7. Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century During the Seven Years' War, Russia's actions brought Prussia to the brink of a military catastrophe, and King Frederick II was preparing to make peace on any terms. He was saved by the death of Elizabeth, which followed on December 25, 1761.

In the 70-80s pp. XVIII Art. Russia was inferior in terms of development to the advanced European states, but new production relations were already forming in the country's feudal economy. Agriculture remained the main branch of the economy, which expanded during this period, primarily due to the development of land in the south, in the Middle and Lower Volga regions, Siberia, the southern part of the black earth center, Slobodskaya and Southern Ukraine, Ciscaucasia. The basis of agriculture, as before, was Trypillia. The agrotechnical level was low and routine. More than 90% of the country's population were peasants, mostly landlords.

In the 18th century noble landownership grew: 800 thousand so-called revision souls were distributed to the landowners, serfdom was strengthened and duties increased. However, capitalist relations of production gradually penetrated into agriculture: the peasants were transferred to a cash quitrent, vіdhіdnitstvo, there were manufactories belonging to the peasants.

The main brake on the development of agriculture was the dominance of serf relations.

In industry, manufactories were formed by expanding small commodity production and subordinating small commodity producers to buyers. Depending on the form of ownership, there were noble, merchant and peasant manufactories.

at the end of the century, Russia took the first place in Europe in the production and export of metallurgy products. Shipbuilding was an important industry. Shipyards operated in St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Voronezh, Kazan. Moscow and St. Petersburg were the centers of light industry. Some branches of light industry were formed in areas with a sufficient amount of raw materials: linen and sailing manufactories were created in Yaroslavl, near Kaluga, Kostroma, Voronezh, Kazan, Putivl, and the Vladimir province became the center of textile weaving. At the end of the century, there were more than 2,000 manufactories in Russia.

The total volume of foreign trade grew 5 times, while exports exceeded imports. Russia traded in grain, iron, wood, furs, and bought sugar, silk, paints, etc.

In the second half of the XVIII century. in all spheres of the economic life of Russia, not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes took place associated with the decomposition of serfdom and the formation of capitalist production relations, the development of commodity-money relations and the destruction of natural economy.

Despite the rather dynamic development of the Russian economy, its position was not brilliant. The inefficient economic system, the increasing extravagance of the imperial court, the embezzlement of officials, the excessive costs of maintaining the army, the constant unrest of peasants and workers, and other factors led to the financial bankruptcy of Russia. The state treasury was empty, and foreign creditors refused new loans. This was one of the reasons for the palace coup of 1762.

Emperor Peter ///(1728-1762) (Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, grandson of Peter I and Charles XII) was a peculiar person and pursued a controversial domestic and foreign policy. In 1742, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna officially proclaimed him heir to the Russian throne, and from the age of 14, Karl Ulrich (real name of Peter III) lived in Russia under the supervision of the Empress and his tutor, Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences J. Shtellin. However, they failed to educate him in the spirit of respect for Russia, its customs and traditions. Peter III remained a lifelong adherent of his idol - the Prussian king Frederick the Great and his system of government.

Empress Elizabeth did not like Peter III and tried to prevent him from governing the state. Peter III also did not have a relationship with his wife, Ekaterina Alekseevna. The disregard of the future emperor for everything Russian even forced Elizabeth to develop a plan for the transfer of the Russian throne to her grandson, Paul. However, after the death of the empress in December 1761, the Russian crown automatically passed to Peter III.

The short period of the reign of Peter III was marked by a number of important reforms in domestic policy, which to a certain extent can be considered an attempt to modernize Russia and a radical revolution in foreign policy. First of all, the emperor issued decrees in which a certain influence of legislative acts introduced in Prussia was traced. In January 1762, a decree on religious tolerance was issued. Representatives of various religious denominations, primarily schismatics, were no longer persecuted by the government, they were allowed to compactly settle in Siberia and engage in agriculture.

In February 1762, a royal decree was issued on the liquidation of the Secret Chancellery and a manifesto on the freedom of the nobility. From now on, the nobles were exempted from compulsory military and civil service. The manifesto was intended to involve the nobility in economic activities in their estates. In March, the emperor initiated a decree on the secularization of church and monastery estates.

