In the second half of the 18th century. Merchants and the economy in the second half of the 18th century

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Under “enlightened absolutism” some authors
understand policies that, using social
demagoguery and slogans of French enlighteners,
pursued the goal of preserving the old order."
Other historians have tried to show how the "enlightened
absolutism", meeting the interests of the nobility,
at the same time contributed to bourgeois development.
Still others approach the question of “enlightened
absolutism" from an academic point of view, seeing in it
one of the stages in the evolution of absolute monarchy.

In the 18th century, French
enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot,
Montesquieu, Rousseau)
formulated the main
public concept
development. One of the ways
achieving freedom, equality,
they saw brotherhood in
activities of enlightened
monarchs - “wise men on the throne”,
who, using their
authorities will help the cause
education of society and
establishing justice.
The ideal of Montesquieu, whose work
“On the Spirit of Laws” was a tabletop
the book of Catherine II, was
constitutional monarchy with a clear
division of legislative
executive and judicial
authorities.

Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century.

The most important task foreign policy standing in front of
In Russia in the second half of the 18th century there was a struggle for
access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov. From the third
quarter of the 18th century in foreign policy activities
The Polish question occupied a significant place in Russia.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789,
largely determined the direction of foreign policy
actions of the Russian autocracy at the end of the 18th century, including
fight against revolutionary France.
The head of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs was
directed by Nikita Ivanovich Panin
(1718 – 1783)
one of the largest diplomats
and government officials
tutor of Tsarevich Paul.

Türkiye, incited by England and
France, in the fall of 1768 declared
war in Russia. Hostilities
began in 1769 and were carried out on
territories of Moldavia and Wallachia, and
also on the Azov coast, where
after the capture of Azov and Taganrog
Russia has started construction
fleet.
In 1770 the Russian army was under
Rumyantsev's command won
victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers and
went to the Danube.
At this time the Russian squadron was under
command of Spiridov and Alexey
Orlov for the first time in Russian history
made the transition from the Baltic
seas around Europe to the eastern
part of the Mediterranean with full
absence of bases along the route and in
conditions of hostility
France. Finding yourself behind Turkish lines
fleet, she June 5, 1770 in
Chesme Bay was destroyed
an opponent who is twice
surpassed the Russian squadron in
numbers and weapons.

In 1771 the Dardanelles were blockaded. Turkish
trade in the Mediterranean was disrupted. In 1771
The Russian army under the command of Dolgoruky captured
Crimea. (Peace negotiations broke down) In 1774
A.V. Suvorov defeated the Grand Vizier's army on the Danube
near the village of Kozludzha. Having opened the main forces under
Rumyantsev's command led the way to Istanbul. In 1774
The Kuychuk-Kaynadarzhik Peace Treaty was concluded -
according to which Russia received access to Chernoy
sea, Novorossiya, the right to have a fleet on the Black Sea,
right of passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits.
Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to
Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from
Turkey. Türkiye paid an indemnity of 4
million rubles. The development of Novorossiya (southern Ukraine) began,
the city of Ekaterinoslav was founded - 1776,
Dnepropetrovsk and Kherson - 1778
In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea, Russian troops
in 1783 they occupied Crimean peninsula. The city was founded
Sevastopol. G.A. Potemkin for success in joining
Crimea received a prefix to his title “prince
Tauride".
In 1783, in the city of Georgievsk (northern Caucasus) a
agreement - by the Georgian king Heraclius II on a protectorate,
Georgia became part of Russia.

Russian-Turkish War 1768 – 1774

Russian-Turkish War (1787 – 1791)

In the summer of 1787, Türkiye demanded the return of Crimea and began
hostilities. The first period of the war ended with the capture of
1787 Ochakov, after which the Russian army launched an attack on
Danube direction, which resulted in two victories,
won at Focsani and Rymnik (1789).

10.

The second stage was marked by the capture on December 11, 1790.
impregnable fortress Izmail. Suvorov organized
thorough preparation, interaction between the army and navy.
The disaster on the Danube near Izmail added to the collapse
Turkish fleet.

11.

In 1790, at the head of the Black Sea
the fleet was supplied with one of
outstanding Russian naval commanders
– Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov. He
developed and applied to
deeply thought out practice
combat training system
personnel, as well as
used a number of new
tactical techniques. At
numerical superiority of forces in favor
Turks, the Russian fleet won three
major victories: in Kerch
strait, near Tendera Island
(September 1790) and Cape
Kaliakria (August 1791) in
resulting in the Turkish fleet
was forced to capitulate. IN
December 1791 in Iasi was
peace treaty signed
who confirmed the accession
Crimea, as well as the territories between
Bug and Dniester. Bessarabia
was returned to Turkey.

12. Partitions of Poland.

In October 1763, the Polish died
King Augustus III. Russia accepted
active participation in the election of a new
king to prevent accession
Poland into a coalition with France,
Turkey and Sweden. After a long time
struggle on August 26, 1764
coronation diet, at
support for Russia, Polish
Stanislav was elected king
Poniatowski. Russian activity
caused the displeasure of Prussia and
Austria. This led to the first section
Poland, which began
laid down by the Austrian occupation
parts of Polish territory. In August
1772 in St. Petersburg was signed
agreement between Russia, Austria and
Prussia. They went to Russia
eastern provinces of Poland,
Austria received Galicia and the city
Lvov, Prussia – Pomerania and part
Great Poland.

13.

On May 3, 1791 it was adopted
Polish constitution, which
strengthened Polish
statehood.
In January 1793 there was
The second partition of Poland was carried out.
Russia received part of Belarus and
right-bank Ukraine, to Prussia
Polish lands with cities went away
Gdansk, Torun and Poznan. Austria in
did not participate in the second section.
In 1794, Poland began
uprising led by T.
Kosciuszko who was suppressed 4
November 1794 by Suvorov.
The third section took place in October
1795. Russia received Western
Belarus, Lithuania, Volyn and
Duchy of Courland. To Prussia
occupied the central part of Poland
together with Warsaw, Austria received
southern part of Poland. Poland like
independent state
ceased to exist.

