”.

In general, observation is good precisely because in many cases it allows you to obtain completely unique information (especially field information). It should be noted that this method is far from widespread among all scientists, since a lot of patience, perseverance and the ability to impartially fix all observed objects are required for its successful application.

This is what characterizes the main method that uses the empirical level of scientific knowledge. This leads us to the idea that this method is purely practical.

Is infallibility of observation always important?

Oddly enough, but in the history of science there are many cases when the most important discoveries became possible due to gross errors and miscalculations in the process of observation. Thus, in the 16th century, the famous astronomer Tycho de Brahe did his life's work by closely observing Mars.

It is on the basis of these invaluable observations that his student, no less famous I. Kepler, forms a hypothesis about the ellipsoidal shape of planetary orbits. But! Subsequently, it turned out that Brahe's observations were distinguished by a rare inaccuracy. Many assume that he deliberately gave the student the wrong information, but the essence does not change from this: if Kepler had used accurate information, he would never have been able to create a coherent (and correct) hypothesis.

In this case, due to inaccuracy, it was possible to simplify the subject under study. By dispensing with complex multi-page formulas, Kepler was able to find out that the shape of the orbits is not round, as it was then assumed, but elliptical.

The main differences from the theoretical level of knowledge

On the contrary, all expressions and terms used by the theoretical level of knowledge cannot be verified in practice. Here's an example: "A saturated salt solution can be made by heating water." In this case, an incredible amount of experiments would have to be carried out, since the "salt solution" does not indicate a specific chemical compound. That is, "salt solution" is an empirical concept. Thus, all theoretical statements are unverifiable. According to Popper, they are falsified.

Simply put, the empirical level of scientific knowledge (as opposed to theoretical) is very specific. The results of the experiments can be touched, sniffed, held in hands or seen graphs on the display of measuring instruments.

By the way, what are the forms of the empirical level of scientific knowledge? Today there are two of them: fact and law. A scientific law is the highest form of the empirical form of cognition, since it deduces the basic laws and rules in accordance with which a natural or technical phenomenon occurs. The fact is understood only that it manifests itself under a certain combination of several conditions, but scientists in this case have not yet had time to form a coherent concept.

Linking empirical and theoretical evidence

The peculiarity of scientific knowledge in all areas is that theoretical and empirical data are characterized by mutual penetration. It should be noted that it is absolutely impossible to separate these concepts in an absolute way, no matter what some researchers assert. For example, we talked about making a salt solution. If a person has an understanding of chemistry, this example will be empirical for him (since he himself knows about the properties of basic compounds). If not, the statement will be theoretical.

The importance of experiment

It must be firmly grasped that the empirical level of scientific knowledge is worthless without an experimental basis. It is the experiment that is the basis and the primary source of all knowledge that is currently accumulated by mankind.

On the other hand, theoretical research without a practical basis in general turns into groundless hypotheses, which (with rare exceptions) have absolutely no scientific value. Thus, the empirical level of scientific knowledge cannot exist without theoretical substantiation, but even it is negligible without experiment. Why are we all saying this?

The fact is that the consideration of the methods of cognition in this article should be carried out assuming the actual unity and interrelation of the two methods.

Experiment characteristics: what is it

As we have already said many times, the peculiarities of the empirical level of scientific knowledge lie in the fact that the results of experiments can be seen or felt. But for this to happen, it is necessary to carry out an experiment, which is literally the "core" of all scientific knowledge from ancient times to this day.

The term comes from the Latin word "experimentum", which just means "experience", "trial". In principle, an experiment is the testing of certain phenomena in artificial conditions. It must be remembered that in all cases the empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the experimenter's desire to influence as little as possible what is happening. This is necessary to obtain truly "clean", adequate data, which can be used to speak with confidence about the characteristics of the studied subject or phenomenon.

Preparatory work, instruments and equipment

Most often, before setting up an experiment, it is necessary to conduct a thorough preparatory work, on the quality of which the quality of the information obtained as a result of the experience will also depend. Let's talk about how preparation is usually done:

1. First, a program is being developed in accordance with which scientific experience will be produced.
2. If necessary, the scientist independently manufactures the necessary apparatus and equipment.
3. Once again, all the points of the theory are repeated, for the confirmation or refutation of which the experiment will be carried out.

Thus, the main characteristic of the empirical level of scientific knowledge is the availability of the necessary equipment and instruments, without which it becomes impossible to conduct an experiment in most cases. And here we are not talking about common computer technology, but about specialized detector devices that measure very specific environmental conditions.

Thus, the experimenter must always be fully armed. It's not only about technical equipment, but also about the level of theoretical knowledge. Not having an idea of ​​the subject under study, it is quite difficult to carry out some kind of scientific experiments to study it. It should be noted that in modern conditions Many experiments are often carried out by a whole group of scientists, as this approach allows you to rationalize efforts and distribute areas of responsibility.

What characterizes the object under study under experimental conditions?

The studied phenomenon or object in the experiment is placed in such conditions that they will inevitably affect the sensory organs of the scientist and / or the recording devices. Note that the response can depend both on the experimenter himself and on the characteristics of the equipment he uses. In addition, the experiment can not always give all the information about the object, since it is carried out in isolation from the environment.

It is very important to remember this when considering the empirical level of scientific knowledge and its methods. It is because of the latter factor that observation is so valued: in most cases, only it can give real useful information about how this or that process occurs in the natural conditions of nature. Such data are often impossible to obtain even in the most modern and well-equipped laboratory.

