Man as the supreme being differs in philosophy. The concept of man in modern philosophy

Man- the result of not only terrestrial biological, but also the entire cosmic evolution. Man is not only an earthly, but also a cosmic being. The cosmic destiny of man was determined in Russian cosmism.

Man is a biosocial being.

According to irrationalism, the essence of man is will.

The duality of man is that it has body and psyche.

Specificity philosophical approach is to recognize the person being capable of self-improvement.

Individual - characterized by bodily and spiritual integrity and acts as a specific subject of activity.

In the process of socialization, a person is formed as personality.

A set of stable personality traits that determine typical behavior - character.

Moral center of personality conscience.

culture of personality lies in the system of moral norms.

Regulatory approved behavior role.

The process of becoming a person goes two ways:

1. Socialization- this is the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, social norms, knowledge, skills that allow him to function in society.

2. Individualization- the acquisition of specific personality traits.

The main approaches to the problem of the origin of man:

The main approaches to the problem of human origin: religious, scientific and philosophical approaches.

creationism(rel.) - the doctrine according to which man arose as a result of purposeful creative actions of God.

biological concept- the scientific doctrine according to which man descended from common ancestors with monkeys.

Labor concept- the teaching of Engels, according to which labor turned ape-like ancestors into people.

genetic (mutational)) - a scientific doctrine according to which primates turned into humans due to mutations.

Anthropogene h - the process of formation and development of man.

sociogenesis- the process of formation and development of society.

Basic concepts of human essence

AT ancient Greek philosophy: man is a microcosm.

Aristotle: the essence of a person is those of his properties that cannot be changed so that he does not cease to be himself.

Aristotle: man is a political animal

Plato: the duality of man: body and soul.

AT religious philosophy and in religion: man is a divine creation.

AT Christianity Man is the image and likeness of God.

AT Renaissance philosophy Man is like God in his creativity. Man is a being creative.

AT philosophy of modern times the body is seen as a machine, a mechanism.

Kant divided anthropology into physiological and pragmatic, the first explores what nature makes of a person, the second - what a person makes of himself.

Hegel: man is a subjective spirit, the highest stage of development of the objective spirit

The main approaches in the philosophy of man

1. Naturalization approach: the study of man as a special biological beings( positivism, neobehaviorism, bioethics, Freudianism);

2.Existential approach: the study of individual human existence, irreducible to the general laws of human existence ( existentialism, personalism, phenomenology)

3. Sociological approach considers a person in the system of public relations

Marxism- man as the totality of all human relations, the subject of social practice (transformative activity)

Structuralization m considers a person as an element and a function social structures(political, ideological, semantic)

Nietzsche: man is sick animal.

Cassirer: man is symbolic creature.

Haizengi: Human - playing creature.

Man has gone through a process of complex biological, cultural and social evolution. Its essential feature is activity, which involves the awareness of personal and social needs, the promotion of goals and their implementation. In a variety of activities, the transforming skill of a person is honed, knowledge of the surrounding world and oneself is deepened, science, technology, and technology are developing.

A person creates all the wealth of civilization, but he himself becomes dependent on them, faced with aggravated global issues. Awareness and practical steps towards the preservation and development of the main thing - the spiritual culture of man and society, ideas about benefit, truth, goodness, beauty, and justice - come to the fore. In understanding the highest values, the deep essence of man and society is revealed, their relationship is outlined, the meaning of being is revealed.

The essence of man

The set of features and characteristics that distinguish it from other living beings is called the nature of man. The list of such special qualities can be endless. Freedom, spirituality, faith, imagination and fantasy, laughter, awareness of one's mortality, and many other properties and qualities are often added to reason, work, language, morality. The main quality of a person, his "deep core" is called the essence of man. Consider some essential definitions of a person.

Public animal. Named the man ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), who believed that a person realizes his essence only in social life, entering into economic, political, cultural relations with other people. At the same time, not only a person is a product of society, but society is also a product of human activity.