14. Domestic policy of Catherine II.

Reform of central authorities.
One of Catherine's first reforms was
division of the Senate into six departments with
certain powers and competence.
Senate reform improved governance of the country
from the center, but the Senate lost its legislative
a function that increasingly shifted to
to the empress. Two departments were transferred
to Moscow.
Created by her during the Russian-Turkish war in
1768 council at the highest court “for
considerations of all matters related to the jurisdiction
war" later turned into
permanent advisory and
administrative body under the empress. In his
the sphere included issues not only military, but also
domestic policy. The council existed until
1800, however, under Paul his functions
significantly narrowed

15.

Reform of local authorities.
On November 7, 1755, “Institutions for the management of provinces” were established
All-Russian Empire". The main principles of local government reform
began the decentralization of management and increasing the role of the local nobility.
The number of provinces increased from 23 to 50. On average, 300,400 male souls lived in the province. Capital provinces and large regions were headed by
governors (governors general) with unlimited powers,
answerable only to the empress.
The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governor, and the Treasury was in charge of finances.
chamber headed by the lieutenant governor. The provincial land surveyor was engaged
land management.
The provinces were divided into districts of 20–30 thousand male souls. Cities and big
villages, which began to be called cities, became county centers.
The main authority of the county became the Lower Zemstvo Court, headed by a police captain elected by the local nobility. Appointed to counties
county treasurer and surveyor.
Judicial reform.
Catherine separated the judicial and executive authorities. All classes
In addition to serfs, they had to take part in local government.
Each class had its own court. The landowner was to be judged by the Upper
zemstvo court in the provinces and district court in the district. State peasants
judged by the Upper Justice in the province and the Lower Justice in the district, the townspeople -
city magistrate (in the district) and provincial magistrate - in the province. All courts
were elected, with the exception of the lower court, which appointed
governor. The Senate became the highest judicial body in the country, and
provinces - chambers of criminal and civil courts, whose members
were appointed by the sovereign. The governor could interfere in court affairs.

16.

In a separate administrative unit was
the city was taken out. At the head of the city was the mayor,
endowed with all rights and powers. City
divided into areas that were under
supervision of a private bailiff, districts into blocks -
led by the quarterly overseer.
After the provincial reform they stopped
all boards function except
foreign, military and admiralty. Functions
collegiums were transferred to provincial bodies. In 1775
The Zaporozhye Sich was liquidated. Even earlier
in 1764 the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished, its
The governor general took the place.
The existing system of territory management
countries in new conditions solved the problem of strengthening
local power of the nobility. More than twice
the number of local officials increased.

17.

18.

Orders of Catherine II.
In 1767, Catherine convened in Moscow
special commission for
drafting a new set of laws
Russian Empire.
The leading role in it was played by the nobles
deputies 45% took part in it
representatives of the clergy,
state peasants, Cossacks.
The commission was provided
orders from the localities (1600), empress
prepared her “Order”. He consisted
of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles.
Supreme power, according to Catherine II
can only be autocratic.
The goal of the autocracy was Catherine
declared the benefit of all subjects.
Catherine believed that the laws
are created to educate citizens.
Only a court can recognize a person
guilty. Work of the commission
lasted more than a year. Under
as a pretext for the outbreak of war with Turkey
it was dissolved in 1768 on
indefinitely, never
developing new legislation.
But Catherine embodied the ideas of the “Nakaz” in
“Institutions on provinces” and in
"Charter of Complaints."

19.

“Charter of Complaint to the Nobility.”
April 21, 1785 - Catherine published
letters of grant to the nobility and cities.
The publication of two charters by Catherine II
regulated legislation on rights and
duties of the estates.
In accordance with the “letter of liberty”
and the advantages of the noble Russian
nobility" it was freed from
compulsory service, personal taxes,
corporal punishment. The names were announced
full ownership of the landowners, who,
in addition, they had the right to start
own factories and factories. Nobles
could sue only with their equals and without
the court of nobility could not be deprived
noble honor, life and estate. Nobles
provinces and districts elected their own
leaders and officials
local government. Provincial and district
noble assemblies had the right to do
representations to the government about their
needs. Letter of grant to the nobility
consolidated and legally formalized
nobility in Russia. To the dominant
the class was given the name
"noble".

20.

“Certificate of rights and benefits to cities of the Russian Empire”
determined the rights and responsibilities of the urban population, the system
management in cities.
All townspeople were recorded in the city philistine book and
constituted a "city society". The townspeople were divided into 6
categories: 1 – nobles and clergy living in the city; 2 –
merchants (divided into 3-4 guilds); 3 – guild artisans; 4 -
foreigners permanently living in the city; 5 – famous
townspeople; 6 – townspeople who lived by crafts or
work.
Residents of the city elected a self-government body every 3 years -
General city duma, city mayor and judges. General
the city duma elected the executive body -
“six-voice” Duma (one representative from each class). IN
she was in charge of matters related to improvement, education,
compliance with trade rules.
The charter awarded all six categories of city
population under state control. The real power in
city was in the hands of the mayor, the deanery council and
governor.

21. Economic policy of Catherine II. The situation of the peasants.

Population of Russia in the middle of the 18th century. There were 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36
million people. The bulk of the population lived in rural areas. 54% peasants
were privately owned, 40% - state-owned, 6% - owned
palace department.
In 1764, after the secularization of church and monastic lands, almost
2 million peasants moved into the “economic” category, and later
"state".
Agriculture remained the leading sector of the Russian economy, which
was of an extensive nature. The result of this was a significant increase
bread production; the black earth zone (Ukraine) turned into the country's breadbasket.
They sown mainly rye, barley, oats, and wheat. Volume has increased
of exported grain in the 50s it amounted to 2 thousand rubles. per year, in the 80s already 2.5 million.
rub. in year.
In the second half of the 18th century, two large regions with
using various forms exploitation of peasants: on fertile lands
Black Earth Region - corvée, monthly (the peasant often did not have his own allotment), and in
in areas with infertile soil - quitrent (cash or in kind).
A serf was no longer different from a slave. The decree of 1765 allowed landowners
exile your peasants without trial to Siberia for hard labor, counting them as
recruits. Peasant trade flourished. According to the decree of 1763, peasants must
were themselves to pay the costs associated with the suppression of their speeches. In 1767
a decree was issued prohibiting peasants from filing complaints against their landowners.

