Russian industry in the second half of the 18th century.

After Peter's death, old problems remained in the economy: the depletion of the treasury, the ruin of the peasants, the maintenance of the army and clerks heavily lies on the people. Economic policy post-Petrine era was reflected in the decrees of the queens, or rather their favorites, which, with any content, consistently consolidated the features of the noble empire and adapted the interests of all other groups of the population to it. From 1742 to 1801, the percentage of the urban population decreased from 12% to 8.2%.

The second half of the 18th century set even more serious tasks for Russia. The world has become increasingly integrated and interconnected. In the West, the first industrial revolution was coming to an end, and the doctrine of liberalism was born in conflicts. Peculiar answer Russian state to the fast economic and social development Western Europe and strengthening social conflicts inside Russia becomes the policy of enlightened absolutism. Judging only by the legislative activity of Catherine II, her time was the most favorable for the development of entrepreneurship. Since 1762, the first decrees on free trade for all were adopted, and the privileges of "decree" manufacturers were abolished. But almost immediately the salt tax was raised to cover the budget deficit and secularization (transfer to secular property) of church estates was carried out and serfs were taken away from the Church. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was established in Russia, and at the same time, a monopoly of the nobility on distillation was introduced and a decree was adopted on the right of landowners to exile serfs to hard labor. 1769 - the beginning of the issue of banknotes in Russia, in the early 70s - the first state foreign loans. In 1775, the Manifesto was adopted on the free establishment of industrial enterprises, the abolition of industrial and commercial monopolies. The "Charter to the Nobility" and "Charter to the Cities" (1785), as well as the City and Craft Regulations, became the crowning achievement of transformative activity. In 1787, Levshin's first "Commercial Dictionary" was published, in 1792. - restoration canceled in 1771. Sale of serfs at public auction.

Catherine II, with all her desire, could not neglect the interests of the class that helped her ascend the throne and further was her support. In the "Charter to the nobility" in 1785, it was allowed "to start small towns in their estates and trades and fairs in them", the feudal lords were granted the right to "wholesale sell what is born in their villages or handicrafts are produced." The nobility gained economic power to the detriment of other classes. “The serf landlord economy was a monetary and economic wedge, deeply driven into the natural and economic body of the country. The production of grain for sale was not at all something contrary to the essence of serfdom, but, on the contrary, was its driving motive and defining goal. During the 18th century, noble entrepreneurship intensified, especially in distilling, where from 1754 the nobles had a monopoly on the production and sale of wine.

The destruction of the farming system in the second half of the 18th century undoubtedly contributed to the growth of the domestic market. At this time, the role of merchants, trading peasants, burghers, single-dwellers, Cossacks, and foreign trade was increasing. But on the whole, free enterprise developed poorly, unable to withstand unequal competition with Western Europe and with rural and noble industry.

For the domestic market of Russia in the 18th century was characterized by the dispersion of trade. It indicates the absence of adje among significant sellers of specialization in one type of product.

Despite the limitations and difficulties entrepreneurial activity in Russia, adapting to circumstances, a tribe of Russian merchants and entrepreneurs developed and multiplied.

In the 18th century, the concept of "merchant" did not represent a specific category of the population. It characterized the type of commercial and industrial activity. Since the 40s of the 18th century, the concept of merchant class has embraced the entire township population of a certain wealth. In the economic life of the country at the beginning of the 18th century, guild merchants began to play a leading role, which were divided into first-class, middle-class and third-class - depending on capital.

In connection with the development of entrepreneurship, it is necessary to mention a group of city dwellers who, along with merchants, were supposed to add a third - the most active class in relation to entrepreneurship: the townspeople. The word "philistine" is of Polish origin, it means "citizens" ("locate" in Polish - city). The philistines were supposed to objectively have interests similar to the interests of the merchants, and together with them to resist absolutism. But historical fate separated them into different sides- merchants aspired to the upper classes, and the philistines merged with the people, even the very concept of "philistinism" in the future had the meaning of something undeveloped, narrow-minded, limited.

Private entrepreneurs also adapted to the peculiarities of the development of the Russian economy, who, through their efforts, contributed to economic development Russia, but they also acted not according to the laws of free enterprise and competition, but according to existing rules.

In the history of Russian entrepreneurship in the 18th century, one of the prominent places was occupied by the activities of the Batashev family, which for a long time were obscured by the fame of the Demidovs. Foreign merchants compared the metal smelted at the Batashev factories with the world-famous "Sweden" (Swedish) iron. The Batashevsk iron-smelting plant was at that time the third largest in Russia, yielding in capacity only to the famous metallurgical enterprises of the Demidovs and Yakovlevs. And in 1800, the Batashevs accounted for 11.6% of all iron produced in the country.

“The ancestor of the Batashev family of mining workers Ivan Timofeevich Batashev, “Blacksmith of the Tula Armory Settlement”. In 1700, he was at the construction of Lipetsk iron-smelting plants, and then he began to buy land in the vicinity of Tula and build iron factories. "Thanks to the patronage of Nikita Demidov for his skill in mining and metallurgical production, Ivan Timofeevich began to buy up small land plots on the Tulitsa River for factory construction (first in the name of Demidov). In 1716, Batashev began the construction of the Tula Metallurgical Plant, but, having quarreled with the all-powerful Demidov, he filed a petition and in 1728 built the Medynsky (Gryazensky) plant on the Gryazenka River, organizing a full metallurgical cycle there and bringing the volume of production to Tula. The youngest son Rodion, who built the Molotov Plant, became the heir to the business. In 1754, after the death of R.I. Batashev, all factories passed to his sons. But the decree of the Senate on the liquidation (in order to save forests) of metallurgical, distilleries and glass factories 200 miles from Moscow closed all factories. The Batashevs suffered a loss of 40 thousand rubles, which no one compensated them.

The Batashevs are moving to a new area - the middle and lower reaches of the Oka and tributaries. They build 3 factories there, thoughtfully, often deceitfully, by seizing other people's lands and registering them for themselves. In the 60-70s. In the 18th century, they built 2 more factories near Nizhny Novgorod. In order to acquire land and labor force, the Batashevs went to tricks, because. the law forbade the acquisition of peasants by non-nobles (since 1726). The quality of the Batashevs' products was good, so exports increased from 1% (1755) to 7.5% (1757). Entrepreneurs also took on military production to strengthen ties with the treasury, which gave permission for the construction of new factories. Especially they poured a lot of guns during the Russian-Turkish war (1768-74), for which they were exempted from the poll tax.