However, the last statement is still debatable. Modern science has made a good leap forward. For example, in Australia, even ground forest fires are being studied, recreating their course in a special chamber. This approach allows you not to risk the lives of employees, while receiving quite acceptable and high-quality data. Unfortunately, this is not always possible, because not all phenomena can be recreated (at least for now) in a scientific institution.

Niels Bohr's theory

The fact that experiments in laboratory conditions are far from always accurate was also stated by famous physicist N. Bor. But his timid attempts to hint to opponents that the means and devices significantly affect the adequacy of the data obtained were met by his colleagues extremely negatively for a long time. They believed that any influence of the device can be excluded by somehow isolating it. The problem is that it is almost impossible to do this even at the modern level, not to mention those times.

Of course, the modern empirical level of scientific knowledge (what it is, we have already said) is high, but we are not destined to bypass the fundamental laws of physics. Thus, the task of the researcher consists not only in the banal description of an object or phenomenon, but also in explaining its behavior in various environmental conditions.

Modeling

The most valuable opportunity to study the very essence of the subject is modeling (including computer and / or mathematical). Most often, in this case, they experiment not on the phenomenon or object itself, but on their most realistic and functional copies, which were created in artificial, laboratory conditions.

If it is not very clear, let us explain: it is much safer to investigate a tornado using the example of its simplified model in a wind tunnel. Then the data obtained during the experiment are compared with information about a real tornado, after which appropriate conclusions are drawn.

Empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object under study. It involves observation and experimentation.

Therefore, the means of empirical research include instruments, instrumental installations and other means of real observation and experiment.

In theoretical research there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, an object can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment.

In empirical research, conceptual means are also used. They function as a special language. It has a complex organization in which the empirical terms proper and the terms of the theoretical language interact.

Empirical objects are abstractions that actually distinguish a certain set of properties and relationships of things. Real objects are presented in empirical knowledge in the form of ideal objects with a rigidly fixed and limited set of features. A real object has an infinite number of features.

In theoretical knowledge there are no means of material, practical interaction with the object under study. But the language of theoretical research also differs from the language of empirical descriptions. It is based on theoretical terms, the meaning of which is theoretical ideal objects ( material point, absolutely black body).

Idealized theoretical objects, in contrast to empirical objects, are endowed not only with the features that we can find in the real interaction of objects of experience, but also with features that no real object has. For example, a material point is defined as a body devoid of dimensions, but concentrating in itself the entire mass of the body.

At the empirical level, real experiment and real observation are used as the main methods. An important role is also played by the methods of empirical description, focused on the objective characteristic of the phenomena being studied, which is maximally cleared of subjective layers.

In theoretical research, special methods are used: idealization; thought experiment with objects; special methods of constructing a theory (ascent from the abstract to the concrete, axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive methods); methods of logical and historical research, etc.

Empirical research is basically focused on the study of phenomena and the relationships between them. At this level of cognition, essential connections are not yet distinguished in their pure form, but they seem to be highlighted in phenomena, appear through their concrete shell. At the level of theoretical knowledge, essential relationships are singled out in their pure form. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws that govern the object.

Empirical dependence is the result of inductive generalization of experience and is probabilistically true knowledge. A theoretical law is reliable knowledge.

So, highlighting the empirical and theoretical knowledge as two special types of research activity, we can say that their subject is different, that is, theory and empirical research deal with different sections of the same reality.

The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge differ in the subject, means and methods of research. However, the selection and independent consideration of each of them is an abstraction. In reality, these two layers of knowledge always interact.

For all their differences, the empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the border between them is conditional and mobile. Empirical research, revealing new data with the help of observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them), puts before it new, more challenging tasks... On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing new content of its own on the basis of empiricism, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

Science as a whole dynamic system knowledge cannot develop successfully without being enriched with new empirical data, without generalizing them in the system of theoretical means, forms and methods of cognition. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical turns into the theoretical and vice versa. However, it is inadmissible to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

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Characterization of theoretical knowledge.

Unlike empirical, theoretical knowledge is reliable, it is a set of statements about idealized objects that are the product of constructive, creative thinking activity.

A specific feature of the theoretical level of knowledge is the predominance of a rational moment in it: concepts, theories, "mental operations", hypotheses. Empirical and theoretical knowledge have both similarities and differences. Both the one and the other types of research activities, they are aimed at cognizing the same objective reality, but "see" it in different ways. Empirical research reveals phenomena and dependencies between them, the essence in them only shows through, but does not stand out in its pure form. Theoretical knowledge reveals in its pure form the essence of an object in the interaction of the laws to which it obeys. Reconstruction of these laws, the relationship between them, is the essence of theoretical knowledge. What is the difference between empirical dependence and theoretical law? Empirical dependence is the result of inductive generalization of experience, leading to the emergence of probabilistically true knowledge. A theoretical law is always reliable knowledge, which is the result of a number of research procedures. Thus, empirical and theoretical knowledge are both similar and differ in their subject matter: objective reality is one, but its consideration is different.

Both of these levels of cognition differ in the means and methods of research. Since, as indicated above, empirical knowledge is based on practical interaction with the object under study, it includes such means as devices, installations that contribute to real observation and experiment, practice. Used in empirical research and concepts - a special, empirical language of science, which reflects both empirical and theoretical concepts.