A reasonable person. This definition also goes back to Aristotle. Man, in his opinion, is distinguished from the animal kingdom by his ability to think logically, to be aware of himself, his needs and the world around him. After the advent of biological classification, Homo sapiens became the standard designation for modern man.

A person who creates. An animal creates something in accordance with a program given by instinct (for example, a spider weaves a web), and a person is able to create something completely new according to programs created by himself. A person actively produces, creates, and his activity is purposeful, has a value meaning. In this understanding, a man became a man when he made the first tool of labor.

The person playing. Not a single type of cultural activity can do without game components - justice, war, philosophy, art, etc. Not only labor made a man a man, but also free play time, where he could realize his fantasies, develop his imagination, create artistic values, communicate, and voluntarily accept general rules.

Religious person. A person has the ability to give the surrounding phenomena a sacred meaning, to give them a special meaning, to believe in the supernatural. All notable societies, including the most primitive, have certain systems of beliefs.

Some theories see the inferiority, the insufficiency of man. The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) called him sick animals, emphasizing the weakness of a person, his lack of initiative, herding, the need for submission and false ideals. Nietzsche viewed the history of society as a gradual degeneration of man. Some social scientists talk about the unreasonableness of man, since his behavior leads to the destruction of the habitat, the accumulation of weapons, overpopulation, man-made disasters.

Human nature is so multifaceted that it is necessary to talk about the fundamental uncertainty and indeterminacy of man. In this regard, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881) best described the essence of man: “ Man is a mystery...

Development of views on the essence of man

Man, as a thinking and active being, was born and developed in unity with other people, being a member of society. Outside of society, the existence and development of man, the satisfaction of material and spiritual needs by it, is impossible. But each person and any society as a whole live not only but social laws. They grew out of nature, they are part of it, they obey its laws, they must take care of its preservation. Coordination, unity, harmony of social and natural principles are the immutable laws of the existence of man and society.

Understanding the meaning of human history, state of the art society and the prospects for its further evolution is impossible without penetration into the essence, nature)" of man himself.

A person is studied by various sciences: biology, anthropology, physiology, medicine, psychology, logic, political science, ethics, economics, jurisprudence, etc. But none of them individually, nor their sum, can determine the essence of a person as a special representative of nature, the world, Universe. The essence is revealed by analyzing and generalizing all the main sides, aspects of human existence. That is why the problem of man appears as one of the main, if not the central problem that has existed throughout the history of world philosophical and sociological thought. Especially, but it is updated in turning points development of society, when the most acute question arises about the meaning of the existence of both society and each person. It is such a period that our national history is going through today.

Thinkers ancient india represented a person as a part of the cosmos, connected with him both bodily and spiritually, obeying the general laws dictated by world mind(brahmin). Man, his soul obey the order of the cycle of life (samsara), the law of retribution (karma). For the great Chinese thinker Confucius, human development was determined by the divine sky guiding the morality of people along the path of humanity, respect, respect, justice, compliance with the requirements of etiquette, etc.

Many philosophers Ancient Greece and ancient rome connected the life path of man with cosmic predestination. The conquest of the world was considered the destiny of man. order of things. The most distinctly fatalistic ideas sounded in the philosophical works of the Stoics (Zeno, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius). Turn to Knowledge own essence a person is associated with the ideas of the sophists. Their representative Protagoras declared that "man is the measure of all things." Socrates proclaimed the principle "know thyself".

In ancient times, different approaches were outlined to understand the relationship between the bodily and spiritual nature of man. If in the East the body and soul of a person were considered organically connected, for example, spiritual development assumed special physical exercises, mode of life, etc., then in ancient Greece the soul and body were considered as special forms of being. According to Plato, the human soul is immortal, it lives in the world of ideas, settles in the body for a certain period, and after the death of the body returns to the ideal abode. Aristotle tried to "reconcile" the two cities

ny of human existence, declaring man a "reasonable animal".