For seven years the Batashevs have been fussing about noble dignity. With the help of bribes, they collected "evidence" of their noble origin. The Senate interceded before Catherine II that Andrey and Ivan Batashev (the third generation) "to restore their noble dignity in their primitive ancestors through heredity with children." In 1783, the brothers were restored to the noble rank. In the same year, the farm was divided between the brothers. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Batashevs owned 14 metallurgical and processing enterprises, they also produced peaceful products - braids, wire, nails, dishes, then they launched the production of steam engines, and only 85 items. In the second half of the 19th century, and this is typical, due to competition, the Batashevs lost their former significance. “The place of activity of the Batashevs, namely middle lane Russia, the proximity of this place to the control of central institutions and, finally, the lack of special patronage from the highest authorities - all this excluded the possibility for the Batashevs to acquire the role that the Demidovs enjoyed in the Urals. But attempts to acquire such a role appeared more than once among the Batashevs, and the memory of the people until recently keeps many fabulous, in their horrors, episodes from the life of these noble blacksmiths. They say that the Gusevsky plant could argue with its bloody memories with the "historical" tower at the Nevyansk plant of the Demidovs. Under Andrei Rodionovich, the entire Gusevsky plant, as the legend says, Izryt was underground passages, and in one of the vast rooms a constant minting of coins was carried out. When government agents arrived at the plant in order to check the rumors about Batashevsky mint”, then Andrei Rodionovich did not think about burying those who worked in the dungeon alive, giving the order to immediately fill up all the passages and exits. An exceptional type among the Batashevs is Ivan Rodionovich, who, if we trust the information that has been preserved about him, can be placed along with the best people of his time. Not to mention an outstanding mind, energy and hard work, Ivan Rodionovich was distinguished by amazing kindness, respect for someone else's personality and the ability, rare for industrialists of the 18th century, to reconcile their own interests with the interests of their neighbors. He built hospitals and churches (the last about 15), and for his care for the poor earned himself a great reputation.

Metallurgy of the 18th century

In the history of Russian metallurgy, the 18th century proved to be very successful. In the works of researchers of Russian metallurgy, very interesting figures are given, showing the growth of metal smelting in our country XVIII.

150 thousand poods of pig iron were smelted by Russian blast furnaces at the beginning of this century and about 10 million at the end. In other words, over a hundred years, the production of ferrous metal has increased by more than 66 times!

Such a rapid growth of the metallurgical industry then made it possible to overtake all countries and take first place in the world in metal production. Already in 1724, Russia left behind not only France and Germany, but even England, which at that time had a powerful mining industry.

New metallurgical centers appeared in Russia - Voronezh, Vyazemsky and others (previously these were Karelia and Kargopolye). The Urals became the largest center of metal production. In total, in the 18th century, factories, 123 ferrous metallurgy and 53 copper smelters were built in the Urals.

Russia has become the main supplier of metal on the world market. Foreigners preferred Russian to any kind of iron. Ural iron, marked with the stamp "Old Sable", knew no equal.

First of all, the excellent quality of the metal by the Urals was achieved due to the most excellent ores. In addition, they were able to burn out very pure coal, which did not pollute the metal with impurities.

In order to appreciate the works of Russian metallurgists, let us trace the development of the domain. Generally speaking, the development of the domain is mainly determined by the development of the blast system, so I will consider it exactly.

So, the air supply to the blast furnace goes through the bellows - a device for blowing air. The first bellows were very similar in design to ordinary blacksmith bellows: the same two triangular wooden shields connected by a hinge, the same leather “accordion” between these shields. The difference was only in size. Blast bellows were much larger than blacksmith bellows. The blast-furnace blower differed from the blacksmith one in the number of bellows. Near the blast furnace, as a rule, there are several of them.

The bellows were connected to the blast furnace through tubes. They penetrated into the oven through a hole in the wall. The device for blowing air into the blast furnace - the lance - was one, and the bellows crowded around it. In this form, blowers existed for a very long time - for centuries. An important event in the history of blowers was the birth of wooden blowers. At first, wooden blowers were arranged in the same way as their predecessors - leather bellows. Only they were made entirely of wood. The leather harmonica was replaced with plank walls.

Some time later, another design of wooden bellows appeared - the so-called box bellows. They were a construction of two rectangular boxes, inserted one into the other, open bottoms towards. They worked with simple movement and extension of one of the boxes. New furs had serious advantages. They could be made very large, while the size of leather furs was limited by the size of the skins from which the accordion was made. More importantly, the wooden bellows produced more pressure, because they could be compressed with such force that the leather bellows burst.

The use of new furs made it possible to build even higher blast furnaces. But the advantage of box bellows could not be fully exploited, since there was only one lance. And through one tuyere it is difficult to evenly saturate the entire huge belly of the blast furnace. New opportunities opened up before the blast furnace after the two-tuyere blast system invented by the Russian metallurgist Grigory Makhotin appeared.

The most important thing in Makhotin's invention was that the air now came from two sides, and it penetrated more easily into all parts of the blast furnace. The process of melting metal has become smoother. The path indicated by Makhotin turned out to be correct. In the two hundred years that have passed since the invention of Makhotin, the number of lances supplying the blast furnace with air has increased to eight, ten, and even sixteen.

Makhotin's invention, as we see, helped to create a plentiful, more uniform blow. But the metallurgists faced an old task: it was imperative to increase the pressure of the air injected into the blast furnace. The old box bellows by the middle of the 18th century could no longer give satisfactory results.

The great Russian technician Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov in 1765 proposed a completely new type of blower - a cylindrical blower.

Polzunov dreamed of creating a steam engine. Having conceived the construction of a mighty factory engine, Polzunov also had to decide the important question of what first order to give his offspring.

I. Polzunov identified the most urgent problem of the industry - the blast system in metallurgical processes. First important application steam engine was found.

Next, Polzunov designed a new blower - a cylindrical one. In terms of design, it is very similar to a steam engine, only it works literally the other way around. In the cylinder of a steam engine, the steam expands and pushes the piston; in the blower, the piston pushes the air and compresses it.

For more than a hundred years, blowers of a new design have been used.