Theoretical research uses other means. Since at this stage there is no practical interaction with the object under study, the main research tool is theoretical, idealized objects that are currently absent and appear as a result of mental construction. For example, “a material point is defined as a body devoid of size, but concentrating in itself the entire mass of the body. There are no such bodies in nature. They represent the result of our mental construction ... ”(2).

In addition to idealization, the specific means of theoretical research include formalization - the transition from operating with concepts to operating with symbols. In this case, an artificial language is used (mathematical, computer, chemical symbols).

The methods of theoretical research include: axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive methods, abstraction - a distraction from some properties and relationships and the selection of others, analysis as an actual (mental) dismemberment of an object into its component parts and synthesis - as a mental reunification of the whole or parts highlighted with the help of analysis. Not all methods of theoretical knowledge are listed here, but they all point to such an important feature of it as the ability to describe not the surrounding reality, but idealized objects. This determines its focus on "oneself", on internal reflection, the study of the process of cognition itself, its forms, techniques, methods and conceptual apparatus.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge: structure, research methods, forms of scientific knowledge

Therefore, theoretical knowledge relies on such cognitive abilities of the individual as thinking, reason, reason.

Thinking is an active process of generalization and indirect reflection of reality, revealing, on the basis of sensory data, regular connections expressed in concepts, categories, speech.

The initial level of thinking is the mind, on which the operation of concepts or abstractions occurs within a certain, unchanging scheme, a certain rigid standard, a template. Reason is associated with the ability to reason clearly and clearly, to build a train of thought based on the ability of formal logic to classify and systematize facts. This is the main function of reason. What are its pros and cons? Thinking is impossible without reason, which is also called common sense, but its absolutization and strict adherence to dogmatism, conservatism, so often preventing the advancement of fresh extraordinary ideas in science (and not only). At the same time, it is dangerous to ignore common sense, since it violates the ratio of stable, stable and dynamic, mobile, the absolutization of which leads to chaos.

The highest level of rational cognition is reason, since it (and only) is characterized by the operation of abstractions. It is determined by the highest level also because it is with the help of reason that thinking comprehends the essence of things, logic, laws and contradictions. Why is this possible? This is possible due to the fact that in the mind all the variety of sides and qualities is combined into a single whole, they merge, synthesis, which makes it possible to identify the causes and driving factors of the phenomena under study. Does the mind have any initial concepts, schemes, categories? No. Where does he get them from? Out of reason. The process of thinking is also a mutual transition from reason to reason of ideas, concepts, their dialectical mutual enrichment, addition, rejection, combination, the birth of new ideas that pass into reason.

Thus, if the logic of reason is formal logic, then the logic of reason is the dialectic of the process of formation, the birth of knowledge in the unity of the content and form of its individual components.

Theoretical knowledge also differs in the structure of its organization. It is customary to distinguish two levels in it: the primary - the level of models and laws and the level of developed theory.

The primary, or particular, level of models and laws represents a layer of theoretical knowledge in which there is a theoretical model that explains a particular phenomenon from a narrow area of ​​reality, and on its basis, a law is formed, relative to this model. For example, if the oscillations of real pendulums are studied, then in order to find out the laws of their motion, the idea of ​​an ideal pendulum as a material point hanging on a non-deformable thread is introduced. Then another object is introduced - a frame of reference. This is also an idealization, namely, an ideal representation of a real physical laboratory, equipped with a clock and a ruler. Finally, to reveal the law of oscillations, another ideal object is introduced - the force that sets the pendulum in motion. Force is also an abstraction from the interaction of bodies, in which it changes. Thus, an ideal pendulum, a frame of reference, and a force form a model representing, at the theoretical level, the essential characteristics of the real process of oscillation of pendulums.

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An empirical basis should be understood as the initial foundations of scientific knowledge of one empirical study, in the process of which empirical knowledge is found.

Thus, any new empirical knowledge is built on some basic empirical knowledge. The empirical basis of scientific knowledge consists of this empirical knowledge.

The process of becoming empirical scientific knowledge passes through several stages at which various empirical research tools:

1. Statement of scientific experience (observation and experiment).

2. Everyday knowledge (sensory and logical) necessary to describe the experience.

3. Preliminary scientific knowledge for the formulation of this experiment and the description of the results obtained.

4. Some philosophical knowledge related to scientific knowledge, available to the researcher before setting up the experiment, and purely speculative, not related to scientific knowledge, but capable of expanding it.

As a result of the use of these means, primary, relatively simple in form, empirical knowledge is obtained in the form of experience data reflecting objective phenomena, their properties, connections, and relations.

Upon further processing, they can provide more complex empirical knowledge. The use of logical operations (analysis, synthesis, classification, systematization, etc.), mathematical processing of experimental data in order to identify functional dependence, allow one to obtain empirical knowledge of a higher order.

To do this, you need to go three stages of empirical research:

1. Initial and basic - scientific experiments. They are aimed at obtaining knowledge in the form of separate data that make up basic empirical knowledge.

2. Primary (logical and mathematical) processing of a certain set of experience data. As a result, more complex data are obtained on the connections of some experience data with others. In accordance with this, empirical concepts are introduced, and the experience data are divided into groups, systematized and classified.

3. Generalization of experience data within each group. In the process of generalization, a mental transition is made from a finite number of members of each group to an infinite one. This allows you to develop knowledge about the patterns that characterize each group. This knowledge is the highest form of empirical knowledge.