22.

Industry.
In 1785, a special “Craft Regulations” was published,
which was part of the “Charter of Letters to Cities”. At least 5
artisans of the same specialty had to unite into a workshop
and elect your foreman.
The government's goal was to turn urban artisans into
one of the class groups of the then feudal society.
In the second half of the 18th century there was a further growth of manufactories.
In the middle of the century there were about 600 of them, by the end of the century there were more than 3,000.
Manufactories were for the most part private. In the second quarter of the XVIII
century, the number of merchant enterprises increased, mainly in light
industry. With few exceptions, this industry has been
based on wage labor. The supplier of workers was
the ruined peasantry.
The creators of peasant manufactories were the owners of small
workshops - “svetelok”. As a rule, they were dues
serfs. Sometimes they managed to buy their way out, they entered into
merchant guilds and even received noble titles.
In 1762 it was forbidden to buy serfs for factories. IN
in the same year the government stopped assigning peasants to
enterprises. Manufactories founded after 1762 by nobles
worked exclusively as civilian labor.

23.

The second half of the 18th century is a time of further development and
formation of the all-Russian market. The number has increased
fairs (up to 1600). The largest fairs were
Makaryevskaya on the Volga, Korennaya - near Kursk, Irbitskaya - in
Siberia, Nezhinskaya - in Ukraine.
Russia exported metal, hemp, linen fabrics, sailing
linen, wood, leather, bread. They imported sugar, silk, dyeing
substances, coffee, tea. Exports prevailed over imports.
Strengthening the apparatus of power, spending on war, maintaining the court and
other government needs required large amounts of money
resources. Treasury revenues increased in the second half of the 18th century
4 times, however, expenses also increased 5 times. Chronic
Catherine tried to compensate for the budget deficit
traditional measures. One of them was the issue of paper
money. For the first time since 1769, paper money appeared (by the end
In the 18th century, the paper ruble depreciated and = 68 kopecks. silver).
Also, for the first time under Catherine, Russia turned to external
loans, in 1769 in Holland and in 1770 in Italy.

24. Peasant war led by Pugachev. (1773 – 1775)

The Peasant War of 1773-75 in Russia covered the Urals,
Trans-Urals, Middle and N. Volga region. Headed by E.I. Pugachev,
I. N. Beloborodov, I. N. Chika-Zarubin, M. Shigaev,
Khlopushey (A. Sokolov) and others. Yaik Cossacks took part,
serfs, working people of the Ural factories and
peoples of the Volga region, especially the Bashkirs led by Salavat
Yulaev, Kinzey Arslanov. Pugachev declared himself tsar
Peter Fedorovich (see Peter III), announced to the people eternal
freedom, granted land, called for the extermination of landowners. IN
September 1773 rebels captured Iletsky and others
fortified towns. Nobles and clergy are ruthless
were destroyed. In October 1773 Pugachev with a detachment of 2500
man besieged the Orenburg fortress. In February 1774 it was taken
Chelyabinsk. Under pressure from regular troops, Pugachev went to
Ural factories. After the defeat in the battle for Kazan (July
1774) the rebels moved to the right bank of the Volga, where
a peasant movement developed. Pugachev called for
transfer of land to peasants, abolition of serfdom,
the destruction of nobles and royal officials. Peasants' War
was defeated. Pugachev was captured and executed in Moscow in
1775.

25.

26. 27. Social and political thought in the second half of the 18th century.

In the second half of the 18th century there is
the origin and gradual formation of the main
currents of Russian social and political
thoughts.
Common to all thinkers of this period
was the idea of slow, gradual development.
Supporters of the moderate direction are the first
education and training in order to prepare for
freedom. Supporters of the democratic direction
- they proposed to start with the abolition of serfdom, and
then enlighten.
Catherine believed that the Russian people have a special
historical mission.
Prince Shcherbatov (aristocratic-conservative
direction) suggested returning to the pre-Petrine
Rus'.

28.

Another direction of Russian
social thought of this period
closely related to Freemasonry. In the XVIII
century the ideas of Freemasonry are strong
changed and now it was striving
influence state policies.
Catherine entered into a fight with
Freemasonry and in particular with Nicholas
Ivanovich Novikov. (1744 – 1818
gg.) Publisher, publicist – j-l
"Drone", "Painter". Catherine
also published a magazine - “Every
stuff." Ultimately Novikov
was imprisoned for 15 years
Shlisselburg.
In the second half of the 18th century, within
enlightenment arises
revolutionary ideology. – Radishchev
(1749 - 1802), he criticized
serfdom and spoke out for them
destruction, through revolutionary
coup. He was exiled to Ilimsk in
1790

29. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

Reform of the education system. Efforts were aimed at
creation in the country of a system for educating a “new breed of people”,
capable of serving as a support for the throne and implementing
the monarch's plans. The most energetic conductor of this
course became Betskoy, an outstanding teacher and organizer of educational
affairs in Russia. In 1764, Catherine approved what he developed
“General institution on the education of both sexes
youth", which outlined the main pedagogical principles
author. Created closed educational institutions
boarding school type. He called for linking mental and
physical education.
In 1782 - 1786 school reform was carried out in Russia,
which created a system of uniformly organized educational
institutions with uniform curricula and common methodology
training. These were the so-called “public schools”, the main ones in provincial cities and small ones in district ones. Small
were a two-year school and provided basic knowledge.
The main ones were 4 – great. TO end of the XVIII century in Russia
there were 188 schools, where 22 thousand people studied.

30.

At Moscow University
the teachers' lounge was opened
seminary - the first in Russia
pedagogical educational
institution. In 1783 there was
Russian
academy. This institution
brought together outstanding
writers, scientists and there were
intended as a humanitarian
science Center.
Since 1783 director
St. Petersburg Academy
becomes Princess Catherine
Romanovna Dashkova, she
showed great
administrative talent and
put things in order
academy.