In my work, I could not fail to note the Demidov family, which played no small role in the development of Russian metallurgy, namely Nikita Demidov, since the rest only continued their entrepreneurial activities and eventually ruined the whole family business. The most important event in the life of Nikita Demidov was his meeting with Peter I. According to one version, Demidov was the only one who was able to fulfill Peter's order for 300 guns according to the Western model, for which he earned Peter's recognition.

Peter made him a supplier of weapons for the army during the Great Northern War. Since the guns supplied by Nikita Demidov were much cheaper than foreign ones and of the same quality, the tsar in 1701 ordered that the archery lands lying near Tula be dissociated into his property, and for coal mining to give him a plot in the Shcheglovskaya notch. He also issued a special letter to Demidov, allowing him to expand production by purchasing new land and serfs to work in factories.

Peter I, assessing Demidov's entrepreneurial abilities, decided that he should increase the efficiency of state production. In 1702, Demidov was given the state-owned Verkhoturye iron factories, built on the Nevye River in the Urals under Alexei Mikhailovich, with an obligation to pay the treasury for the installation of iron factories for 5 years and with the right to buy serfs for the factories.

The productivity of the Ural factories turned out to be very high, and their products soon significantly exceeded the total output of all factories in European Russia. Already in 1720, the Urals (mainly "Demidov") produced at least two-thirds of the metal of Russia. Peter himself hardly expected such a result. This could not but add the king's respect for the "glorious blacksmith Nikita Demidov", who soon turned around in his "bear corner".

From 1702 to 1706, 114 artillery pieces were manufactured at the Demidov factories, from 1702 to 1718 - 908.7 thousand pieces of artillery shells. At the same time, Demidov set a price half that of other suppliers. From 1718 he became the only supplier of iron, anchors and cannons for the Russian fleet.

Instrumentation and mechanical engineering

Since without special instruments, the tasks of scientists would, in most cases, simply be impossible. During this period, such important tools were invented as, for example, a protractor, a compass, an astrolabe, etc. These and many other devices will be discussed in the instrument making section. I decided to designate here some of the most significant instrument makers of the first half of XVIII century: Ivan Ivanovich Kalmykov, Petr Osipovich Golynin, Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov and Kulibin Ivan Petrovich.

Andrey Konstantinovich Nartov (1680-1756).

The ingenious Russian mechanic Andrey Nartov glorified himself with his innovations in the field of mechanical engineering, and in particular with lathes of a qualitatively new level.

So, lathe was created in ancient times. However, for a long time it remained extremely primitive. It was difficult to work on it, and it was completely impossible to make any exact part.

But in the XVIII century, an addition was made to the design of the machine, which radically transformed the lathe. It's about the support. The caliper is a mechanical holder of the cutter - it replaced the hand of the turner. This innovation was carried out by the above-mentioned Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov. The caliper made it possible to work easily, quickly and as precisely as the tasks of mechanical engineering required.

However, Nartov became famous not only for calipers. The most complex details were reproduced on his machines with great accuracy for that time: goblets, candlesticks, coin stamps, ivory bas-reliefs, etc.

Nartov also designed a face gear transmission at a right angle. Having created such machines, Nartov stepped far into the future.

Ivan Ivanovich Kalmykov.

Talented master of the XVIII century. He designed scientific or, as it was customary to call at that time, "mathematical" instruments. Initially, he was a serf of a wealthy landowner, but after this landowner was convicted of criminal activity, he was exiled, and the serfs, including Kalmykov and his family, were released.

Kalmykov worked for a long time as a master instrument maker for Bruce, an associate of Peter, who studied astronomy and applied physics. Kalmykov, for all the time he worked for Bruce, created a huge variety of instruments, such as astrolabes and compasses. different types, many kinds of compasses, rulers, artillery squares and so on. These instruments subsequently passed into the use of the Academy of Sciences. After the death of Bruce, Kalmykov began working for the Academy of Sciences, where he equipped the first workshop of the institute.

This workshop was equipped with turning, drilling, planing and many other machines. For the most part, Kalmykov made astrolabes. Kalmykov, having worked at the Academy of Sciences for the rest of his life, was the founder of the production of scientific instruments within the walls of the Academy, and, in general, in the country, he improved the manufacture of astrolabes - now the details for them were cast from bronze, and not cut individually from sheet and lump brass, fulfilled many important orders of professors of the academy, and also left behind students, some of whom became the leading artisans of the country. Ivan Kalmykov died in February 1734.

Pyotr Osipovich Golynin.

Kalmykov's student Pyotr Golynin, sent to him for training and further fulfillment of an important order for an astrolabe in October 1731, continued the work of his teacher. Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov, a major specialist in turning, had a great influence on Golynin. He assisted in the development of mechanical art. Golynin's first major work was the manufacture of "mathematical tools" for scientists of the Academy of Sciences who were on the Second Kamchatka Expedition. Having provided the participants of this expedition necessary equipment, Golynin thereby rendered great assistance to science in the problem of geographical and economic study vast territories of our state. Golynin closely cooperated with the physical cabinet of the Academy, namely with its representative from 1733, Georg-Wolfgang Kraft, who, unlike other foreigners, honestly served Russian science and showed great enthusiasm in his work. Golynin's diligent work allowed Russian science to move further along the path of progress, and not to stagnate due to a lack of instruments of all kinds.

Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov (1728-1766) - Russian inventor, creator of the first steam engine in Russia and the world's first two-cylinder steam engine. (see Metallurgy)

Kulibin Ivan Petrovich (1735–1818).

Kulibin was born into the family of a small merchant in the village of Podnovye Nizhny Novgorod district. At a young age, he learned locksmithing, turning and watchmaking. In 1764-1767 Kulibin made a unique pocket watch. In their case, in addition to the actual clockwork, there was also a clockwork mechanism, a musical apparatus that played several melodies, and a complex mechanism of a tiny automatic theater with moving figures.

From 1769 and for more than 30 years, Kulibin was in charge of the mechanical workshop of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He supervised the production of machine tools, astronomical, physical and navigational instruments and instruments.

By 1772, Kulibin developed several projects for a 300-meter single-arch bridge across the Neva with wooden lattice trusses.

He built and tested a large model of such a bridge, showing for the first time in the practice of bridge building the possibility of modeling bridge structures. In subsequent years, Kulibin invented and manufactured many original mechanisms, machines and devices. Among them - a searchlight with a parabolic reflector made of the smallest mirrors, a river boat with a water-powered engine, a mechanical crew moving against the current with a pedal drive.