However, these generally progressive measures of the emperor ran into dissatisfaction with the upper strata of Russian society. The decree on religious tolerance and the secularization of church estates was considered anti-Orthodox. The manifesto on the freedom of the nobility hurt the interests of the aristocrats, the middle and petty nobility. The first saw in the public service a source of enrichment and sought only their own immunity and the prohibition of the confiscation of their property. For the impoverished nobility, military service was the only source of livelihood and an opportunity to make a career. In addition, Peter III reorganized the army according to the Prussian model, introduced drill and strict discipline, dismissed the privileged part of the guard, which further set the nobility against itself.

However, most of all Russian society was outraged by the pro-German foreign policy of Peter III. Russia participated in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), the Russian army achieved significant success in the fight against the Prussian army of Frederick the Great: in 1760, together with the Austrians, they entered Berlin. East Prussia was declared a Russian possession, and its population began to take an oath of allegiance to the Russian crown. Immediately after taking the throne, the new emperor ordered the troops of the corps of General Chernyshev to go over to the side of Frederick and turn their weapons against their former allies - the Austrians. Soon negotiations began with the king for peace, and the Russian emperor invited Frederick to draw up the terms of this agreement himself. It was signed on April 24, 1762. Russia returned to Prussia all the conquered territories and pledged to sign a defensive alliance. Peter III was preparing for war with Denmark in order to wrest the Duchy of Schleswig from it and annex it to his homeland - the Duchy of Holstein (Holstein). In Pomerania, even the Russian corps of General P. Rumyantsev was sent. The foreign policy of Russia was actually led by the ambassador of the Prussian king, Baron Goltz.

On June 28, 1762, guards officers carried out a palace coup and elevated the wife of Peter III, Ekaterina Alekseevna, to the Russian throne, who ruled under the name of Catherine II (1762 - 1796).

Catherine II Alekseevna (Sophia-Frederick-Augusta) (1729 - 1796) - Russian Empress, wife of Emperor Peter III; after the coup of 1762. autocratic rules. By her reign strengthened absolute monarchy, the class privileges of the nobility were formed, the oppression of the peasant masses intensified (the Pugachev uprising of 1773-1775pp.), an active foreign policy was pursued aimed at protecting Russia from Turkish-Crimean aggression and the threat of Sweden in the Baltic, neutralizing Austria and Prussia due to forced concessions in resolving the issue about Poland, active opposition to England (frank support was provided for the American Revolution and the new state - the United States). As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774,1787-1791) and the three divisions of the Commonwealth (1772, 1793,1795), the Russian Empire captured most Ukrainian lands (except Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathia). Catherine II pursued a policy aimed at the final elimination of the autonomy of Ukraine: in 1764, the hetmanship was abolished, in 1765. the Cossack regiments in Slobozhanshchina were disbanded, in 1775. The Zaporozhian Sich was finally destroyed, in 1782. in the Hetmanate, the regimental and hundred administration was liquidated and division into 3 viceroys was introduced, in 1788 the Cossack regiments on the Left Bank were disbanded and serfdom was legally introduced. In 1785, Catherine II legally formalized the rights and privileges of the Russian nobility and equated the Ukrainian Cossack sergeant-major to him, assigning her land holdings. There was an intensive development of the economy (industry, trade). In the field of culture and education, the reign of Catherine II was reflected in an attempt to create an education system, the development of literature, art and architecture, followed by the Russification of the non-Russian outskirts of the empire.

On June 29, Peter III abdicated the throne and was exiled to n. Ropsha, near Petersburg. A few days later, the former emperor was killed. The new empress came to power with the help of the nobility, and therefore all her domestic and foreign policy was aimed at satisfying their interests.

Second half of the 18th century. characterized by the further development of absolutism in the Russian Empire. The internal policy of the Russian autocracy of this period was called the policy of enlightened absolutism.

Relying on the nobility, Catherine II took care of strengthening the autocracy and maintaining the inviolability of the feudal-serf system. The pinnacle of noble privileges was the manifesto "On the granting of liberties and freedom to all Russian nobility." The nobility was exempted from compulsory public service, the inviolability of their property was legally fixed. This manifesto extended the title of nobility to the German barons of the Baltic states, the Ukrainian Cossack elders, and others.