Let us describe in more detail each stage of empirical research.

First stage. It includes observation. This is the most direct and immediate way of obtaining experimental data. Next comes the process of complicating the study, the implementation experiment. The most important procedure for observation and experiment is measurement is a quantitative comparison of quantities of the same quality. Measurement allows you to discover some common connections between the studied phenomena. Quantitative values ​​are measured, which express the qualitative certainty of the phenomenon, its essential properties. By means of measurement, general (quantity) and essential (quality) relationships are found. We can say that measurement opens the way to the discovery of empirical laws, i.e. general and essential in phenomena.

Next comes the conceptual expression of sensory perceptions in the form of experience data. Conceptual content is introduced in such a way that it reflects primary, elementary scientific knowledge. It is impossible to interpret the results of the experiment broadly, or to formulate it inaccurately. Therefore, there are scientific methods for formalizing the results of observation and experiment. We will consider them in relation to psychological and pedagogical research in the last section of the chapter.

Second stage. It has a relatively independent meaning. Its main task is to identify the main features of the objects under study, by which the data of experience are systematized and classified. Are carried out analysis and synthesis in order to detect external objective connections between phenomena: causal, functional, structural and others. This creates the conditions for grouping data.

In accordance with the essential features underlying the systematization and classification, empirical concepts. Returning thereafter to the first stage, these concepts introduce more definiteness and direction into the experiment, making it more effective. Thus, analysis and synthesis are the main groupings of experience data.

One group includes only those data that correspond to the main, defining connections of phenomena. Each science has its own subject of research, and therefore there are methods of analysis and synthesis, systematization and classification of observation and experimental data.

Having identified the relationships, it is possible to systematize the experience data, distribute them into groups. Highlighted characteristic features (analysis), distribution into groups (synthesis) will provide a classification of the observed phenomena. The choice of features for classification is not arbitrary. They should be the most essential properties of objects. Each classification reflects those features that have developed in a particular science (stadial, morphological, educational success, mistakes in mastering teaching material, crimes, diseases, etc.).

However, there are General requirements for all sciences: the classification must correspond to the objective reality that is studied in this science. Classification is a movement from phenomenon to essence. This is its main significance.

After the discovery of regular connections, the classification can be deepened and expanded at the next stage of the study.

In the process of analysis and synthesis, systematization and classification, a broader, new empirical knowledge is obtained.

Third stage. The main goal of this stage is to reveal the essence of each group of phenomena (the essence of the first order). To do this, it is necessary to discover hidden connections between phenomena. The way to this is to identify the main concepts related to each group of phenomena and find functional connections between them. The main concepts in most cases coincide with empirical concepts, because grouping was carried out on their basis.

So, the way to discover the essence of a first-order phenomenon is to establish a functional connection between empirical concepts related to the corresponding group of experience data. This connection is called the empirical law.

At the second stage, the external relationships of phenomena are revealed, while the internal ones remain unclear. At the third stage, this internal connection is revealed, formulated in the form of an empirical law. It covers all the many possible phenomena of a given group. The discovered entity makes it possible to operate with calculations and calculations. If it is possible to derive a formula for the relationship, then the scope of empirical research expands.

Empirical generalization serves as a means for highlighting the essence of the first order, in which the main role is played by induction, i.e. inference from the particular to the general. keep in mind that in this case the truth of the conclusion does not always follow from the truth of the premises. Logically correct thinking does not guarantee the correctness of the reflection outside world in a person's head. Therefore, one must rely on other criteria when generalizing empirical knowledge. Do not forget about such a criterion as inductive evidence associated with certain philosophical ideas.

In addition to induction, generalization uses deduction, comparison, analogies, and mathematical methods.

Consider overall assessment empirical laws as a form of scientific knowledge. They represent a connection of empirical concepts that fix the main features of the phenomena of a given group. Empirical concepts are quantities directly observable in experience.

Basic methods of the empirical level of scientific knowledge.

Therefore, they can be verified empirically. Hence, the features of empirical laws follow:

1. In experience, we can observe only a few different quantities. Therefore, the empirical law includes a small number of corresponding empirical concepts (2 - 3 concepts). The relationship is studied in pairs, for example, memory size and resilience; the level of spatial thinking and the success of solving mathematical problems.

2. Since the connections are directly verifiable in experience, the connections of concepts in the empirical law are expressed in a relatively simple mathematical or logical form.

Empirical law is the highest form of empirical knowledge. After its discovery, the results obtained at the previous stages can be improved, corrected, and refined. For a deeper study of the phenomenon, it is necessary to move to the level of theoretical research.

Theoretical knowledge rests on its theoretical basis; has its own stages; provided by certain means: basic, related to basic knowledge, and auxiliary, related to knowledge built on this basis.

Theoretical level scientific research has its own characteristics:

1. Theoretical knowledge is characterized by generality and abstractness. It cannot be confirmed or refuted by individual experimental data, but is evaluated only as a whole. Scientific theory covers many laws related to a specific field of phenomena.

2. A feature of theoretical knowledge is its consistency. Changing individual elements leads to a change in the system as a whole.

3. Theoretical knowledge is characterized by connection with certain philosophical knowledge and ideas; differs from the philosophical in greater scientific concretization. It is associated with empirical knowledge as opposed to philosophical.

4. main feature theoretical scientific knowledge consists in the fact that it reflects the essence of the field of the phenomenon, gives a deeper picture of reality than empirical knowledge.