Strengthening the centralized Russian state and expanding its borders under Ivan IV. Oprichnina

"Time of Troubles" on Russian soil

Russian-Polish War 1654–1667 And its results. Voluntary reunification of Ukraine with Russia

The beginning of Russia's modernization. Reforms of Peter the Great

Serf Russia in the second half of the 18th century

Pedigree table before Catherine II

Peasants' War 1773–1775 Under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva

The Patriotic War of 1812 is a patriotic epic of the Russian people

Orders of the Russian Empire in descending order of the hierarchical ladder and the resulting degree of noble status

The Decembrist movement and its significance

Distribution of the population by class in the Russian Empire

Crimean War 1853-1856

Social and political movements in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Revolutionary democrats and populism

The spread of Marxism in Russia. The emergence of political parties

Abolition of serfdom in Russia

Peasant reform of 1861 in Russia and its significance

Population of Russia by religion (1897 census)

Political modernization of Russia in the 60–70s of the 19th century

Russian culture of the 19th century

Russian culture in the 19th century

Political reaction of the 80–90s of the 19th century

The international position of Russia and the foreign policy of tsarism at the end of the 19th century

The development of capitalism in Russia, its features, reasons for the aggravation of contradictions at the turn of the 20th century

Labor movement in Russia at the end of the 19th century

The rise of the revolution in 1905. Councils of workers' deputies. The December armed uprising is the culmination of the revolution

Expenditures on external defense of the country (thousand rubles)

Juneteenth Monarchy

Agrarian reform p.A. Stolypin

Russia during the First World War

February Revolution of 1917: victory of democratic forces

Dual power. Classes and parties in the struggle to choose the historical path of development of Russia

Growing revolutionary crisis. Kornilovshchina. Bolshevization of the Soviets

National crisis in Russia. Victory of the socialist revolution

Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies October 25–27 (November 7–9), 1917

Civil war and foreign military intervention in Russia. 1918–1920

The growth of the Red Army during the civil war

The policy of "war communism"

New Economic Policy

National policy of the Soviet government. Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Policy and practice of forced industrialization, complete collectivization of agriculture

The first five-year plan in the USSR (1928/29–1932)

Achievements and difficulties in solving social problems in the conditions of reconstruction of the national economy of the USSR in the 20–30s

Cultural construction in the USSR in the 20–30s

The main results of the socio-economic development of the USSR by the end of the 30s

Foreign policy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War

Strengthening the defense capability of the USSR on the eve of Nazi aggression

The Great Patriotic War. The decisive role of the USSR in the defeat of Nazi Germany

The labor feat of the Soviet people in the restoration and development of the national economy of the USSR in the post-war years

Searching for ways of social progress and democratization of society in the 50s and 60s

Soviet Union in the 70s - first half of the 80s

Commissioning of residential buildings (millions of square meters of total (useful) area of dwellings)

Increasing stagnation in society. Political turn of 1985

PROBLEMS OF Developing Political Pluralism in a Transitional Society

The crisis of the national state structure and the collapse of the USSR

The size and ethnic composition of the population of the republics within the Russian Federation

Economy and social sphere of the Russian Federation in the 90s

Industrial products

1. Fuel and energy industries

2. Ferrous metallurgy

3. Mechanical engineering

Chemical and petrochemical industry

Construction materials industry

Light industry

Household goods

Standards of living

Production per capita, kg (annual average)

Agriculture

Livestock

Chronological table

Content

Lr No. 020658

107150, Moscow, st. Losinoostrovskaya, 24

Serf Russia in the second half of the 18th century

In the 2nd half of the 18th century. Russia expanded its borders in the south and west, annexing the Black Sea and Azov regions, the Buzh-Dniester lands, Belarus, and part of the Baltic territory.

Compared to the first half of the 18th century. By the end of the century, the population doubled and amounted to 36 million people, with only 4% of the population living in cities; in Russia the predominant population was rural. Up to half the population are privately owned peasants.

The development of the annexed territories was accompanied by the growth of feudal-serf relations in breadth and depth.

For 1783–1796 serfdom spread to the Ukrainian lands, Crimea and Ciscarpathia. Agriculture developed mainly extensively, due to new Russian lands and advancement into suitable areas of the Urals and Siberia.

With the increasing exploitation of peasants, serfdom expanded deeper. By a decree of 1765, landowners were allowed to exile their peasants without trial or investigation to hard labor in Siberia, which was counted as fulfilling conscription duties. The sale of peasants and cruel punishments were widespread. According to the decree of 1763, peasants themselves paid the costs, if they were recognized as instigators, for suppressing unrest. Finally, in 1767, Catherine II issued a decree prohibiting peasants from complaining about their masters.

In the 2nd half of the 18th century, two large regions with different forms of serf exploitation were identified in Russia. In the black earth provinces with fertile soil and in the south, corvée prevailed. Sometimes the landowner took the land from the peasant, and he actually turned into a farm laborer working for meager pay. In areas with infertile soil, cash rent prevailed. Some landowners sought to increase the profitability of their estates, used technical devices, introduced crop rotation, introduced new crops imported from other countries - tobacco, potatoes, sunflowers, built manufactories, then using the labor of their serfs. All these innovations were a sign of the beginning of the disintegration of serfdom.

In 1785, a special “craft regulation” (from the “Charter of Grant to Cities”) regulated the development of crafts in cities. Craftsmen were grouped into workshops, which elected foremen. This organization of life for artisans created better conditions for their work and apprenticeship. With this provision, the government hoped to turn urban artisans into one of the classes of feudal society.

Along with the city, crafts were widely developed in industrial villages. Thus, Ivanovo was famous for textile production, Pavlovo for metal products, Khokhloma for woodworking, Gzhel for ceramics, etc.

Second half of the 18th century. for Russia this means further growth in manufacturing production. If in the middle of the century there were more than 600 manufactories, then at the beginning of the 19th century. up to 1200. Manufactories using the labor of serfs predominated. But manufactories using free labor also appeared, in particular in textile production. The role of civilians was played by serfs released on quitrent. The relations of free employment were capitalist relations.

In 1762, it was forbidden to purchase serfs for factories, and manufactories founded after this year used civilian labor.

In 1775, peasant industry was allowed, which led to an increase in the number of business owners from merchants and peasants.