Catherine II also issued a decree dividing the Senate into six departments with different functions, which weakened its influence as a state body, and created a personal office - "Her Majesty's Cabinet", concentrating all executive power in her hands. A reform of local government bodies was carried out (all local power was concentrated with the governor), in Central Russia and Left-Bank Ukraine - the secularization of monastic lands. The most striking embodiment of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the convening of the Legislative Commission (a meeting of representatives of the estates), one of the tasks of which was to replace the obsolete Code of 1649.

In response to the empress's call to take part in the creation of new legislation, the deputies brought with them thousands of orders from their constituents, during the discussion of which sharp contradictions between the estates were revealed. The nobles demanded the expansion of their privileges, an increase in landownership at the expense of peasant allotments, tougher punishment for peasants for misconduct, and the like. The merchants sought freedom of entrepreneurial activity, protection from the state against competition from foreign producers, permission to buy serfs for factories, and the like. Peasant deputies asked to reduce burdensome duties and introduce a single poll tax, to allow them to engage in crafts, trade and entrepreneurial activity. Some deputies raised the issue of the need to eliminate serfdom, which forced Catherine II to stop the work of the Commission and complete the formation of the estate system in Russia.

First of all, the peasants finally lost their personal freedom and fell into complete dependence on the landlords, became their private property. The empress spread serfdom in two ways: she gave the peasants to the nobles for faithful service (during her reign, she distributed 400 thousand state peasants) and by legislative acts. By a decree of 1763, peasants were forbidden to leave their landowners without special permission. In the same year, a new legislative act was issued, according to which, for disobedience to the landlords, the peasants were subjected to corporal punishment and were to cover the losses caused by them to the landowners. U1765r. the landlords received the right to exile recalcitrant peasants to hard labor in Siberia without trial. Two years later, a new imperial decree forbade the peasants to file complaints against the landowners with government bodies. In this way the landowners gradually changed from landowners to owners of the people and police stewards of their peasants.

In the 18th century The Peasants' War of 1773-1775 broke out. headed by Emelyan Pugachev. It began as a protest against the strengthening of serfdom and the restriction (among the Cossacks) of freedoms.

Emelyan Pugachev (1744-1775) - Don Cossack, leader of the Peasants' War of 1773-1775, in which he acted under the name of Emperor Peter III. Member of the Seven Years' War, campaigns under the command of A. Suvorov in Poland, Russian-Turkish war 1768 - 1774rr. For courage he received the first Cossack officer rank of cornet. In 1771 he was elected ataman of the Terek Cossack army. He was repeatedly arrested for participating in anti-government protests. U1773r. organized a Cossack uprising that grew into a Peasant War.

The war covered a huge territory - the Southern and Middle Urals, Western Siberia, Bashkir), the Perm Territory, the Kama region, the Volga region and the Don. Peasants, Cossacks, philistines, "working people" (workers of private and state-owned manufactories and factories) took an active part in it. During the war, thousands of peasants and nobles died, the economy of these regions was ruined and paralyzed.

The war began in the Urals from the actions of the Yaїtsky Cossacks. Since the beginning of the XVIII century. they were in the public service and defended the southern and eastern borders of Russia, were on state financial support and enjoyed the right to elect their atamans and foremen. The basis of their economic activity was fishing, hunting and cattle breeding. However, gradually the foremen and atamans took possession of the best fishing plots, hayfields and pastures, disposed of cash payments and forced the Cossacks to work on their farms.

The abuses of the Cossack foreman, the government decree on the participation of the Cossacks in the war with Turkey caused Cossack unrest, which was suppressed by government troops. In 1772, regular army units occupied the Yaitsky town and arrested 86 of the most active and recalcitrant Cossacks, while others took refuge in distant farms.