Theoretical knowledge reflects the essence of the second order, the basic (theoretical) laws, each of which includes a certain set of empirical laws.

Philosophical, logical, mathematical means play a major role in theoretical research, not experience. Theoretical knowledge moves from the initial general and abstract to the deductive concrete and singular. It is tested on an experimental level.

Because of its generality, abstractness, systematicity, theoretical knowledge has a deductive structure: theoretical knowledge of a lesser generality can be obtained from theoretical knowledge of a greater generality. This means that theoretical knowledge should be based on some relatively basic and more general knowledge. It constitutes the theoretical basis of scientific knowledge..

The theoretical basis of scientific knowledge consists of those general knowledge that are the initial deductive construction scientific theories: general concepts, principles, hypotheses that should be taken as the basis of deduction. They make up theoretical basis. Its formation takes place under the influence of everyday and philosophical knowledge. For example, the ordinary concept of "a lot" is associated with a scientific "set", an ordinary "thing" and a scientific "substance". Influenced philosophical knowledge new concepts, theories, hypotheses, ideas appear.

Three stages of theoretical research give a general idea of ​​the process and its features:

1. At the first stage, there is a construction of a new or expansion of the existing theoretical basis. The contradictions and unresolved problems that have arisen lead to the need to look for new points of view, new ideas that would expand the existing picture of the world, or build a new one by introducing new elements. They are ideas, concepts, principles, hypotheses that serve as the basis for building a new picture of the world and associated with philosophy.

2. At the second stage, a new theory is created on the basis of the found basis. In this, formal methods of constructing logical and mathematical systems play an important role.

3. At the third stage, the theory is applied to explain a group of phenomena.

Let's consider in more detail each of the stages.

First stage. The concept of a scientific picture of the world in specific sciences is the main content of the theoretical basis. It "can be defined as a system of general ideas about nature, which includes the initial theoretical concepts, principles and hypotheses of this field of science, characteristic of a certain stage in its development, and built on the basis of relevant philosophical knowledge and ideas."

General ideas about the world can be built on the basis of any philosophical views. There is a concept of a physical picture of the world - the unification of knowledge about nature. You can build a social, pedagogical picture of the world for the relevant sciences.

General theoretical concepts, principles, hypotheses as elements of the scientific picture of the world arise on the basis of experience as a result of the generalization of our perceptions, ideas, etc.

The principle is part of the initial basis for constructing a theory and a reflection of some of the general aspects of a number of areas of the objective world studied in science. The principle reflects the general and essential aspects of this picture of the world. It expresses the deeper essence of the phenomena united in one picture of the world.

Hypothesis - the assumption of new laws or reasons for explaining any new open phenomena, connections and relationships. In empirical research, working hypotheses are put forward. They are needed until a classification is made. More complex hypotheses are put forward in the search for empirical laws. In theoretical studies, new elements are put forward or already existing elements of the scientific picture of the world are concretized. The hypotheses of theoretical research are associated with the expansion of the scientific picture of the world or the formation of a new one.

Second stage. Its main goal is to create a new theory. To build a theory, it is necessary to find the main scientific concepts for a given area, express them in symbolic form, and establish connections between them. All this is carried out on the basis of a theoretical basis and a scientific picture of the world. The connection between concepts is discovered through hypotheses and principles.

The prerequisites for constructing a theory may be: 1) empirical research data that have not been explained in existing theory; 2) elements of the theoretical basis and scientific picture of the world, on the basis of which the initial concepts, principles and hypotheses were found; 3) extrapolation of old concepts or fundamentally new provisions. Theoretical premises play an important role in the creation of new theories.

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |

Read the accompanying text below, in which a number of words are missing.

2. Methods of the empirical level of knowledge.

Choose from the pre-la-ha-e-my list of words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

“People, who themselves do not know about science, quite often believe that ___________ (A) always give absolutely reliable statements. These people believe that scientific workers do their ___________ (B) on the basis of undeniable ___________ (C) and irreproachable reasoning and, therefore, confidently step forward , and the possibility of ___________ (D) or ___________ (D) back is excluded. However, the state of modern science, as well as ___________ (E) sciences in the past, prove that the matter is completely different. "

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can be used-pol-zo-va-but only once. Choose one word after another, thoughtfully filling in each gap. Pay attention to the fact that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

For-pi-shi-those in response, under each letter, the number of the word you have chosen.

(Manual text input)

Scientific knowledge has two levels: empirical and theoretical.

EMPIRICAL LEVEL OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE – it is direct sensory exploration really existing and accessible to experience objects.

At the empirical level, the following research processes:

1.Formation of an empirical research base:

- accumulation of information about the objects and phenomena under study;

- determination of the scope of scientific facts in the composition of the accumulated information;

- introduction of physical quantities, their measurement and systematization of scientific facts in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc .;

2.Classification and theoretical generalization information about the received scientific facts:

- introduction of concepts and designations;

- identification of patterns in the connections and relationships of objects of knowledge;

- identifying common features objects of knowledge and their reduction into general classes on these grounds;

- the primary formulation of the initial theoretical provisions.

Thus, empirical level scientific knowledge contains two components:

1.A sensual experience.

2.Primary theoretical understanding sensory experience .

The basis of the content of empirical scientific knowledge received in sensory experience, are the scientific facts... If any fact, as such, is a reliable, single, independent event or phenomenon, then a scientific fact is a fact firmly established, reliably confirmed and correctly described by methods accepted in science.