The vast majority of Kulibin's inventions, the possibility of using which has been confirmed by our time, were not realized then. Outlandish automata, funny toys, ingenious fireworks for the high-born crowd - only this impressed contemporaries.

In the 19th century, the business world of the country changed significantly. The reforms have become the reason for the success of representatives of the estates, previously limited in the right to conduct business. This is the time of the rise of the Vtorov, Morozov, Vogau, Ryabushinsky dynasties, the formation of the business of talented engineers N.I. Putilov and N.S. Avdakov, the heyday of other famous families. Implementing their projects, they did not disregard either the interests of the state or the needs of the people.

The 19th century occupies a special place in the history of Russian business. The state conducts legislative activity, trying to create favorable conditions for the development of the economy. By the end of the century, the system of guilds, established in the time of Peter the Great to systematize and regulate entrepreneurial activity, protect the rights of merchants and create estate privileges, had exhausted itself.

The reform of trade taxation in 1898 fixed the enterprise as the object of taxation, and not the personality of the entrepreneur, as it was before. Increasing competition in trade has caused business people to turn to the industrial production. Transformations in the field of joint stock business established the limitation of liability and provided the opportunity to participate in commercial enterprises representatives of different classes.

The changes led to the fact that business circles were replenished with people from peasants, philistines, nobles, foreigners and employees. Due to large-scale entrepreneurship, by the beginning of the 20th century, about 1.5 million people lived in the country.

The names of well-known entrepreneurs of Russia of the 19th century are still well known today: the representatives of the families are famous for the introduction of advanced technologies, charity, participation in political life.

Morozov

Savva Vasilyevich Morozov (1770 - 1860) - the founder of the dynasty - comes from the serfs of the village of Zuyevo, Bogorodsky district, Moscow province. He achieved his success thanks to his personal qualities: diligence and business acumen. Having started work as a weaver in a factory, after his marriage, he organized a small production where he himself worked with his wife and sons. Savva sold silk fabrics and openwork ribbons created in the workshop in Moscow. The income allowed the entrepreneur and his family to buy out from the landowner in 1820. Savva's family had five sons: Elisha, Zakhar, Abram, Ivan and Timothy. An entrepreneurial streak is characteristic of many of Savva's descendants: the family is considered to consist of several branches, whose representatives became known in the textile business and other areas. In 1842, the Morozovs received hereditary honorary citizenship, which eliminated the restrictions imposed on peasants and urban dwellers.

Over time, the Morozovs bought land, built new factories for the production of silk, woolen and cotton fabrics, introducing modern technologies and mechanisms into production.

The first of Savva Vasilyevich's enterprises grew into the Partnership of the Nikolskaya Manufactory "Savva Morozov's Son and Co." pleated production.

The name of the manufactory is associated with the "Morozov strike" of 1885 in the village. Nikolsky. Workers protested against low wages and high fines for violations. The speech was suppressed, some of the participants were arrested by the authorities, but the event had positive consequences for the workers. Under the leadership of Savva Timofeevich, new English equipment was installed, working conditions and the life of workers were improved.

The company of the Bogorodsko-Glukhovskaya manufactory was founded in 1830 and transferred by Savva Vasilyevich to his son Zakhar, who gave life to the Zakharovichi branch. The enterprise became the first enterprise in the form of a partnership in the central region of the country. It included spinning, weaving, dyeing, bleaching, thread production and peat extraction.

The eldest son of Savva Morozov, Elisey, having separated himself, organized his own manufactory, which later acquired the name "The Association of Manufactories of Morozov Vikula with Sons." Vikula Eliseevich played an important role in the development of the enterprise and took over the reins of government from his retired father. This branch of the Morozov family is named after him - "Vikulovichi".

Under the control of the "Tver" Morozovs - the descendants of Abram - there was an enterprise created by Timofey at the request of his father. The Tver manufactory produced about thirty types of cotton fabrics, which were in constant demand at Russian fairs, and were also exported. Abram and David Abramovich led the production.

Social infrastructure grew up around Morozov's enterprises: shops, baths, hospitals, schools, almshouses, stadiums. The legacy of the dynasty of manufacturers can still be seen today on the streets of Orekhov-Zuev, Noginsk, Zheleznodorozhny and other settlements near the capital.

Researchers note various reasons for the success of the dynasty's ventures, including:

• active entrepreneurial position;
• striving for the mechanization of labor, stake on a high technical level of production;
• continuous modernization of production facilities;
• rejection of foreign specialists and support for domestic education and recruitment of graduates of Russian educational institutions;
• creation of laboratories to combine theoretical and experimental science with production;
• a two-stage management model that eliminated the exclusive authoritarian influence of owners through the involvement of qualified hired management personnel;
• gradual awareness of social responsibility to the personnel of enterprises.

In addition to textile production, the family participated in the activities of other institutions. Timofei Morozov was one of the founders of the Volga-Kama Bank, established in 1870 and holding a leading position in the country until the end of the century. In the period 1868-76, he also served as chairman of the Moscow Exchange Committee, which cooperated with the state in matters of legislative activity in the field of trade and industry, regulated exchange trading, issued certificates and conclusions on trade matters. David Ivanovich built a railway line away from the main line Moscow - Vladimir, ending with the station "Zakharovo", named after his grandfather and still existing.

Representatives of the family did a lot of charity work and supported the culture of the country. With the financing of the Morozovs, the Alekseevskaya psychiatric hospital, the Morozovskaya children's hospital, the Cancer Institute and other medical institutions were built. With the participation of the Moscow Merchant Society of Mutual Credit, whose founders included T.S. Morozov, financed the newspapers "Moskvich" and "Shareholder", the magazine "Bulletin of Industry". Varvara Alekseevna, the wife of Abram Abramovich, donated funds to set up a free Turgenev library-reading room in 1895, supported the Russkiye Vedomosti newspaper, and took part in creating the technical base of many educational institutions, for example, the Imperial Technical School. Sergei Timofeevich provided assistance to the artist Levitan, Savva Timofeevich did not leave the Moscow Art Theater without the support. In a word, in pre-revolutionary Moscow it was difficult to find a charity event or social institution, which remained outside the attention and support of the Morozovs.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the fortune of the Morozov family, according to Forbes magazine, amounted to over 500 million dollars in the modern equivalent, which puts them in fourth place in the list of the richest Russian entrepreneurs of their time.

the day before October revolution in Moscow, according to historians, about 60 families of the descendants of Savva Vasilyevich lived. After October 1917, the life of the Morozovs developed in different ways: some immigrated (Nikolai Davidovich, Sergei Timofeevich, Pyotr Arsenievich and others), but the majority remained in their homeland, where a time of trials and losses awaited them.