At the end of 1772, V. Pugachev arrived on Yaik. He declared himself Emperor Peter III, who did not die and was able to escape, and enlisted the support of the Cossacks in the struggle for their rights. In 1773, the "tsar-father" addressed the people with a manifesto in which he promised the peasants land and freedom, and the Cossacks money and food allowance. Pugachev's detachments were constantly growing. In autumn, the rebels defeated small army units and surrounded the fortress of Orenburg. At the end of the year, the entire Orenburg Territory, the Southern Urals and the Trans-Urals were engulfed in an uprising. The Bashkirs, led by Salavat Yulaev, rose to revolt. their detachments captured several fortresses and approached metro Ufa. Peasants and workers of the Ural factories joined Pugachev. At the beginning of 1774, the rebel army numbered almost 30 thousand people and 100 guns. It was divided into main units. The general leadership of the uprising was carried out by the Military Collegium headed by A. Pugachev.

sent against the rebels regular army under the command of General A. Bibikov, which defeated the rebels near Orenburg, forcing them to lift the siege of the fortress. Soon the rebel detachments near Ufa and in the battle near the Sakmarsky town were also defeated. Here, the troops of General D. Golitsyn captured 1,500 people, among whom were the leaders of the rebels. Pugachev with a detachment of 500 people was forced to flee to the Urals.

In the Southern Urals, new detachments of rebels joined Pugachev, and in May 1774 they numbered 5 thousand people. May - June peasant army captured the strong fortresses of Troitskaya and Osa and went to Kazan. It grew to 20 thousand people, but was poorly armed. On July 12, Pugachev captured Kazan, which was burned during the assault. Soon the rebels were defeated by government troops and O. Pugachev with the remnants of his army went to Nizhny Novgorod. However, as the rebel army moved away from Bashkira, the Bashkir cavalry left, and the remoteness of the Ural factories deprived it of guns. In the end, in the summer of 1774, Russia signed peace with Turkey and a large regular army (eight infantry regiments, eight cavalry regiments, five Cossack regiments, etc.) was equipped against the rebels, led by A. Suvorov.

On the right bank of the Volga, Pugachev decided to go to Moscow not through the well-fortified Nizhny Novgorod, but through Saratov. On August 6, the rebels captured the city and brutally cracked down on its defenders - dozens of nobles were drowned in the Volga. Pursued by government troops, the rebel army went to Tsaritsyn. Pugachev hoped that when he captured the city, he would enlist the support of the Don Cossacks, spend the winter in the Kuban and make a new campaign against Moscow in the spring. August 24 near Tsaritsyn took place decisive battle rebels with government troops, in which Pugachev suffered a final defeat. He lost 2 thousand people killed, and 6 thousand rebels were captured. With a detachment of 160 Cossacks, Pugachev tried to break through to the Caspian Sea, but the Cossacks conspired and handed him over to government officials. On January 10, 1775, Pugachev was executed in Moscow on Bolotnaya Square.

The result of the war was the centralization of state administration and the strengthening of the nobility - the pillars of the autocracy. In 1775, an administrative reform was carried out, according to which Russia was divided into 50 provinces, which in turn were divided into counties. In the provinces, power belonged to the governor, and in the counties and county towns - to the captain and governor. Financial management was centralized, class courts were created. In 1785, the so-called Letters of Complaint to the nobility and cities were issued. The nobles were allowed to create their own corporate bodies (assemblies of the nobility), according to which the peasants with their real estate were legally fixed. The nobles were exempted from taxes, duties, corporal punishment, the obligation to perform military and public service, and so on. City councils and police and economic bodies were created in the cities, and the townspeople were divided into six categories according to the property qualification. New imperial decrees further strengthened serfdom: in 1783, the peasants of the Left-Bank Ukraine were finally banned from unauthorized transfer to other places of residence. In 1792, the government restored the right to sell landless peasants at auction for landlord debts.

The internal policy of tsarism at the end of the 18th century. characterized by a desire to strengthen the dominance of the nobility and the top of the merchant class. Frightened by the fall of absolutism in France and peasant uprisings, the new Russian autocrat Paul I (1796-1801) made attempts to overcome internal political contradictions with the help of a military-bureaucratic dictatorship. During the four years of his reign, more than 2,000 legislative acts were issued, most of which were aimed at strengthening the absolute power of the monarch and the state apparatus. The nobility lost their liberties, guaranteed by the acts of Catherine II; the right of self-government was taken away from the cities; censorship was introduced and private printing houses were closed; subjects of the Russian Empire were forbidden to travel abroad and import foreign books; the Russian army was reorganized, in which new regulations were introduced and the command and control system was modernized. At the same time, the position of the Orthodox clergy improved; state peasants received self-government in the country, freedom of religion was introduced; the compulsory work of a serf for a landowner was limited to three days a week, and the landowner could be punished for cruel treatment of peasants and the like. The metropolitan nobility, corrupted by privileges during the reign of Catherine II, came out against the despotism of Paul I. It made a new coup d'état and Pavel I was killed. His son Alexander became the new emperor of Russia.