A scientific fact, revealed and recorded by the methods accepted in science, has a coercive force for the system of scientific knowledge, that is, it subordinates to itself the logic of the reliability of the study.

Thus, at the empirical level of scientific knowledge, an empirical base of research is formed, whose reliability is formed by the coercive force of scientific facts.

Empirical level scientific knowledge uses the following methods:

1. Observation. Scientific observation is a system of measures for the sensory collection of information about the properties of the studied object of knowledge. The main methodological condition for correct scientific observation is the independence of the observation results from the conditions and process of observation. The fulfillment of this condition ensures both the objectivity of observation and the implementation of its main function - the collection of empirical data in their natural, natural state.

Observations by the way of conducting are divided into:

– immediate(information is obtained directly by the senses);

– indirect(the human senses are replaced by technical means).

2. Measurement.

2. Methods of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

Scientific observation is always accompanied by measurement. Measurement is a comparison of any physical quantity of the object of knowledge with the reference unit of this quantity. Measurement is a sign of scientific activity, since any research becomes scientific only when measurements take place in it.

Depending on the nature of the behavior of certain properties of an object in time, measurements are divided into:

– static, in which the time-constant quantities ( external dimensions bodies, weight, hardness, constant pressure, specific heat, density, etc.);

– dynamic, in which the time-varying quantities (oscillation amplitudes, pressure drops, temperature changes, changes in quantity, saturation, rate, growth rates, etc.) are found.

According to the method of obtaining the results, measurements are divided into:

– straight(direct measurement of the quantity measuring instrument);

– indirect(by mathematical calculation of a value from its known ratios with any value obtained by direct measurements).

The purpose of a measurement is to express the properties of an object in quantitative characteristics, translate them into linguistic form and make them the basis of a mathematical, graphic or logical description.

3. Description... The measurement results are used for the scientific description of the object of knowledge. A scientific description is a reliable and accurate picture of the object of knowledge, displayed by means of a natural or artificial language. .

The purpose of the description is to translate sensory information into a form that is convenient for rational processing: into concepts, into signs, into diagrams, into drawings, into graphs, into numbers, etc.

4. Experiment... An experiment is a research impact on an object of knowledge to identify new parameters of its known properties or to identify its new, previously unknown properties. Experiment differs from observation in that the experimenter, unlike the observer, interferes with the natural state of the object of cognition, actively influences both itself and the processes in which this object participates.

By the nature of the goals set, experiments are subdivided into:

– research that are aimed at discovering new, unknown properties of an object;

– verification, which serve to check or confirm certain theoretical constructions.

According to the methods of carrying out and tasks for obtaining a result, experiments are divided into:

– quality which are of a search nature, set the task of identifying the very presence or absence of certain theoretically assumed phenomena, and are not aimed at obtaining quantitative data;

– quantitative, which are aimed at obtaining accurate quantitative data about the object of knowledge or about the processes in which it participates.

After the completion of empirical knowledge, the theoretical level of scientific knowledge begins.

THEORETICAL LEVEL OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE is the processing of empirical data by thinking using the abstract work of thought.

Thus, the theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, inferences, ideas, theories, laws, categories, principles, premises, conclusions, conclusions, etc.

The predominance of the rational moment in theoretical knowledge is achieved by abstraction- the distraction of consciousness from sensually perceived specific objects and the transition to abstract representations.

Abstract views are subdivided into:

1. Identification abstractions- grouping of many objects of knowledge into separate species, genera, classes, orders, etc. according to the principle of the identity of their any of the most essential features (minerals, mammals, Compositae, chordates, oxides, proteinaceous, explosive, liquids, amorphous, subatomic, etc.).

Abstractions of identification make it possible to discover the most common and essential forms of interactions and connections between objects of cognition, and then move from them to particular manifestations, modifications and variants, revealing the full completeness of the processes occurring between objects. material world.

Disregarding the insignificant properties of objects, the abstraction of identification makes it possible to translate concrete empirical data into an idealized and simplified system of abstract objects for the purposes of cognition, capable of participating in complex operations of thinking.

2. Isolating abstractions... Unlike abstractions of identification, these abstractions distinguish into separate groups not objects of cognition, but their general properties or characteristics (hardness, electrical conductivity, solubility, impact strength, melting point, boiling point, freezing point, hygroscopicity, etc.).

Isolating abstractions also make it possible to idealize empirical experience for cognition and express it in terms that can participate in complex thinking operations.

Thus, the transition to abstractions allows theoretical knowledge to provide thinking with generalized abstract material for obtaining scientific knowledge about the whole variety of real processes and objects of the material world, which could not have been done, limited only by empirical knowledge, without distraction from each of these innumerable objects or processes. ...

As a result of abstraction, the following become possible METHODS OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE:

1. Idealization... Idealization is mental creation of objects and phenomena unrealizable in reality to simplify the research process and build scientific theories.

For example: the concept of a point or material point, which are used to denote objects that do not have dimensions; introduction of various conventional concepts, such as: perfectly flat surface, ideal gas, absolutely black body, absolutely solid, absolute density, inertial frame of reference, etc. to illustrate scientific ideas; orbit of an electron in an atom, pure formula chemical without admixtures and other concepts impossible in reality, created to explain or formulate scientific theories.