Under the conditions of the medieval domination of religion, a person was considered as a special being, created "in the image and likeness" of God, exalted above the world and endowed with free will(Augustine the Blessed, Thomas Aquinas). But a person, using his free will, commits sins, and a sinful person must constantly take care of the upcoming supreme judgment, considering his earthly existence as temporary, not the main thing, as just a preparation for an ideal eternal life. Obedience to divine law was declared necessary form public life.

The Renaissance raised the question of self-worth, intrinsic value human existence, its bodily and spiritual beauty, creative purpose (N. Kuzansky, M. Montaigne).

New time brought to the fore philosophical reasoning cognitive human abilities (F. Bacon, R. Descartes). The human mind, science were considered as the main engines of social progress.

The ideologists of the Enlightenment (Voltaire, D. Diderot) tied together the mind and morality of man, brought to the fore humanistic approach to solving social problems.

In German classical philosophy, man became the central object of study. I. Kant tried to approve a person as independent the beginning, the source of one's own cognitive and practical activities. The initial principle of his behavior in society was considered to be an innate moral command - to act in such a way that a person's actions could serve as a standard for universal legislation. In the philosophy of G. W. F. Hegel, a person is subject to the action of a comprehensive absolute mind dictating laws to nature and society. L. Feuerbach asserted the inherent value of human being as a natural being guided by love to other people.

However, already at that time, the dangers associated with an uncritical attitude to the growth of the possibilities of cognition and science were recognized. The essence of man began to communicate with irrational"unreasonable" factors: the will to live (A. Schopenhauer); will to power (F. Nietzsche); vital impulse (A. Bergson); intimate-mystical self-knowledge (J. Gilson, J. Maritain, J. P. Sartre); unconscious instincts (3. Freud); and etc.

Marxism (K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin) brought to the fore the socio-economic, class side of the person. The economic position of a person in society, determined primarily by the form of ownership of the means of production, was declared to determine the social, political, and spiritual predilections of the individual. The meaning of human life was seen in defending certain class interests, serving the ideals of socialism and communism.

In the history of Russian philosophy, there are two main approaches to the problem of man. The first approach has a materialistic and revolutionary orientation, is associated with the ideas of a radical transformation of Russian reality (V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky). The second approach has a religious character, aimed at improving the world in accordance with the ideals of Christianity (F. M. Dostoevsky, L. II. Tolstoy, V. S. Solovyov, II. A. Berdyaev). AT modern conditions Philosophy shtet options associations efforts of different philosophical views on the nature of man and his relationship with society in order to determine the most effective strategies for the survival of mankind in the face of global threats - environmental, moral, military, etc. The problems of the cosmic, universal essence of man and mankind are exciting. As a result, there is increasing attention to scientific research anthroposociogenesis.

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Philosophy, its meaning, functions and role in society. Basic ideas of the history of world philosophy. Being as a central category in philosophy. Man as the main philosophical problem. Problems of consciousness, the doctrine of cognition. Spiritual and social life of man.

What is a person in terms of philosophy?

1. Man is the universe in the universe! And there are no less mysteries in it than in the universe. Moreover, man is the main secret of the universe. And if we are talking about inexhaustibility for knowledge material world all the more inexhaustible is man the crown of nature's creativity. The mystery of this phenomenon becomes greater the more we try to penetrate it. However, the abyss of this problem not only does not scare away from her, but, on the contrary, attracts her more and more strongly, like a magnet.

   Mankind has always strived to build a holistic philosophical image of man. What is included in philosophical knowledge about a human? The philosophical approach to man involves the identification of his essence, the concrete historical determination of the forms of his activity, the disclosure of various historically existing forms of his being. Philosophy reveals the place of a person in the world and his attitude to the world, analyzes the question of what a person can become by expanding his capabilities, what is the ratio of biological and social in him, what is a person as a person, what is the structure of personality, what is the essence of socio-psychological personality types, etc.
   Manifestations of human nature are extremely diverse. it is mind, and will, and character, and emotions, and work, and communication. But which one is different? A person thinks, rejoices, suffers, loves and hates, constantly strives for something, achieves what he wants and, not being satisfied with it, rushes to new goals and ideals.