Foreign policy and unprecedented military activity of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. breathed in the desire of the nobility to seize new territories and markets - to seize the Crimea, go to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the Caucasus Range, annex Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus to Russia. This inevitably led to a clash with Ottoman Empire and Poland, so it was necessary to find powerful allies. In 1764, Russia signed an allied treaty with Prussia. Both countries guaranteed the inviolability of the Polish constitution and the return of so-called religious dissidents (that is, those who did not belong to the Catholic denomination) of their rights. Austria, dissatisfied with the interference of Russia and Prussia in Polish affairs, decided to split the Russian-Prussian alliance and began to push Turkey to war with Russia.

In the Right-Bank Ukraine, the Haidamak uprising broke out - Koliyivshchyna. The Gaidamaks hoped for the support of the Russian government, which sent regular troops to Ukraine. To fight against the Haidamaks and Russians, the Polish gentry created in 1768 the Confederation of Bars, which turned to Turkey for help. The Government of the Porte was in no hurry to commit itself to 8 Poles. At the same time, the Haidamak detachments attacked the border town of Balta on Turkish territory. This was the reason for Turkey to put forward a demand to Russia to punish the Gaidamaks and compensate for the losses. Russian troops suppressed the Haidamak uprising, but this did not satisfy Turkey. In October 1768, the Russian ambassador was arrested in Istanbul and both countries began to prepare for war.

The main theater of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. became the territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester. The Russian army approached the Turkish fortress Khotyn, where they defeated the 80-thousandth Turkish army, besieged the fortress and captured it by storm in September. The Turkish army left Moldova, part of Wallachia and retreated to the Danube. The following year, the 1st Russian Army under the command of General A. Rumyantsev set out from Khotyn to the south and defeated the Turkish-Tatar troops in the Ryabaya Mogila tract, on the Larga River, in the summer. The main forces of the Turkish army (150 thousand people) took a position on the city of Cahul. On July 21, 1770, the Russian army of A. Rumyantsev defeated the Turks, who lost 20 thousand people. The Russian fleet made the transition from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean and on June 26 destroyed the Turkish squadrons in the Chesme Bay.

Russia and Turkey began negotiations and soon signed a truce. However, after the intervention of Austria, Prussia and France "preoccupied with Russian victories, hostilities resumed. In the campaign of 1773, Russian troops inflicted several defeats on the Turkish army. 1774 became decisive. Battle of Kozludzhi Turkey sued for peace.

According to the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace of 1774, Russia received a large territory in the Lower Dnieper and the Bug region, the Crimea and Kuban became independent from Turkey. The port was forced to pay Russia 4.5 million rubles as compensation for military losses.

In April 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto in which she declared that the Crimea, the Taman Peninsula and "the entire Kuban side were taken under the power of the All-Russian." In the summer of the same year, the construction of the Sevastopol metro station, the base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, began in Crimea. In order to strengthen the situation in Transcaucasia, which was subjected to constant attacks from Turkey and Persia, in 1783 Russia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk with Eastern Georgia. The Georgian king Erekle II, like the Crimean khan, recognized himself as a vassal of Russia.

Preparing for the inevitable war with Turkey, Russia entered into an alliance with Austria, agreeing to the seizure of the Danube lands up to the Adriatic Sea, Vakhaliya, Serbia, Bosnia, etc.

In August 1787, Turkey delivered an ultimatum to Russia: return the Crimea, renounce the treaty with Georgia and the previous Russian-Turkish treaties. On August 12, Turkey declared war on Rosa. The international situation for Russia was unfavorable - its relations with Sweden worsened (the next year it began hostilities against Russia), Prussia and England took an anti-Russian position.