Ryabushinsky

The founder of the dynasty is the peasant Mikhail Yakovlev, who in 1802 arrived in Moscow from the Kaluga province, acquired a shop and joined the merchants of the third guild. Subsequently, the family surname was changed according to the name of the founder's native settlement. The interests of the entrepreneur lay in the field of the textile industry: in 1846 he acquired the first weaving production. The middle son, Pavel Mikhailovich, brought the family business of the Ryabushinskys to the wide road, who sold the old father's manufactories and acquired the factory, equipping it with the latest technology.

In 1887, the family business was transformed into the "P. M. Ryabushinsky Manufactory Partnership", the fixed capital of which amounted to 2 million rubles. The company owned a paper-spinning, weaving, dyeing, finishing, and finishing factories in the Tver province. By the beginning of the 20th century, the capital of the enterprise had grown to 5 million rubles; in general, the family's fortune was estimated at over 20 million rubles.

After the death of Pavel and his wife, the case was headed by their eldest son, Pavel Pavlovich, whose name is more often associated with public and political activity However, it was under his leadership that the Ryabushinsky business continued to flourish at the turn of the century. Pavel, like his brothers, was educated at the Moscow Practical Academy of Commercial Sciences - an institution of secondary education for the training of businessmen, which is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Finance. Four of the eight brothers worked with Pavel: Sergey, Vladimir, Stepan and Mikhail. Entrepreneurs established themselves in the linen industry, invested in sawmilling, and were engaged in paper production.

The family owned the Ryabushinsky Brothers Banking House, which was later transformed into the Moscow Bank with the support of entrepreneurs involved in the textile industry. The Ryabushinskys recruited graduates of the academy where Pavel studied; in office junior staff prepared village children who, in addition to school, were trained at the expense of entrepreneurs in trading evening classes.

The well-known plans of the Ryabushinskys characterize the brothers as far-sighted entrepreneurs who relied on investments in promising technologies.

So, during the First World War, Sergei and Stepan established the Moscow Association of the Automobile Plant - an enterprise that, in Soviet time was converted to ZIL. A year after the laying, the plant was supposed to produce the first batch of trucks under the license of the Italian company FIAT. The equipment was created, although in violation of the deadlines, but the plant was not fully completed due to the events of 1917. The projects for oil exploration at the Ukhta fields and for the creation of machine-building enterprises in the Urals remained unrealized.

In the financial sector, the brothers' plan to create a "world-wide" bank is known through the merger of the Moscow Bank with other large institutions: the Volga-Kama and Russian commercial and industrial.

Pavel Pavlovich, in addition to managing family affairs, was passionate about socio-political processes, took an active part in the life of the country, consistently defending his position:

• collaborated with the "Union of October 17", with which he later broke off relations due to disagreement with the policy of P. Stolypin;
• published the newspapers "Morning", "Narodnaya Gazeta", "Morning of Russia", where he set out his vision of the prospects for the development of the state.

The entrepreneur saw the path of the country's development in combining the Old Believer traditions of pre-Petrine Russia with the institutions of Western capitalism, and warned the intelligentsia against being carried away by socialist ideas. Ryabushinsky fully supported the events of February 1917, since he believed that they opened up the opportunity for merchants and industrialists to influence political life countries.

After the revolution, the brothers emigrated, the descendants of the daughters of Pavel Mikhailovich live in Russia.

Vtorovs

Alexander Fedorovich Vtorov came from the Kostroma townspeople, lived in Irkutsk and, being a merchant, conducted wholesale trade in manufactured goods, furs, gold, and was engaged in financial transactions. Success in business allowed him to move to the 1st guild in 1876, and in 1897 to move with his family to Moscow and receive hereditary honorary citizenship. Alexander Alexandrovich remained to conduct business in Irkutsk, without stopping interaction with his father and brother. The elder Vtorov's brother, Pyotr Mazhukov, worked in Chita. Alexander Fedorovich successfully married off his daughters, becoming related to wealthy Moscow families.

Together with his son Nikolai, Alexander Fedorovich established an enterprise, which later became known as the “A.F. Vtorov and sons”, which:

• traded in textiles and tea;
• supplied raw materials for the production of smokeless powder to the treasury;
• owned commercial real estate in the cities of Siberia and the Urals;
• carried out manufactory production;
• conducted foreign trade operations in Mongolia.

Nikolai Aleksandrovich was distinguished by extraordinary thinking and chose promising industries and enterprises for investments, the effectiveness of which allowed him to increase his father's fortune.

At the end of the century, Nikolai Alexandrovich focused his interests on gold mining, but did not disregard other areas of activity: he expanded the list textile enterprises, his factories produced military uniforms and ammunition, created the Moscow Industrial Bank, was engaged in the production of dyes, and worked in other industrial sectors. Founded by the Second Partnership on Equity "Elektrostal" became the first such plant in Russia and gave birth to the city of the same name.

In the management of some enterprises, Nikolai Aleksandrovich was assisted by his son, Boris. The result of fruitful work was the largest fortune in the country, which exceeded the wealth of other famous families and was estimated at over 700 million modern dollars.

Nikolai Alexandrovich was killed in 1918, his family moved to France. Alexander Vtorov left Irkutsk in 1917.

Vogau

The founder of the business, Philipp-Max von Wogau, arrived in 1827 from Germany. Despite his noble origin, he was poor, was forced at first to serve "on parcels." Having no prospects in his homeland, he takes Russian citizenship and seeks a better life in Russia. The reputation earned here in 1839 gives Maxim Maksimovich the opportunity to marry the daughter of a textile manufacturer F. Rabenek. Since that time, the Vogau dynasty of Russian entrepreneurs has been counting down.

With the participation of the brothers Friedrich and Karl, Maxim Maksimovich opens an office that first sells tea, household and household chemicals, and then switched to the import of sugar, yarn and cotton. The enterprise grew into the trading house "Vogau and K", which until the October Revolution was under the control of the family. Except for the brothers family business their sons-in-law Erwin Schumacher and Konrad Banza, nephew Mark Moritz, Max's sons Otto and Hugo took part. The company reached its peak of development during the management of Hugo Maksimovich, the son of the founder of the dynasty.