   Plato in his dialogues says: man is a two-legged animal without feathers. A man, indeed, without feathers, has two legs. But in this comic definition, the basic essence of man is lost sight of. As B. Pascal noted, a person does not lose his human nature when he loses two legs, and a rooster does not acquire human properties when he loses his feathers. And according to F. M. Dostoevsky, ... the best definition of a person is: a creature on two legs and ungrateful. Let's think about what is the most distinctive sign for a person. This sign is first of all labor. Labor is not just a distinctive, but an essential feature of a person.

   In labor, a person constantly changes the conditions of his existence, transforming them in accordance with his constantly developing needs, creates a world of material and spiritual culture, which is created by a person to the same extent that a person himself is shaped by culture.

   If one could imagine even for a moment that there was and is no science, literature and all kinds of art, as well as philosophy, religion, then something will appear before us, as it were, shrunken in its experience to poverty. And this drying up of human experience will turn out to be so catastrophic that the social developed person. Only some ugly semblance of him remains. Labor is impossible in a single manifestation and from the very beginning acts as a collective, social one. Everyone, like a bee in a hive, must replenish the material and spiritual wealth of society with his contribution. I. Fichte believed, for example, that the concept of a person does not refer to a single person, because one cannot be conceived, but only to a genus: it is impossible to analyze the properties of an individual person, taken by himself, outside of relations with other people, i.e. outside of society. http://filosof2.ru/chelovek-i-ego-bytie/94-obshhee-ponyatie-o-cheloveke.html

2. An individual who is in society as his habitat, who is a participant in the development of the cultural process and the bearer of free will, who makes decisions in accordance with the moral imperative of his personality.
3. A living being with the gift of thinking and speech, the ability to create tools and use them in the process of social labor
4. http://yandex.ru/video/search?filmId=XyedlKCz0Cwamp;text=People are x. uy on a platter
5. An object for contemplation.
6. From the point of view of philosophy - Microcosm.

When discussing the first question "Man as a subject of philosophical analysis", it should be said that the problem of man as a unique creation of the Universe belongs to the "eternal" philosophical problems, since any philosophical tradition is based on the relationship of man to the world. We pose questions: "Who is a person, what is his essence, signs, functions?", "What is a person?", "Who am I?". This problem is difficult and complex, and the denouement is very important both for the individual in his life and for society. According to the French thinker B. Pascal, "the most incomprehensible phenomenon of nature is man." The 20th century did not bring clarity. Man is still a mystery in the world and may be the "greatest mystery".

If we take into account that a person in his various guises is studied by many sciences: biology, medicine, sociology, etc., then only philosophy studies a person from the point of view of his integrity, in the unity of biosocial essence. The problem of man is central in all philosophical directions throughout their history.

What images of man existed in the history of philosophical thought?

In ancient philosophical thought, a person was considered mainly as a part of the cosmos, as a kind of microcosm, in its human manifestations subordinate to a higher principle, so we can say that the image of a person in ancient philosophy cosmocentric.

In the system of the Christian worldview, a person began to be perceived as a being in which two hypostases are initially inextricably and contradictoryly connected: spirit and body, qualitatively opposite to each other as sublime and base. The medieval image of man is geocentric, not cosmocentric, as in antiquity. Man does not believe in himself, he believes in God. His eyes are turned to the other world. Christianity put forward, instead of the reason of antiquity, another main sign of man - the heart and the main sign of humanity - love. However, this is not the love of a person for another person, but love for God.

Renaissance philosophy(Renaissance) analyzes a person as an autonomous being, as a living integrity. In this era, humanism and anthropocentrism arise, glorifying man as the highest value. Man is a value.

Philosophy of the New Age focuses on the spiritual essence of man. Man is a rational and moral being capable of creative development, knowledge of the secrets of the laws of nature and the active use of this knowledge in practical-transformative activities. The image of a man of the New Age is anthropocentric. God is relegated to the background of human life. The man now believes in himself. The main sphere of human activity in the era of the New Age is knowledge, the main thing is rationalism, which laid the foundation for experimental science.