Idealizations are expedient:

- when it is necessary to simplify the investigated object or phenomenon to build a theory;

- when it is necessary to exclude from consideration those properties and connections of the object that do not affect the essence of the planned research results;

- when the real complexity of the research object exceeds the existing scientific capabilities of its analysis;

- when the real complexity of the objects of research makes it impracticable or complicates their scientific description;

Thus, in theoretical knowledge, a real phenomenon or an object of reality is always replaced by its simplified model.

That is, the method of idealization in scientific knowledge is inextricably linked with the method of modeling.

2. Modeling... Theoretical modeling is replacing a real object with its analogue, performed by means of language or mentally.

The main condition for modeling is that the created model of the object of cognition, due to the high degree of its correspondence to reality, would allow:

- to carry out researches of the object which are not feasible in real conditions;

- to conduct research on objects, in principle, inaccessible in real experience;

- conduct research on an object that is directly inaccessible at the moment;

- to reduce the cost of research, reduce it in time, simplify its technology, etc .;

- to optimize the process of building a real object by running in the process of building a prototype model.

Thus, theoretical modeling performs two functions in theoretical knowledge: it examines the modeled object and develops a program of actions for its material embodiment (construction).

3. Thought experiment... Thought experiment is mental conduct over the object of knowledge unrealizable in reality research procedures.

It is used as a theoretical testing ground for planned real research activities, or for the study of phenomena or situations in which a real experiment is generally impossible (for example, the quantum physics, theory of relativity, social, military or economic models development, etc.).

4. Formalization... Formalization is logical organization of content scientific knowledge by means artificial language special symbols (signs, formulas).

Formalization allows:

- to bring the theoretical content of the research to the level of general scientific symbols (signs, formulas);

- to transfer the theoretical reasoning of the research into the plane of operating with symbols (signs, formulas);

- to create a generalized sign-symbolic model of the logical structure of the phenomena and processes under study;

- to carry out formal research of the object of cognition, that is, to carry out research by operating with signs (formulas) without directly referring to the object of cognition.

5. Analysis and synthesis... Analysis is the mental decomposition of the whole into its component parts, with the following goals:

- study of the structure of the object of knowledge;

- dismemberment of a complex whole into simple parts;

- separation of the essential from the insignificant as part of the whole;

- classification of objects, processes or phenomena;

- highlighting the stages of a process, etc.

The main purpose of analysis is the study of parts as elements of a whole.

The parts, cognized and comprehended in a new way, are added into a whole with the help of synthesis - a method of reasoning that constructs new knowledge about the whole from the unification of its parts.

Thus, analysis and synthesis are inseparably linked mental operations as part of the cognitive process.

6. Induction and deduction.

Induction is a cognitive process in which knowledge of individual facts in the aggregate leads to knowledge of the general.

Deduction is a cognitive process in which each next statement logically follows from the previous one.

The above methods of scientific knowledge make it possible to reveal the most profound and essential connections, patterns and characteristics of objects of knowledge, on the basis of which there are FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE - ways of aggregate presentation of research results.

The main forms of scientific knowledge are:

1. The problem is a theoretical or practical scientific question that needs to be addressed... A correctly formulated problem partially contains a solution, since it is formulated based on the actual possibility of its solution.

2. Hypothesis - the supposed way possible solution Problems. A hypothesis can act not only in the form of assumptions of a scientific nature, but also in the form of an expanded concept or theory.

3. Theory is an integral system of concepts that describes and explains any area of ​​reality.

Scientific theory is the highest form of scientific knowledge, passing in its formation the stage of posing a problem and putting forward a hypothesis, which is refuted or confirmed by the use of methods of scientific knowledge.

There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first step of the cognitive process is the definition of what we do not know. It is important to clearly and rigorously define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. The problem(from the Greek Problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that needs to be resolved.

The second step in is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - an assumption). Hypothesis - this is a scientifically sound assumption that needs to be tested.

If a hypothesis is proved by a large number of facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory Is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such are, for example, evolutionary theory, theory of relativity, quantum theory and etc.

When choosing the best theory, the degree of testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly found ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.

Scientific facts

A distinction should be made between objective and scientific facts. Objective fact Is a real-life object, process or event that has taken place. For example, the death of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. Scientific fact is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of the generally accepted system of knowledge.

Assessments oppose facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. In scientific facts, the objective myrtaka is usually fixed as it is, and the assessments reflect the subjective position of a person, his interests, the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.

Most of the difficulties for science arise during the transition from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or discard it as incorrect.

Method(from the Greek. methodos - the path to the goal) is called a rule, a method, a way of knowing. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allow one to investigate an object. F. Bacon called the method "a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark."

Methodology Is a broader concept and can be defined as:

• a set of methods used in any science;
• general teaching about the method.

Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical ways of knowing) and theoretical (logical procedures).

Empirical methods of cognition

The basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and the data of devices. These methods include:

• observation- purposeful perception of phenomena without interfering with them;
• experiment- the study of phenomena in a controlled and controlled environment;
• measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured quantity to
• standard (for example, meter);
• comparison- identification of similarities or differences between objects or their features.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even a simple observation requires preliminary theoretical foundations - the choice of an object for observation, the formulation of a hypothesis, etc.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods rely on rational knowledge (concept, judgment, inference) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

• analysis- the process of mental or real dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
• synthesis - the connection of the sides of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
• - combining various objects into groups based on common characteristics (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
• abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object in order to in-depth study of one specific side of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
• formalization - display of knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
• analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain relationship based on their similarity in a number of other relationships;
• modeling- creation and study of a substitute (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);
• idealization- the creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it ( geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
• deduction - movement from general to specific;
• induction- movement from the particular (facts) to the general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical evidence. So, although induction itself is theoretical logical operation, it still requires an experimental verification of each particular fact, therefore it is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All of the above methods are techniques (specific rules, algorithms of action).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Approach methods can include many different techniques. Such are the structural-functional method, hermeneutic, etc. The most general methods-approaches are philosophical methods:

• metaphysical- consideration of an object in mowing, statics, out of connection with other objects;
• dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interconnection, internal contradiction and unity.