The beginning of the war was unsuccessful for Russia. In September 1787, during a strong storm near Cape Kaliyakri, the Russian Black Sea squadron was killed. The following year, the army of Field Marshal G. Potemkin surrounded the Ochakov fortress and was able to capture it only at the end of the year. In 1789 the Russian army acted jointly with the Austrians. From the very beginning, the Turks had the initiative. In July they attempted to split the Allied armies near Focsana, but failed. In autumn, the Russian troops of 0. Suvorov and the Austrian army of Prince Coburg defeated the main Turkish forces in the battle on the Rimnik river. In 1790, Russia's ally Austria withdrew from the war and, through the mediation of England and Prussia, began peace negotiations with Turkey. However, even under such conditions, Russian troops captured the Turkish fortresses of Kiliya, Tulcha and Isakcha in the lower reaches of the Danube and surrounded the fortress of Izmail. The Russian Black Sea squadron of Admiral F. Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Kerch Strait and near Tendra Island. The position of Turkey became hopeless after the Russian troops under the command of A. Suvorov stormed the fortress of Izmail on December 11, 1790.

After the Peace of Jassy in 1791, the entire northern coast of the Black Sea was assigned to Russia. The new border between Russia and Turkey was supposed to pass in the southwest along the river. Dniester. Turkey renounced claims to the Crimea and Georgia.

Relations between Russia and Sweden were tense throughout the 18th century. swedish king Gustav Sh dreamed of returning the territories lost at the beginning of the century during the Northern War (1700-1725) in the Baltic. Russia has repeatedly joined the opponents of Sweden. So, in 1764, the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry G. Panin came up with the idea of ​​an alliance of Prussia, Russia and Denmark against Austria and France. As a "passive" member of the union, it was planned to involve Sweden. This political combination was seen in Stockholm as an attempt by Russia to increase its influence in northern Europe. The successes of the Russians in the fight against the Turkish Empire worried the monarchs of Europe, and England and Prussia began to push Sweden to war with Russia.

Sweden delivered an ultimatum to Russia demanding the return of all the territories that belonged to Sweden before the Northern War, to abandon Crimean peninsula, disarm Russian fleet in the Baltic. This led to the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790. On June 21, 1788, Swedish troops numbering up to 40 thousand people crossed the Russian border and began shelling the Russian garrison of the Neishlot fortress in Finland. The main forces of the Russian army fought in the South against the Turkish army, so only a 20,000-strong corps was put up against the Swedes. However, the main events of the war unfolded at sea.

The first battle of the naval squadrons of the warring states took place in July 1788 near the island of Gogland. Having lost one ship, the Swedes were forced to retreat to the bay of Sveaborg. In August of the following year, the Russian rowing flotilla in the Gulf of Finland defeated the Swedish fleet. Sea communications, which provided the Swedish land army, were blocked. The Russian army drove the Swedes out of Finland. In the summer of 1790, the Swedes finally managed to defeat the Russian fleet, but this did not change the general balance of forces in the theater of war, which was unfavorable for Sweden. Since August 1790, the Treaty of Verelsky was signed in Finland, which restored the pre-war borders between the two states.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia actively intervened in the partitions of Poland, whose internal political situation was extremely difficult. Various noble political factions competed for power. royalty was limited to the gentry Sejm, where each gentry, using the right of "liberum veto" (I do not allow it), could block the adoption of a decision that was unfavorable for him. The weakening of centralized power and the struggle of political groups decided to take advantage of the neighboring states - Austria, Prussia and Russia. The reason for interference in the internal affairs of Poland was the situation of religious dissidents (Orthodox, Protestants, etc.). Catholicism in Poland was the state religion, and representatives of other religious denominations were persecuted by the Catholic Church: churches were closed and priests were forbidden to perform religious rites, violent Catholicization took place. The attempts of Russia and Prussia to soften religious oppression were resisted by the magnates and gentry, who formed the most diverse confederations and resorted to aggressive actions against dissidents.

Confederation - a meeting of representatives of the gentry and the government, who were endowed with full power. Unlike the Diet, decisions were made by majority vote.