The process of the formation of capitalist relations became more and more noticeable and irreversible. The market for civilian labor appeared and began to grow. However, new relations appeared in a country where serfdom dominated, which influenced this process.

In the 2nd half of the 18th century. The all-Russian market continued to form. The specialization of the regions became more noticeable: the black earth Center and Ukraine produced bread, the Volga region supplied fish, leather, wool, the Urals - iron, Novgorod and the Smolensk lands - flax and hemp, the North - fish, furs, Siberia - furs, etc. All this was exchanged at auctions and fairs, the number of which grew. Through the ports of the Baltic and Black Sea regions, Russia conducted active foreign trade, exporting its goods - metal, flax, hemp, sailing cloth, timber, leather, bread. Russia imported sugar, cloth, silk, coffee, wine, fruit, tea, etc. Russia's leading trading partner at that time was England.

Trade primarily served the needs of the state and the ruling class. But it contributed to the establishment of a capitalist structure in the country.

In the 2nd half of the 18th century. The class system of the country is strengthened. Each category of the population - nobility, clergy, peasantry, townspeople, etc. - received rights and privileges by appropriate laws and decrees.

In 1785, in development of the Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility (1762), a Charter to the Nobility was issued, which confirmed the exclusive right of landowners to own land and peasants. The nobles were freed from compulsory service and personal taxes, and received the right to special representation in the district and province in the person of leaders of the nobility, which increased their role and importance locally.

Strengthening the class system in the 18th century. was an attempt to maintain the power of the ruling class, to preserve feudal system, especially since this happened on the eve of the Great French Revolution.

Thus, in the 2nd half of the 18th century. The reserves of feudalism in the country had not yet been exhausted, and it could still ensure progress, despite the development of capitalist relations.

Catherine II. Enlightened absolutism 60–80 XVIIIV. Catherine II (1762 - 1796), having taken the throne in difficult times, showed remarkable abilities as a statesman. And indeed, her inheritance was not easy: the treasury was practically empty, the army had not received money for a long time, and manifestations of the ever-growing protest of the peasants posed a great danger to the ruling class.

Catherine II had to develop a policy that would meet the needs of the time. This policy was called enlightened absolutism. Catherine II decided to rely in her activities on certain provisions of the ideologists of the Enlightenment - the famous philosophical movement of the 18th century, which became the ideological basis of the Great French bourgeois revolution (1789–1794). Naturally, Catherine II set out to use only those ideas that could help strengthen serfdom and feudal orders in the country.

In Russia, apart from the nobility, there were no other forces capable of personifying social progress.

The French encyclopedists Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, and Rousseau developed the main provisions of the Enlightenment, affecting the problems of social development. At the center of their thinking was the theory of “natural law,” according to which all people were naturally free and equal. But human society in its development deviated from the natural laws of life and came to an unjust state, oppression and slavery. In order to return to fair laws, it was necessary to enlighten the people, the encyclopedists believed. An enlightened society will restore fair laws, and then freedom, equality and fraternity will be the main meaning of the existence of society.

Philosophers entrusted the implementation of this goal to enlightened monarchs who wisely used their power.

These and other ideas were adopted by the monarchs of Prussia, Austria, and Russia, but approached them from the position of serfdom, linking the demands of equality and freedom with the strengthening of the privileges of the ruling class.

Such a policy could not be long-term. After the Peasants' War (1773 - 1775), as well as in connection with the revolution in France, the end of enlightened absolutism came, the course towards strengthening internal and external reaction became too obvious.

Catherine II had been corresponding with Voltaire and his associates since 1763, discussing with them the problems of Russian life and creating the illusion of interest in applying their ideas.

In an effort to calm the country and strengthen her position on the throne, Catherine II in 1767 created a special commission in Moscow to draw up a new set of laws of the Russian Empire to replace the “Conciliar Regulations” of 1649.

573 deputies were involved in the work of the Commission - from nobles, various institutions, townspeople, state peasants, and Cossacks. Serfs did not participate in this Commission.

The commission collected orders from localities to determine people's needs. The work of the Commission was structured in accordance with the “Order” prepared by Catherine II - a kind of theoretical justification for the policy of enlightened absolutism. The order was voluminous, containing 22 chapters with 655 articles, most of the text was a quotation book from the works of enlighteners with justification for the need for strong monarchical power, serfdom, and the class division of society in Russia.

Having begun its meetings in the summer of 1767, the Commission solemnly awarded Catherine II the title of “great, wise mother of the Fatherland,” thereby declaring her recognition by the Russian nobility. But then, unexpectedly, the peasant question came into focus. Some deputies criticized the system of serfdom; there were proposals to attach the peasants to a special board, which would pay the landowners' salaries from peasant taxes; this was a hint of the desire to free the peasants from the power of the landowners. A number of deputies demanded that peasant duties be clearly defined.

The commission worked for more than a year and was dissolved under the pretext of the outbreak of war with Turkey, without creating a new code.

Catherine II learned from parliamentary speeches about the mood in society and in further legislative practice proceeded from her “Order” and the materials of this Commission.

The work of the Statutory Commission showed a growing critical, anti-serfdom attitude in Russian society. Pursuing the goal of influencing public opinion, Catherine II took up journalism and began publishing in 1769 the satirical magazine “All Things”, in which, trying to divert attention from criticism of serfdom, she offered criticism of human weaknesses, vices, and superstitions in general.

The Russian enlightener N.I. spoke from a different position. Novikov. In the magazines “Drone” and “Painter” he published, he spoke out, defending specific criticism of vices, namely, he castigated the unlimited arbitrariness of the landowners and the lack of rights of the peasants. It was expensive for N.I. Novikov had this position, he had to spend more than 4 years in the Shlisselburg fortress,

Criticism of serfdom and social activity Novikov contributed to the formation of anti-serfdom ideology in Russia.

A.N. is considered to be the first Russian revolutionary-republican. Radishchev (1749 – 1802). His views were formed under the strong influence of internal and external circumstances. These are the Peasant War of E. Pugachev, and the ideas of French and Russian enlighteners, and the revolution in France, and the War of Independence in North America (1775 - 1783), and the work of Novikov, and the statements of deputies of the Statutory Commission.