The absolutization of one method as the only true one is called dogma(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical jumble of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.

Question number 10

The empirical level of scientific knowledge: its methods and forms

Methods of scientific knowledge are usually subdivided according to the degree of their generality, i.e. by the breadth of applicability in the process of scientific research.

Method concept(from the Greek word "methodos" - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical mastering of reality guided by which a person can achieve the intended goal. Possession of a method means for a person the knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice. The main function of the method is to regulate cognitive and other forms of activity.

There is a whole area of ​​knowledge that is specifically engaged in the study of methods and which is usually called methodology... Methodology literally means "teaching about methods."

General scientific methods are used in various fields of science, that is, they have a very wide, interdisciplinary range of applications.

The classification of general scientific methods is closely related to the concept of levels of scientific knowledge.

Distinguish two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. This difference is based on the dissimilarity, firstly, of the methods (methods) of the cognitive activity itself, and secondly, the nature of the achieved scientific results. Some general scientific methods are applied only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - both at the empirical and theoretical levels.

Empirical level scientific cognition is characterized by a direct study of real-life, sensually perceived objects. At this level of research, a person directly interacts with the studied natural or social objects. Live contemplation (sensory cognition) prevails here. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by means of observations, performing various measurements, and setting up experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the actual data obtained is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc.

However, to explain the real process of cognition, empiricism is forced to turn to the apparatus of logic and mathematics (primarily to inductive generalization) to describe experimental data as a means of constructing theoretical knowledge. The limitations of empiricism consist in exaggerating the role of sensory cognition and experience and in underestimating the role of scientific abstractions and theories in cognition. So uh The empirical research is usually based on a certain theoretical structure, which determines the direction of this research, determines and justifies the methods used in this case.

Referring to philosophical aspect This issue should be noted such philosophers of the New Time as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes and D. Locke. Francis Bacon said that the path leading to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment. John Locke believed that all our knowledge we draw from experience and sensations.

While distinguishing these two different levels in scientific research, one should not, however, separate them from each other and oppose them. After all empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected between themselves. The empirical level acts as the basis, the theoretical foundation. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical comprehension of scientific facts, statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.) with which the empirical level of research deals.

features or forms of empirical research

The main forms in which scientific knowledge exists are: problem, hypothesis, theory. But this chain of forms of knowledge cannot exist without factual material and practical activity to test scientific assumptions. Empirical, experimental research masters an object with the help of such techniques and means as description, comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction, and its most important element is a fact (from Latin factum - done, accomplished). Any scientific research begins with collection, systematization and generalization facts.

Science facts- facts of reality, reflected, verified and recorded in the language of science. Falling into the field of vision of scientists, fact of science gives rise to theoretical thought ... A fact becomes scientific when it is an element of the logical structure of a specific system of scientific knowledge, is included in this system.

In understanding the nature of a fact in modern methodology of science, two extreme tendencies are distinguished: factualism and theorism... If the first emphasizes the independence and autonomy of facts in relation to various theories, then the second, on the contrary, asserts that facts are completely dependent on theory and when theories change, the entire factual basis of science changes. The correct solution to the problem is that a scientific fact, having a theoretical load, is relatively independent of theory, since it is basically determined by material reality. The paradox of theoretical loading of facts is resolved as follows. Knowledge is involved in the formation of a fact, which is verified independently of the theory, and facts provide an incentive for the formation of new theoretical knowledge. The latter, in turn - if they are reliable - can again participate in the formation the latest facts, etc.

Thus, empirical experience never - especially in modern science - is blind: he planned, constructed by theory, and facts are always theoretically loaded in one way or another. Therefore, the starting point, the beginning of science, is, strictly speaking, not objects in themselves, not naked facts (even in their totality), but theoretical schemes, "conceptual frameworks of reality." They consist of abstract objects ("ideal constructs") of various kinds - postulates, principles, definitions, conceptual models, etc.

methods of scientific knowledge

Studying the phenomena and the connections between them, empirical knowledge is able to detect the operation of an objective law... But it captures this action, as a rule, in the form of empirical dependencies, which should be distinguished from the theoretical law as special knowledge obtained as a result of the theoretical study of objects. Empirical addiction is the result inductive generalization of experience and represents probabilistically true knowledge. Empirical research studies phenomena and their correlations in which it can capture the manifestation of a law. But in its pure form, it is given only as a result of theoretical research.

Let us turn to the methods that are applied at the empirical level of scientific knowledge.

Observation is a deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct interference in their course, subordinate to the tasks of scientific research... The basic requirements for scientific observation are as follows:

• 1) the unambiguity of the goal, design;
• 2) consistency in observation methods;
• 3) objectivity;
• 4) the ability to control either by repeated observation or by experiment.