In addition to conducting large-scale foreign trade operations, the family invested in the financial sector and industry:

• with the participation of Vogau, the Moscow Accounting Bank, Russian for foreign trade bank”, “Riga Commercial Bank” and insurance company “Anchor”;
• the family controlled enterprises in various industries, the circle of interests included ore mining, metal smelting, cement production, chemical and textile production;
• together with Knop, they searched for deposits of platinum and oil in the Urals and copper in the Caucasus.

The way of life of the family was usual for the German bourgeois: they professed Lutheranism, lived in the neighborhood, preserved the traditions of their people. In 1900, five of the eight members of the board of the company remained German citizens, so with the outbreak of war, Wogau was in difficult situation. Part of the enterprises suffered from pogroms, government supervision was established over the activities of the company. The family was forced to sell the leading businesses.

Hugo took part in the financing of the founded P.P. Ryabushinsky of the newspaper Morning of Russia, which criticized government policy in economic sphere and closed by the authorities "due to the harmful direction."

The fortune of the Vogau family, acquired over 90 years in Russia, was comparable to the wealth of the Morozovs and, according to Forbs, amounted to about 500 million dollars in modern terms.

After 1917 most of the Wogau emigrated from Russia. Today, the descendants of Hugo's son, Maxim, who has been a member of the CPSU (b) since 1919, live in the country.

Entrepreneurial engineer N.S. Avdakov

Nikolai Stepanovich was born in 1847 in the family of a military doctor assigned to the Kurinsky regiment stationed in the Caucasus. Avdakov's ancestors lived in the Vladimir province and, for the most part, were clergymen. Nikolai was educated at the Petersburg Mining Institute, from which he graduated in 1873. The Main Mining Directorate sent Avdakov to work as a mine engineer in the Rutchenko coal company, located in the Yekaterinoslav province and created with Belgian capital.

Introduction
Relevance of the topic. 18th century to Russian history became quite a difficult and controversial period. In the first half of the century, the feudal system continued to dominate. Even fairly large reformist changes in the country's economy not only did not weaken, but, on the contrary, tightened serfdom. However, a significant growth in productive forces, the formation of large industrial enterprises and other factors in the course of the reforms of Peter I created the conditions for fundamentally new processes in the country's economy.
Economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. can be characterized as pre-crisis, since the economy intertwined in the most complex way the old, feudal forms of economy and new, market relations. During these years it became clear that the country could not move forward with the heavy shackles of serfdom, but it turned out to be very difficult to take radical steps in this direction.
At this time, capitalist production relations begin to penetrate into all spheres of the economy, the social division of labor deepens, specialization of industrial and agricultural regions emerges, which leads to a revival of economic ties.
In the 30-40s of the 19th century, an industrial revolution began in Russia - the transition from manufactories to factories based on machine technology. This period took about half a century. The industrial revolution in Russia began in the era of serfdom, and ended already in the era of capitalism. First of all, it occurred in those industries where free hired labor prevailed.
Naturally, the industrial revolution had its own socio-economic consequences. Labor productivity increased, output increased, and the first machine-building manufactories arose. However, the technical base based on serf labor was weak.
aim control work is a study of Russian industry in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
1) analyze the main stages in the development of Russian industry.
2) to study the patterns of the formation of industry in the designated period.