The world is governed by laws that correspond to the laws of the human mind.

German philosophy in the person of Hegel develops the idea of ​​the historicity of man. For him, a person is a bearer of a universally significant spirit, a subject of cognitive and historical activity, creating a world of culture.

L. Feuerbach consider a person as a sensual-bodily being.

In the philosophy of Marxism, however, man was considered not only as a natural being, but also as a social being living in society. Society, on the one hand, will be created by a person, on the other hand, it forms a person, socializes him.

The irrational idea of ​​the essence of man became the most widespread in the 20th century.

"Philosophy of Life" (Nietzsche, Bergson) brings to the fore the will, intuition. Consciousness is often opposed to the unconscious.

Freud raises the unconscious above the conscious. He sees the origins of religion, culture, everything human in the unconscious.

Phenomenology (Husserl) seeks to overcome the isolation of the individual, believes that experiences are initially directed to the outside world.

A surge in the study of the human problem falls on the beginning of the 20th century (the works of M. Scheler, H. Plesner, A. Gehlen). Under the influence of their ideas, philosophical anthropology becomes a special discipline.

Existentialists (Sartre, Camus) are trying to "save man", isolating him from life, from those real connections that a person has with the world of nature and society. Fear, longing and despair repel him from being, a person closes in himself, in his loneliness.

In the Ukrainian and Russian philosophical tradition, anthropological motives have always been leading, determining the specifics and nature of all spiritual life (G.S. Skovoroda, V.S. Soloviev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.D. Tolstoy, N.A. etc.).

Modern Ukrainian philosophers (V.I. Shynkaruk, M.V. Popovich, V.G. Tabachkovsky) preserve and develop the anthropological direction, exploring actual problems person.

At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. the problem of man becomes central in philosophical knowledge. There is a heightened attention to what is called "existential problems" in philosophy, questions about the meaning of life and the value of human existence. On the contrary, interest in ontology and epistemology as parts of philosophical knowledge is noticeably declining. Why is this happening?

The problem of man acquires particular relevance in those periods of the development of history, when the question of the meaning of life is acute and the existence of not only an individual, but of the whole society was going on. It is such a period that both domestic and world history is going through.

The term "anthropology" means the doctrine of man, and philosophical anthropology, respectively, the philosophical doctrine of man, or the philosophy of man.

Philosophical anthropology direction dealing with the study of man, his nature and essence.

When discussing the second question "The problem of the origin of man, his essence and existence. The meaning of life as a function of human existence. Death and immortality," one should pay attention to the fact that philosophy, defining the essence of man, concludes that man is a rational being, that he is the subject of labor , social relations and communication of people with each other, i.e., a social being. Conscious vital activity directly distinguishes a person from. animal life. The question arises of how the formation of man as a rational, social and active being proceeded. Theories explaining the origin of man as a biological species are called theories of anthropogenesis, and theories about the development of man as a rational, social being are called anthroposociogenesis.

The essence of man is the totality of it social qualities, due to the specific historical situation (see diagram 76).

As a phenomenon, man is richer than essence, he is a biopsychosocial being. Its essence must be considered in interaction with action. The first means his relatively stable main quality, the second means his ways of life, changing depending on the circumstances. At the individual level, a person is a unity of three components:

• - biological (anatomical and physiological inclinations, type nervous system, gender and age characteristics, etc.);
• - mental (feelings, imagination, memory, thinking, will, character, etc.);
• - social (worldview, value attitudes, moral traits, knowledge and skills, etc.). Man - a representative of Homo sapiens, genetically related to other forms of life, is endowed with reason, reflection, speech, and the ability to create tools. He is a unique being open to the world, unique, spiritually incomplete), universal (morphologically capable of any kind of activity), integral (integrates the physical, mental and spiritual principles). A person is a living system (see diagram 77).