In the work "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", the ode "Liberty" and others, Radishchev called for the abolition of slavery and the transfer of land to the peasants, for the revolutionary overthrow of the autocracy.

Catherine II called Radishchev “a rebel worse than Pugachev.” He was arrested and sentenced to death, commuted to 10 years of exile in Siberia (Ilimsky prison).

So, Catherine II is a traditional figure, despite her negative attitude towards the Russian past, despite the fact that she introduced new techniques in management, new ideas into social circulation. The duality of the traditions that she followed also determines the dual attitude of her descendants towards her. The historical significance of Catherine's era is extremely great precisely because in this era the results of previous history were summed up and the historical processes that developed earlier were completed.

1“The reign of Catherine II began in

1) 1741 2) 1755 3) 1762 4) 1771

2. Moscow University was founded in

1) 1755 2) 1687 3) 1725 4) 1701

3. Crimea became part of Russia in

1)XNUMXth century. 2) XVII century, 3) XVII century. 4) XIX century

4. The era of palace coups in Russia falls on

1) 20-60s of the 18th century. 2) the end of the 17th century. 3) mid-19th century. 4) end of the 19th century.

5. Dates are associated with the sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

1) 1703, 1700, 1721 2) 1730, 1741, 1762 3) 1767, 1775, 1785 4) 1772, 1793, 1795 ,

6. What event ended in 1763?

1) Seven Years' War 2) annexation of Crimea to Russia 3) divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

4) uprising led by E. Pugachev

7. Which of these events are associated with the dates: 1606-1607, 1670-1671, 1773-1775?

1) peasant-Cossack uprisings 2) stages of enslavement of peasants

3) divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 4) wars for access to the sea

8. Which of the following rows lists the dates of the wars between Russia and Sweden?

1) 1700-1721, 1788-1790 2) 1768-1774, 1787-1791

3) 1813-1814, 1816-1818 4) 1848-1849, 1853-1856

9. Which of the following events of the 18th century. happened before others?

1) death of Anna Ioannovna 2) accession to the throne of Peter II

3) the beginning of A.S.’s disgrace Menshikov 4) the beginning of the Seven Years' War

10. Which of the following events occurred earlier than the others?

1) the battle of Austerlitz 2) Suvorov’s crossing of the Alps

3) Russia’s accession to the continental blockade of England 4) Peace of Tilsit

11. Which of the following events occurred later than the others?

1) the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna 2) “Great Embassy” of Peter I to Europe

3) Ukraine’s entry into Russia 4) establishment of the patriarchate

12. Which of the following events happened in Russia in the 18th century?

1) creation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy 2) opening of the Higher Women's Courses

3) opening of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum 4) founding of Moscow University

13. “Insignificant heirs of the northern giant” - this is how A.S. responded. Pushkin about the successors of 1) Peter I 2) Paul I 3) Nicholas I 4) Peter III

14. The largest folk performance of the 17th-18th centuries. took place under the leadership

1) Ivan Bolotnikov 2) Stepan Razin 3) Kondraty Bulavin 4) Emelyan Pugacheva

15. To the architectural monuments of the 18th century. applies

1) Pashkov's house in Moscow 2) Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin 3) St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow 4) St. Sophia's Church in Novgorod

16. The establishment of the Free Economic Society is associated with

1) the policy of “enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II 2) the reforms of Peter I

3) reforms of the Elected Rada 4) internal politics Paul I

17. Which of the named persons was a statesman of the 18th century?

1)G. Potemkin 2)I. Peresvetov 3)A. Ordin-Nashchokin 4) A. Adashev

18. Moscow University was opened on the initiative

1) Peter I 2) Catherine II 3) M.V., Lomonosov 4) M.M., Speransky

19. To the architectural monuments of the 18th century. applies

1) Cathedral of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg 2) Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin

3) St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow 4) St. Sophia Church in Novgorod

20.Princess E. Dashkova

1) famous actress 2) first female mathematician 3) president of the Russian Academy of Sciences 4) first wife of Peter I

21. Which Russian monarch did Emelyan Pugachev pretend to be?

1) Paul I 2) Peter II 3) Ivan Antonovich 4) Peter III

22, Which of the listed architectural monuments was built according to the design of B 0 I 0 Bazhenov?

1) Winter Palace 2) the building of the Noble Assembly in Moscow 3) Pashkov’s house

4) Ostankino Palace

23. In the XVIII century, Russian troops entered Berlin during

1) Seven Years' War 2) Northern War 3) Suvorov's campaigns 4) Ushakov's campaigns

24. The Izmail fortress was taken by Russian troops * during

1) Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. 2) Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791.

3) Italian campaign of Suvorov 4) Seven Years' War

25. During the Seven Years' War, the battle took place at

1) Corfu 2) Sinope 3) Kromah 4) Kunersdorf

26. During the reign of Paul I, a document was adopted

1) decree “On three-day corvée” 2) “Charter granted to cities”

3) “Table of Ranks” 4) “Code of Law”

27. The policy of Catherine II is reflected by the event

1) liquidation of the hetmanate in Ukraine 2) establishment of the Senate

3) liquidation of the patriarchate 4) establishment of the Synod

28. What event happened in the second half of the 18th century?

1) annexation of Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus 2) annexation of Eastern Siberia 3) participation in the Northern War 4) participation in Livonian War

29.What event happened in the second half of the 18th century?