1. Russian industry in the XVIII century
The 18th century became a rather complicated and controversial period in the Russian economy. In the first half of the century, the feudal system continued to dominate. Even major reformist changes in the country's economy not only weakened, but, on the contrary, tightened serfdom. However, a significant increase in production forces, the formation of large industrial enterprises in the course of the reforms of Peter I created the conditions for fundamentally new processes in the country's economy.
At the beginning of the XVIII century, the Russian economy did not have the economic achievements of the leading Western countries. Industrial production lagged behind. The few Russian manufactories overwhelmingly used serf labor.
In order to overcome the danger of losing national independence, to acquire a worthy way out of the humiliating state of military, economic and cultural backwardness, Russia needed serious and urgent political and economic reforms. Peter I (1672-1725), possessing high qualities of efficiency and rationalism, passionately dreaming of the prosperity of Russia, set about reforming almost all spheres of life and activity of Russian society. According to Peter I, the gap in the levels of economic development with the West, the backwardness of the commercial and industrial sphere and entrepreneurship were directly related to the level of science, education and secular culture. And yet, remaining an unconditional supporter of Western achievements, Peter I was guided by Russian specifics. His reforms rested not on the creative initiative of society, the level of democratic structure of which was low, but on the state mechanism, state institutions. As a result, there was a strengthening of the central state power and a significant nationalization of trade and economic activities.
Indeed, about three thousand legislative acts of the Petrine era truly stirred up the life of a vast country. Among them: the creation of a powerful regular army, military and navy, numerous manufactories, a new monetary system, forms of land tenure, etc.
Among the most important economic reforms of the great reformer, not the last place was occupied by the actual economic policy of the state.
Since the first quarter of the 18th century, industry has become the main direction of domestic economic development as the main source of the country's wealth. It was here that under Peter I the most significant changes took place. And although, as before, the satisfaction of basic needs for products of mass demand was carried out through urban and rural handicrafts, as well as domestic crafts, small-scale commodity production began to play an increasingly important role. Its largest centers have developed in the textile (Moscow, Vladimir, Kostroma provinces), metallurgical (Novgorod vicegerency, Tula-Serpukhov, Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl and other regions) industry, in metal processing (Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov), in leather (Yaroslavl, Kazan , Kochstroma, Cheboksary), woodworking, brick, flour-grinding and other industries. Gradually, this type of production began to grow into cooperation or manufactory. The workshops established by Peter I (1722), unlike the European ones, did not play a decisive role in the development of Russian manufactory production. They failed to protect against competition, did not regulate production and marketing. Many artisans generally worked outside the workshops.
And yet, the most important result of the transformation of Peter I was the creation of numerous manufactories in a short period. Their nature was peculiar and sometimes contradictory, reflecting the nature of the labor used. First of all, the lack of significant capital in Russia as yet led to the construction of manufactories at public expense. Therefore, these enterprises served mainly state and, above all, military needs. Their numbers are astounding. If at the end of the 17th century there were no more than 20 manufactories in Russia, then by 1725. their number exceeded 200. Of these, 69 were in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, 18 were sawmills, 17 were gunpowder, 15 were cloth, among others leather, glass, stationery, etc. prevailed.
At this stage, the state played a decisive role in the formation of domestic industry. So, Peter I supported and encouraged the special Ore Order (1700), and from 1729. the racing and metallurgical industry became in charge of the Berg Collegium. The state not only built many factories, but also helped entrepreneurs with materials, money, labor force. The government of Peter I, in order to attract the richest merchants, nobles and landowners to industrial entrepreneurship and the construction of the domestic fleet, created companies. Loans were directed at their disposal and all kinds of benefits were provided. Later, state-owned manufactories often came into the hands of authoritative and experienced entrepreneurs, especially from among merchants, less often nobles or peasants, free of charge. Already by 1725. more than half (57%) of total number manufactures passed to private owners.
Russia was famous for its craftsmen and craftsmen. The introduction of advanced technology into large-scale industry and the improvement in the quality of manufactured products were world-wide rewarded and encouraged. Control over the study and implementation of world technical experience was entrusted to the Manufacture College.
The geography of Russian industrial production expanded. Along with the growth of metallurgy in the center of the country (Tula, Kaluga, Kashira), Karelia (Olonets plant), in St. Petersburg (Sestroretsky plant), the largest, all-European significance metallurgical center to the Urals (Yekaterinburg, Nizhne-Tagil, Nevyansk and other plants). For example, in the Urals, 2/3 of the total volume of cast iron and 9/10 of copper were smelted. In iron production, Russia made a giant leap from 0.8 million poods in 1718. to almost 5 million pounds in 1767, overtaking England and Sweden - the leaders in the field of metallurgy of that time.
The military arsenal was replenished by state manufactories that produced gunpowder, ropes, canvas, etc. Textile and leather enterprises also worked to provide the army - the Moscow cloth yard, manufactories in Yaroslavl, Voronezh, Kazan, etc.
Peter I, the creator of the domestic fleet, built shipyards in St. Petersburg, Voronezh and Arkhangelsk. New industries were formed in both capitals: paper production and silk spinning, faience and glass production, etc.
Encouragement of manufacturing production was carried out on the basis of the inviolability of serfdom. Both state-owned and private factories, especially mining ones, were endowed with forced labor. They even practiced “adding” peasants to them for purposes of villages and even volosts. Only more skilled workers. As a rule, they were hired. The production sphere was supplemented by a significant number of patrimonial manufactories, where the master's peasants worked out an additional corvée, processing agricultural raw materials produced on the estate.
By their economic nature and the nature of the labor used, Russian manufactories of the 18th century. were serfs, mixed or capitalist. At state-owned manufactories, the labor of state (black-eared) or possession peasants was used, at patrimonial - serfs. By the second half of the century, merchants, as well as peasant manufactories, began to attract the labor of hired workers.
2. Russian industry in the first half of the 19th century
The 19th century was for Russia a time of a slow but steady rise.
In the first quarter of the 19th century, the pace of industrial development was low, and the Russian government did not pay much attention to these issues.
Small industry dominated, represented by domestic industry and handicrafts. Home industry, i.e. the processing of raw materials produced on their own farm was more characteristic of a peasant economy: flax spinning, wool processing, felting cloth remained typical activities for both men and women in Russian villages. The domestic industry retained its dominant importance until the middle of the 19th century, even in the most economically developed regions of the country.
The craft was more inherent in cities. In the first half of the 19th century, landowners widely practiced giving their serfs, usually the children of courtyards, into the education of urban artisans. Shoe, tailor, culinary, feldsher, coachman, bronze and other crafts enjoyed the greatest success. Serfs trained in the craft later brought their landowner a significant income.
Already at the beginning of the century, there was a specialization of small-scale industry centers: silk production accumulated in Moscow and in villages to the east of Moscow, shoemakers concentrated in Tver, leather workers in Vologda.
The extensive nature of labor was inherent in small-scale industry. So popular in the North was the spoon trade, completely disastrous for the forests: one spooner, in search of “patterned” raw materials, chopped more than a hundred trees a day, and if he found the right one, he took only a short bar at the root.
In the post-reform period, these basic characteristics in the development of small-scale industry will be preserved, but capitalist relations will gradually begin to develop in small-scale industry.
The large-scale industry of the beginning of the century is represented by manufactories, of which there were about 2 thousand. The manufactory worked primarily for the upper classes and the treasury, satisfied the demand of the state for iron, non-ferrous metals, guns, guns, shells, cloth, canvas, sailcloth, paper, ropes and ropes. A significant part of the products of manufactories was consumed by the city: wool, silk, glass, faience, porcelain, paper, sugar, salt, vodka. Only a modest part of manufactory products went to the village - salt, vodka, scarves and ribbons, some types of metal products and metal in the form of a semi-finished product - for village blacksmiths.
In the first half of the 19th century there were two leading centers of large-scale industry. One of them - the Urals - the center of metallurgy, which gave 4/5 of all metal products, is also becoming the center of the mining industry. Here, since the 20-30s, active development of deposits of precious stones - emeralds, amethysts, alexandrites has begun, gold, silver and platinum mines are being arranged. The dynamics of gold mining is impressive: in 1829. mined one pood of gold, and in 1850. - already 1000 pounds.
Another center of Russian industry was the Moscow region, where the manufacturing and textile industries were concentrated.
The role of St. Petersburg as an industrial center at the beginning of the 19th century was small, but it grew rapidly. It was near St. Petersburg, at the Alexander State Textile Manufactory, in the first years of the century, textile looms brought from England were used. The mass introduction of machines into production and the actual beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia dates back to the 30-40s of the 19th century. Cars were brought from England, Germany, Belgium. Then, at the beginning of the century, they began to establish the production of their own cars - albeit in very small quantities, since imported cars were in disproportionately greater demand than domestic ones: they were cheaper and of higher quality. Nevertheless, St. Petersburg is gradually becoming the center of Russian engineering.
In general, in the middle of the 19th century, despite the industrial revolution that had begun, manual rather than machine labor still prevailed in the country. The most successful development light industry industries - textile and food. Heavy industry, incl. ferrous metallurgy, more and more lagged behind the world level. The development of most industries was hampered by the existence of a system of serfdom and the forced nature of labor in the national economy.