In 1763, the Polish king August III died and a struggle began between noble groups that tried to elevate their pretenders to the throne. The foreign policy factor played an important role in the choice of the Polish king: if the son of Augustus PI of the Saxon elector was elected king, Poland fell into the sphere of influence of Austria, which did not suit Russia and Prussia. The best candidate for Catherine II was Stanislav Poniatowski, who was nominated by the party led by the princes Czartoryski. Having supported its pretender, Russia planned to seize part of the Polish lands and move the Russian border to the Western Dvina. The Prussian king Frederick the Great hoped to seize part of the northern Polish lands.

Having coordinated its actions with Prussia, Russia sent troops to the territory of Poland and helped S. Poniatowski get the throne. In 1768, a Russian-Polish treaty was signed, which strengthened Russian influence in Poland and guaranteed political and religious rights to dissidents. Dissatisfied with this situation, the gentry created an anti-Russian confederation in the city of Bar. Russian troops were brought into Poland under the command of A. Suvorov, who inflicted defeat on the troops of the Confederates. Fearing that Russia would be able to finally capture the Polish lands, in 1770 Prussia captured Pomerania, and Austria - Galicia. In 1772, in St. Petersburg, Russia, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement on the division of Poland. Russia captured Eastern Belarus and the Polish part of the Baltic states (Dvinsk and Daugavpils), Prussia - Pomerania and Poznan, Austria - Galicia. Poland has lost more than 200 thousand square meters. km of territory.

Foreign intervention led to a patriotic upsurge in Poland, which forced the king to change his attitude towards an alliance with Russia. Poland entered into a new alliance with Prussia, hoping with her help to reform and strengthen public administration. Taking advantage of the fact that Russia was at war with Turkey, the Polish patriots developed a new constitution and in May 1791 adopted it at the Sejm.

Dissatisfied with the reorientation of Poland's foreign policy, Russia supported the Polish party of supporters of the old state system, headed by Count F. Potocki, and put forward a demand to the Polish government to abolish the Constitution of 1791, threatening to break off diplomatic relations. In May 1792, a 100,000-strong Russian army entered Poland. Polish troops under the command of General T. Kosciuszko tried to stop them, but were defeated. Russian troops captured Warsaw, and the Prussian army captured the cities of Poznan, Torun and Danzig.

Tadeusz Kosciuszko (Kosciuszko) (1746-1817) - leader of the uprising of 1794 in Poland, an outstanding politician, general, organizer of the struggle of the Polish people for independence. Studied at the Warsaw cadet school, studied engineering in Germany, Italy and France. Member of the War of Independence in North America (1775-1783). Brigadier General of the American Army. Author of the Pananet Universal 1794. on the liberation of Polish peasants from serfdom. The wounded was captured by the tsarist troops and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg. Released in 1796. Died in Switzerland.

In May 1793, Russia and Prussia announced the second division of Poland. Right-bank Ukraine went to Russia. At the beginning of 1794, Polish patriots led by T. Kosciuszk rebelled against the Russians in Krakow. The rebels defeated the troops of A. Tormasov and expelled the Russians from Warsaw, the uprising became nationwide. T. Kosciuszko's universals about the reduction of corvee and the abolition of serfdom contributed to the involvement of the peasants in the liberation war. However, in the fall, the poorly armed rebels were defeated by the Russian troops of A. Suvorov, who again captured Warsaw. T. Kosciuszko was captured and imprisoned in St. Petersburg. King S. Poniatowski renounced the Polish throne.

As a result of the third partition of Poland in 1795, its independence was finally eliminated. Russia received Western Belarus,

Western Volyn, Lithuania and Courland, Austria - Krakow, Sandomierz and Lublin regions, and Prussia - the rest of the land with Warsaw. As a result of the divisions of Poland, the territory of Russia expanded significantly - it became the largest empire in Europe.

In addition to the struggle for influence in Central Europe, the desire to resolve the Middle East issue, one of the important principles of foreign policy tsarist Russia became a security-monarchist principle. Russia severed diplomatic and economic ties with revolutionary France, organized a landing of troops in Italy, and contributed to the Italian and Swiss campaigns led by A. Suvorov against revolutionary France.