1) participation in the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 2) annexation of Western Siberia

3) annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to Russia

4) Prut campaign

30. Indicate the correct correspondence between the name of the ruler of Russia and the government body created during her reign

1) Catherine I - Cabinet of Ministers 2) Anna Ioannovna - Conference at the Highest Court 3) Elizabeth I - Supreme Privy Council

4) Catherine II - Laid commission

31. The activities of which Russian military leader date back to the 18th century?

1) D.I. Pozharsky 2) P.A. Nakhimova 3) F.F.Ushakova 4) A.A. Brusilova

32. State the correct statement

1) The Winter Palace was built under the leadership of V.I. Bazhenova

2) The building of Moscow University was designed by V. Rastrelli

3) the building of the Noble Assembly in Moscow was built according to the design of M.F. Kazakova

4) Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg was designed by D. Ukhtomsky

33. Famous Russian historian of the 18th century. was

1)V.N. Tatishchev 2) S.M. Soloviev 3) V.O. Klyuchevsky 4) K.D. Kavelin

34. Famous Russian theater figure of the 18th century. was

1)F. Rokotov 2) F. Shubin 3) I. Argunov 4) F. Volkov

35. Created in the Baroque style

1M. Kazakov 2) V. Bazhenov 3) I. Argunov 4) V. Rastrelli

36. Famous Russian portrait painter of the 18th century. was

1) S. Ushakov 2) F. Rokotov 3) I. Repin 4) K. Bryullov

37. About the emergence in the 18th century. revolutionary ideology in Russia is evidenced by the publication of a book

1) I. Krylova 2) K. Ryleeva 3) N. Novikova 4) A. Radishcheva

1) M. Lomonosov 2) G. Derzhavin 3) D. Fonvizin 4) A. Radishchev

39. “Peter the Great of Russian Literature” V.G. Belinsky called

1) M. Lomonosov 2) G. Derzhavin 3) D. Fonvizin 4) A. Radishcheva

40. There are names on the map of Russian lands and seas

1) V. Bering, S. Chelyuskin 2) I. Polzunova, I. Kulibina

3) F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky 4) V. Bazhenova, M. Kazakova

41. Russian scientist-geographer of the 18th century” is

1) V.N. Tatishchev 2) S.P. Krasheninnikov 3) M.V. Lomonosov 4) I. Argunov

42. Was contemporaries

1) P.A. Rumyantsev and Alexander I 2) M.I. Kutuzov and Alexander III

3) A.V. Suvorov and Nicholas II 4) F.F. Ushakov and Catherine II

43. The laid down commission, convened by Catherine II, was called

1) establish a new order of succession to the throne 2) abolish serfdom

3) develop a new set of laws 4) establish a State Council

44. Which of the following refers to the events carried out during the reign of Peter III?

1) adoption of the “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire” 2) creation of military settlements

3) exemption of nobles from compulsory service 4) reduction of the period of military service to 15 years

45. The era of palace coups includes activities

1)I.I. Shuvalova 2) S.S. Uvarova 3) B.I. Morozova 4) F. Leforta

46. The distinction between the poor and the rich among peasants is denoted by the term

1) stratification 2) landlessness 3) enslavement 4) striped

47. State peasants are

1) personally free peasants living on state lands 2) serfs

3) peasants who owned land as property 4) peasants assigned to manufactories

48. Peasants who left with the consent of the landowner to work in the city were called

1) civilians 2) otkhodniks 3) capitalists 4) freedmen

49. The reign of Paul 1 characterizes the concept

1) “seasonal summers” 2) “three-day corvee” 3) “reserved years” 4) “free cultivators”

50. Secularization is

1) policy of providing economic assistance to entrepreneurs

2) active government intervention in economic life

3) state policy aimed at supporting domestic production

4) conversion by the state of church property into state property

51. The phenomenon in state and public life, in which favorites who do not have the abilities and knowledge necessary for service are appointed to high positions, is called

1) Time of Troubles 2) enlightenment 3) palace coup 4) favoritism

52. What were the names of the “noble class” societies that appeared under Catherine II, which elected a leader and had the right to inform the governor, Senate and empress about their needs?

1) city magistrates 2) provincial boards 3) noble assemblies

4) zemstvo huts

53. Corvee economy of the 18th century. characterized

1) the predominance of quitrent in kind over cash 2) the presence of an allotment for the peasant provided by the landowner 3) the development of small-scale commodity production

4) rapid improvement of tools

54. The policy of Catherine II is characterized by

1) adoption of a law on compulsory service for nobles 2) implementation of provincial reform 3) establishment of ministries 4) establishment of the Synod

55. Political structure Russia in the second half of the 18th century. characterizes

1) implementation of the principle of separation of powers 2) the existence of zemstvo self-government bodies 3) the presence of an estate-representative body 4) autocratic rule

56. The foreign policy of Catherine II is characterized by the desire

1) conclude “Eternal Peace” with Turkey 2) gain access to the Baltic Sea

3) suppress the revolutionary movement in France 4) create the Holy Union of European Monarchies

57. Increase in monetary dues in the second half of the 18th century. indicated

1) development of commodity-money relations 2) increasing exploitation of dependent peasants 3) increasing the living standards of peasants 4) eliminating the poll tax

58. The task of developing new legislation faced

1) noble assemblies 2) Free Economic Society 3) Statutory Commission 4) Academy of Sciences

59. Establishment by the government of the Noble Loan and Merchant Banks in the second half of the 18th century. indicated

1) the development of the class system 2) the dominance of commodity-money relations 3) the massive ruin of the nobility and merchants 4) the encouragement of entrepreneurial activity

60. The corvée system of farming is incompatible with

1) personal freedom of peasants 3) otkhodnichestvo

2) subsistence farming 4) rent in kind

61. A sign of the decomposition of the feudal-serf system in Russia at the end of the 18th century. was

1) expansion of noble land ownership 2) increase in the number of state-owned factories

3) mass transfer of peasants for a month 4) increase in the number of nobility

62. A phenomenon characterizing the process of decomposition of the feudal-serf system in Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

1) strengthening of the peasant community 2) growth of peasant wealth 3) stratification of the village into rich and poor 4) increasing the productivity of serf labor

63.By the end of the 18th century. in Russia

1) the classes bourgeoisie and proletariat have already formed

2) the first monopolistic associations take shape in industry

3) small-scale production continues to actively develop

4) civilian labor dominates in the mining industry

64. “Charter granted to the nobility” 1785. gave to the nobles

1) the right to elect governors

2) exemption from any criminal prosecution

3) unlimited freedom of speech

4) exemption from state taxes

65. What feature characterized the development of social thought in Russia in the second half of the 18th century?

1) dissemination of Enlightenment ideas

2) creation of the theory “Moscow - Third Rome”

3) the emergence of populist ideology

4) dissemination of the theory of “small deeds”

66. The concepts of “baroque”, “classicism”, “sentimentalism” characterize

1) development of artistic culture in the 18th century.