The philosophical problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in human nature is not abstract, but is at the intersection of many modern disputes. So, for example, such a question: "Features of female and male behavior, psyche and thinking are biologically or socially determined?" AT modern philosophy, sociology and cultural studies there is the concept of "tender". If the concept of "sex" captures the biological and physiological differences between a man and a woman, then "gender" describes the social and cultural differences between the sexes, not inherited, but acquired in society.

Gender- social, cultural gender. A concept that characterizes the behavior of a man and a woman, which is not genetically inherited, but acquired in the process of socialization. -

To find out the essence of a person, it is necessary, first of all, to find out the concepts that reflect his essence. The problem of man lies in the contradictory unity of his biosocial characteristics. Here one should clearly distinguish between such concepts as "man", "individual", "personality", "individuality".

We use the scheme (see scheme 78).



Man- the highest stage of development of living organisms on Earth, the subject of labor, social form life, communication and consciousness.

Man- a representative of a biological species, but a special species, for which culture has become a means of adapting to the environment.

Man- a concept that characterizes the qualities and abilities inherent in the entire human race (both biological and social).

In philosophy, another concept is used to characterize a person - "individual".

Individual- a term denoting an individual person as a representative and carrier of the human race, this is a set of biological generic characteristics of a person (we are born as an individual).

But we become a real person (possessing consciousness, abstract thinking, speech, human feelings, capable of work) under the influence of society, interaction with other people, under the influence of social factors.

Life, development, upbringing in society is the main condition for the normal development of a person, the development in him of precisely human qualities, psyche and behavior, transformation into a personality. For many centuries, the concept of personality has been used to characterize the spiritual beginning of a person.

Personality- a concept denoting a person as a representative of society, a set of spiritual properties of a person, his inner spiritual content. One of the main characteristics of a person is his independence in decision-making and responsibility for their results. The core of the personality structure is the worldview as a property of a social and thinking being. The worldview is formed by a person's awareness of objective reality, as well as as a result of self-awareness of the individual.

Ideas about a perfect person in different cultures. For this, consider historical types personality.

Reflections on the perfect man have always been an important topic of philosophical and anthropological research. But in different cultures, their own emphasis was placed on the main qualities of a perfect person:

• - in ancient Chinese philosophy, the ideal of a "noble man" included the highest moral qualities, humanity, mercy, fortitude, respect for people, modesty and disinterestedness (Confucianism);
• - in ancient Indian philosophy, a perfect person comprehends the "own nature" of the world, fulfills his duty, his karma;
• - in antiquity, a perfect person is a person who lives according to law and right; a perfect personality or "kalokagatiya" is a harmonious combination of sublime morality, external and internal beauty with social and political maturity (Aristotle). A person endowed with health, a proportional physique, graceful movements, strength, the ability for creativity, for moral self-improvement, refusing external blessings and delving into himself, has peace of mind, wisdom;
• - in the Middle Ages, a perfect person has a perfect rational soul, striving to follow God's commandments;
• - in the Renaissance, a perfect person is endowed with a penchant for goodness and love, for establishing highly moral interpersonal relations, capable of appreciating someone else's life and dignity above all else (T. More);
• - in the Age of Enlightenment, the ideal of a person is a humane, virtuous, reasonable and enlightened person who follows the laws. "Bullets to the virtues through the improvement of laws" (Helvetius);
• - in German classical philosophy, a perfect person is the unity of spiritual and bodily perfection, an all-round, perfect educated person (L. Feuerbach);
• - in modern philosophical literature a perfect person is a harmonious unity of feeling and reason: justice, humanity, responsiveness, patriotism, love for the Motherland, God, people.

It is noted that the formation of a perfect person is directly related to the improvement social environment in which it develops.

It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that individuality and personality fix different sides socially significant qualities person.

In individuality, its originality is valued, in personality - independence, independence, strength. Socialization of personality - the process of formation of social qualities of a person.

Individuality indicates the originality of socially significant qualities.

Individuality- a concept that expresses the unique originality of a person, his difference from others.