Conclusion
XVIII century - a time of intensive growth of Russian industry. Ferrous metallurgy developed especially successfully. For fifty years, Russia increased the production of pig iron by more than 13 times, which overtook the advanced country of that era - England. Russia retained superiority in the production of black metal almost until the end of the 18th century.
Almost the entire Russian industry was based on the forced labor of serfs, possessions and ascribed peasants. In the second quarter of the 18th century, few state-owned enterprises were built even in metallurgy. And in light industry, all new manufactories belonged to private owners. Among them, only some merchants used hired labor, and even then only in those industries that did not receive free labor from the state. work force because their products had no military value.
The presence of serfdom and the natural nature of the landlord economy in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century did not allow capitalist production relations to develop with the necessary degree of intensity. Dependency of the peasants
etc.................

According to many researchers, the development of capitalist relations in Russia in the second half of the 18th century was due to the property stratification of the peasantry and the penetration of commodity production into agriculture.

First of all, this concerned quitrent areas, where corvée was replaced by payment in kind. A significant part of the peasants went bankrupt. They had to break ties with the land and look for work outside the agricultural trades. This created a labor market for large-scale industry.

Russia at that time managed to go ahead of some European countries in certain quantitative indicators of large-scale industrial production. First of all, this concerned Russian iron, which Russia continued to supply in fair quantities to Europe.

However, while England entered the era of the industrial revolution, the industrial technology of Russia remained old. Backward forms were worn by industrial relations in such industries as metallurgical, cloth.

And yet the growth of enterprises continued. If in 1767 in Russia there were 385 manufactories (cloth, linen, silk, glass and others) and 182 iron and copper smelters, then by the end of the century the number of such enterprises doubled.

The Urals occupied a leading position in metallurgy. It provided ninety percent of the copper smelting and sixty-five percent of the iron production of the entire empire. In the territory of this industrial region in the seventies of the eighteenth century, 84 copper-smelting blast-furnace and iron-working plants operated.

In proportion to the growth of enterprises, their productivity also grew. Iron smelting at the end of the century doubled in comparison with the seventies and amounted to ten million poods.

In the middle of the century, the industrial development of the southern Urals began. Private entrepreneurs took up the construction of mining plants, which was due, first of all, to the growth in demand for iron on the foreign market. The demand for metal, especially copper, also increased within the country.

As well as. merchants-entrepreneurs also built factories with titled nobility: I. Tverdyshev, I. Myasnikov, the Osokin family, and others.

At the beginning of the century, the focus of large enterprises light industry were cities. In the second half XVIII century industrial capital also penetrates into the countryside. The owner of the manufactory distributed raw materials and tools to the surrounding peasants or bought semi-finished products from them. This is how scattered manufactories arose, in which only the final stage of production was centralized.

Most often, scattered manufactories appeared in the linen industry. Here the same process took place as in Western Europe. Household peasant crafts turned into an appendage of manufactory, the peasants turned into homeworkers, which gave impetus to property stratification among the peasants.

Russia at that time did not experience difficulties with raw materials and free labor, which led to the possibility of profitable sales of products in the domestic and foreign markets. The landlords very soon realized what was happening, and set about setting up patrimonial manufactories. Cloth, linen, leather, glass, distilleries and other enterprises were created in the central, southern and western lands of the Empire. However, work at these enterprises for the majority of workers, that is, peasants, was one of the forms of corvée.

Of course, enterprises with the involvement of peasants could not turn into capitalist factories over time. Therefore, despite the absolute growth of noble manufactories, by the end of the century their share falls due to an increase in the number of merchant and peasant manufactories using hired labor.

Light industry gave rise to a significant number of capitalist manufactories that grew, most often, from peasant crafts. The Ivanovo textile district in the middle of the century used, as a rule, hired workers, and not possessive peasants.

Compared to many Western countries, Russia had a large number of large enterprises in the light industry. Among them there were those who employed up to two thousand people and even more. Enterprises serving 300-400 workers were considered average.

The Khovansky princes at their cloth factory used the labor of more than two and a half thousand workers, the Goncharovs - the owners of the sailing manufactory - at the end of the 18th century used the labor of more than one and a half thousand workers.

The register of the Manufacture College of 1767 testifies that about eighteen thousand hired workers worked at Russian enterprises at that time; together with the homeworkers, they amounted to twenty-five thousand. The forced labor of privately owned peasants prevailed only in cloth manufactories, while in other branches of production, such as silk weaving, sailing and silk, cotton, etc., capitalist exploitation of labor prevailed. From this we can conclude that in the second half of the 18th century there was a clear trend towards an increase in the number of hired workers employed in Russian manufactories.

The increase in the share of hired labor is especially noticeable in the industrial enterprises of Ukraine - such as the tobacco, distillery and leather industries; in the Estonian glass industry, paper industry Latvia.

At the same time, there was an increase in wage labor in the metalworking industry in the central regions of Russia. Wage labor was widely used in small peasant enterprises: flour mills, oil mills, leather, soap, candle, iron and others. Wage labor acquired great importance in water transport and, to some extent, in horse-drawn transport, in shipbuilding and in loading and unloading operations.

About two hundred and twenty thousand hired workers worked in Russia in the sixties of the XVIII century. By the end of the century, their number had nearly doubled.

The stratification of the peasantry on the largest scale took place in the villages, where weaving and metal-working crafts have long been engaged.

The process of turning the village into a large commercial and industrial center, which later becomes a city, is clearly visible in the villages of Ivanovo and Pavlovo, whose inhabitants were formally considered peasants, but late XVIII centuries no longer engaged in agriculture.

In search of earnings, people from the surrounding areas flocked to such towns and villages. Passports and holiday documents began to be issued for more and more long term until finally the quitrent peasants turned into permanent residents of Moscow, Ivanovo and other industrial centers.

Even at the large enterprises of the mining industry of the Urals, the use of wage labor spread ...

Still, the labor market lagged significantly behind the growth of industry. This is especially noticeable in the industry of the Urals. In order to attract otkhodniks from the central regions, the industrialist often gave them an advance, which somewhat delayed the turnover of capital.

Many manufacturers were forced to significantly reduce production during the summer agricultural work. Not all industrialists managed to fully utilize the production capacity of their factories. The owner of the manufactory was obliged to share his profits with the landowner, since the salary of a quitrent peasant, as a manufactory worker, was determined not only by the subsistence minimum, but also by the amount of quitrent paid to the landowner. The development of production thus slowed down.