Recognizing oneself as a person, distinguishing oneself from environment, a person involuntarily comes to the thought: why does he live, what is the meaning of his existence. The question of the meaning of life is the question of whether it is worth living? And if it's worth it, then why live? Awareness of the meaning of life as its main value is of a historical nature. Each era, to one degree or another, influenced the understanding of the meaning of human life. Let's turn to the table (see table 4).

Table 4





Understanding the meaning of life is diverse. Let's consider some of them:

• - the meaning of life is in love, in striving for the good of what is outside of man, in striving for harmony and unity of people (L.N. Tolstoy);
• - the meaning of life is to achieve the ideal of a person;
• - the meaning of life is to contribute to the solution of social development and the comprehensive development of the individual (Marxism);
• - meaning - in the struggle (V. Belinsky, P. Beaumarchais);
• - in action, in motion (J.-J. Rousseau);
• - in improving oneself and society (JG Fichte);
• - in service to society (N.S. Leskov);
• - in enriching mankind with knowledge (D. Diderot);
• - the meaning of life is in its aesthetic side, in achieving what is majestic, beautiful and strong in it, in achieving superhuman greatness (Nietzsche).

There are different approaches to determining the meaning of life, which form different concepts. Consider them by referring to the scheme (see scheme 79).



Meaning of life It is the choice of each individual. This is an independent conscious choice of those values ​​that (according to E. Fromm) orient a person not to have (setting to possess), but to be (setting to use all human potentialities).

In other words, the meaning of human life is in the self-realization of the individual, in the human need to create, give, share with others, sacrifice oneself for the sake of others. It can be said that the mission of human life is to reveal one's potential, to be able to find an opportunity for self-realization, to "put into circulation" one's talents.

Of course, these general ideas about the meaning of life must be transformed into the meaning of the life of each individual person.

The question of the meaning of life arises only when we realize our mortality. The finiteness of human existence is a natural law of nature. What has no death has no birth. So already in ancient Greek society, an idea was formed about the value of the life of each individual separately, the finiteness of his life in time. As A. Schopenhauer wrote, "People might not even begin to philosophize if there was no death." Death, therefore, acts as the "inspirer" of philosophy. Only the fact of death raises the question of the meaning of life. Life in this world makes sense precisely because there is death.

There are two most common polar views on death:

• 1. Death as a denial of the future, therefore, neither the past nor the future has any meaning. Hence the conclusion is drawn: take from the present everything that you can take.
• 2. Death as a transition from the past to eternity. To live, according to V. Frankl, means to create for eternity. Realizing this, a person should make the most of all his abilities and time in order to make his own contribution to history, thereby enriching the future. Therefore, death, like life, has meaning.

The philosophical meaning of death is that it is a moment of renewal, first of all, of the organic world, and then of the whole world. Death is a natural phenomenon, it has played a useful and necessary role in the course of a long biological evolution. Indeed, without death, which made possible the progress of organic species, man would never have appeared at all. There would be no death, a person would not think about eternity, would not "try on" himself to it, hoping for his own immortality. If there were no death, there would be no immortality, which owes its existence to it.

The Chinese philosopher Yang Zhu (c. 440-360 BC) said that death equalizes everyone: “During life, there are differences - these are the differences between smart and stupid, noble and low. In death there is identity - this is the identity of stench and decay , disappearances and annihilations... The ten-year-old and the hundred-year-old die; the virtuous and the wise die; both the evil and the stupid die. Death also has a moral and philosophical meaning. Awareness of the frailty of one's life makes a person find or give meaning to it. A person's doom to death can become an incentive to do good to people in order to leave a bright memory of his descendants, to "spur" a person to finish the work he has begun, especially if it is a manifestation of artistic or philosophical creativity. The moral paradox of life and death can be expressed in the ethical imperative: treat the living as if they were dying; treat the dead as if they were alive, i.e., always remember death as the mystery of life, always affirm both in life and in death. eternal life.

Man is immortal and eternal as a spiritual being only when he feels himself to be a spiritual being, when the spirit and spirituality that govern his natural, bodily elements win in him. Immortality is won by personality and there is a struggle for personality.

Discussing the issue of values, the problem of choice and free will, it should be noted that these are important philosophical issues that philosophical anthropology deals with.

Value- this is the attitude of an individual to an object, event or phenomenon as important, significant for a person.

The doctrine of values ​​and their nature is called axiology.

In ancient philosophy, goodness and justice were considered the main values. So, Aristotle divided values ​​into absolute (human, goodness, justice, courage, etc.) and relative - depending on gender, age, character, etc.

Medieval values ​​were such religious values ​​as piety, the achievement of divine truth, etc.

The Renaissance is marked by the values ​​and ideals of humanism.

The German philosopher Kant substantiated that the highest value is a person who must always be considered as an end and never as a means. Values ​​can also be the goals facing a person. The great German philosopher Hegel divided values ​​into economic (those that are goods) and spiritual, associated with the freedom of the spirit and not dependent on market conditions.

For man as a natural, bodily being, the highest value is his very life, or the value of life, or life as a value. The second of the highest values ​​is health. Third of the highest value orientations- this is freedom.

The freedom of the individual is her ability to act in accordance with her desires and intentions. The condition of individual freedom is the ability to choose this or that goal, this or that way of activity.

The condition for the freedom of the individual is the ability to choose, which in the history of philosophy was considered from different positions:

• - determinism;
• - indeterminism;
• - alternativeism.

Representatives of determinism believed that in any situation of choice there is only one real possibility, which determines the choice itself. The rest of the possibilities are only formal. An extreme manifestation of determinism is fatalism - a worldview based on the thesis of the absolute primordial predestination of all views and actions of a person. Fatalism thus denies any possibility of choice. The real path is only one that is predetermined either by a dark irrational fate, or blown by God, or by an inexorable combination of circumstances, the establishment of a rigid causal relationship.

Proponents of a different point of view of indeterminism- believe that a person has many possibilities and a person is completely free to choose one of them, without any coercion from outside.

An extreme variety of indeterminism is voluntarism, a branch of philosophy that recognizes the will of man as the highest principle of being. In socio-political practice, voluntarism does not take into account objective laws historical development, but is guided only by subjective desires and aspirations.

Third point of view- , recognizing that in each choice there are necessarily at least two (otherwise it will be a choice without a choice) real possibilities.

S. Montesquieu defined freedom as "the right to do everything that is permitted by laws", and the German poet M. Claudius believed that "freedom consists in the right to do everything that does not harm others."

Back in the 17th century, the philosopher Spinoza defined freedom as perceived need. Hegel revealed the dialectical unity of freedom and necessity. In the 20th century, the relationship "freedom-responsibility" comes to the fore. According to Sartre, human freedom consists in the right to choose one's attitude to the current situation: a person is free to either come to terms with his dependence on the surrounding reality, or rebel against it. A person shows freedom not so much in the fact that he can change the world, but first of all in the fact that he can change his attitude to the world, he can choose his every action, the free choice of his fate. The choice in each situation depends on the values ​​and goals of the person, and the person chooses the values ​​himself.

Basic concepts and terms

Axiology- philosophical doctrine of values ​​and their nature.

Tender- social, cultural gender. A concept that characterizes the behavior of a man and a woman, which is not genetically inherited, but acquired in the process of socialization.

Individual- This special person as a representative and bearer of the human race, it is a set of biological generic features of a person.

Individuality- the uniqueness of a person

Personality- a separate person with certain character traits, individual abilities and inclinations.

Morality- a set of views, ideas, norms and assessments of people's behavior in society in terms of good, evil, justice, injustice, honor and dishonor.

Fatalism- believes that in human history everything is predetermined by fate, that a person is not able to influence the predetermined course of events.

Value- the relationship between the subject and the object, in which the properties of the object are evaluated in accordance with the value orientations that the subject has.

Value Orientations these are political, philosophical, ideological, moral attitudes and beliefs of the subject.

Man- a concept that characterizes creature (homo sapiens) showing that or some degree of reasonableness.