2) new phenomena in the culture of the 17th century.

3) changes in culture and life under Peter I

4) the emergence of new genres in the literature of the 19th century.

67. The reason for the transfer of peasants to cash rent in the second half of the 18th century. was

1) development of commodity relations

2) elimination of the privileges of the nobility

3) depletion of the state treasury

4) construction railways

68. “Eastern Question” in Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. was associated with

1) deterioration of Russian-Iranian relations

2) the desire of European states to seize the eastern territories of Russia

3) Russia’s desire to gain access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas

4) Russia’s desire to help the South Slavic peoples

69. The local government reform carried out by Catherine II in the second half of the KHLGEP century was aimed at

1) eliminate feeding

2) create zemstvos

3) strengthen local government power

4) liquidate provinces and districts

70. A consequence of the spread of peasant otkhodnichestvo to the cities in the second half of the 18th century. became

1) strengthening of serfdom

2) stratification of the village into rich and poor

3) growth in the number of capitalist manufactories

4) reduction in the area of cultivated land

71. What events occurred during the reign of Catherine II?

A) uprising led by I. Bolotnikov B) capture of the Izmail fortress by Russian troops C) church reform of Patriarch Nikon D) secularization of church lands E) entry of Crimea into Russia E) Battle of Poltava

Please indicate the correct answer.

72. What relates to the events of the 18th century?

A) moving the capital to St. Petersburg

B) reforms of the Chosen Rada

B) peasant war led by S. Razin

D) convening the Statutory Commission

D) abolition of the localism system

E) introduction of conscription

Please indicate the correct answer.

1)ABD 2)AGE 3)BGD 4)VDE

73, What relates to the events of the 18th century?

A) sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

B) convening of the Stoglavy Council

B) peasant war led by E. Pugachev

D) palace coups

D) the entry of Left Bank Ukraine into Russia

E) Decembrist uprising

Please indicate the correct answer.

74. Read an excerpt from the peace treaty and indicate which war resulted in it being signed. “Fortresses: Yenikale and Kerch, lying in the Crimean peninsula, with their annexes and with everything located in them, as well as with the districts ... remain in the complete, eternal and unquestioning possession of the Russian Empire.”

2) Caucasian 4) Crimean

75, Read an excerpt from the work of historian E.V. Tarle and indicate the history of which war the naval battle named in it is connected with.

“Chesma made all of Europe shudder and take into account that Peter’s dream seemed to have completely come true and that the Russian ruler had both hands - not only the army, but also the navy.”

1) Russian-Turkish 3) Seven-year-old

2) Northern 4) Crimean

76. Read an excerpt from the notes of Catherine II and indicate which institution is being talked about.

“...She was in the meeting, she gave me advice and information about the entire empire, with whom we are dealing and who should take care.”

1) The laid down commission 3) The elected council

2) Boyar Duma 4) State Duma

77. Read an excerpt from the decree and indicate its name. “It is not only useful for the empire and the throne, but it is also fair that the respectful state of the noble nobility be preserved and established unshakably and inviolably; and for this purpose, from time immemorial, now, and forever, the noble dignity of the nobility will remain inalienable, hereditary and hereditary to those honest families that enjoy it.”

1) “Table of ranks”

2) General regulations

3) condition

4) “Charter granted to the nobility”

78. Read an excerpt from the work of historian V.O. Klyuchevsky and indicate which empress we are talking about.

“...During her life she read an immense number of books... She wrote a lot... It was as difficult for her to do without a book and a pen as it was for Peter I without an ax and lathe... Her correspondence with Voltaire and the foreign agent Baron Grimm is entire volumes.”

1) Anna Ioannovna 3) Elizaveta Petrovna

2) Catherine the Second 4) Catherine the First

79. Read an excerpt from a report addressed to Catherine II and indicate who its author was.

“The walls of Ishmael and the people fell before the feet of the throne of Her Imperial Majesty. The assault was long and bloody. Ishmael is taken, thank God! Our victory... I have the honor to congratulate Your Lordship.”

1) M.D. Skobelev 3) A.D. Menshikov

2) P.S. Nakhimov 4) A.V. Suvorov Part 2 (B)

The tasks in this part require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers, which should first be written down in the text of the examination paper, and then transferred to answer form No. 1 without spaces or other symbols. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

1. Establish a correspondence between the names of historical figures and the events with their participation. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table PARTICIPANT

A) Dmitry Bobrok

B) Kuzma Minin C) Hetman Mazepa D) Prince Potemkin

1) liberation of Moscow from the Poles in 1612

2) Battle of Kulikovo

3) “standing” on the Ugra

4) Northern War

5) annexation of Crimea

2. Establish correspondence between dates and events. to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters. pattle EVENT

1) opening of the Academy of Sciences

2) convening of the Statutory Commission

C) 1767 3) election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom D) 1785 4) entry of Ukraine into Russia 5) adoption of the “Charter of Grant to Cities”

94Zo Match dates and events. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

DATE EVENT

A) 1581 1) Northern War

B) 1682, 2) publication of a decree on “reserved years”

B) 1755 3) the beginning of the reign of Peter I

D) 1774 0 4) conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace

5) opening of Moscow University4o Establish a correspondence between dates and events. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

A) 1565-1572 B) 1649, C) 1772

1) the beginning of the reign of Paul I

2) the first partition of Poland

3) the final enslavement of the peasants

4) oprichnina

5) the reign of Boris Godunov

5. Establish a correspondence between the names of wars and the geographical names of the points near which battles related to these wars took place. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters"

NAME OF THE WAR

A) Northern War

B) Seven Years' War

B) Russian-Turkish war

D) Russian-French war

GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

1) Focsani, Izmail

3) Grengam, Lesnaya village

4) Gross-Jägersdorf, Kunersdorf

5) Saint Gotthard6. Establish a correspondence between the names of the peace treaties and the territories that became part of the Russian Empire according to these treaties. PEACE TREATY A) Peace of Nystadt B) Peace of Jassy C) Treaty of Georgievsk D) Truce of Andrusovo

TERRITORY

1) Baltics

2) Left Bank Ukraine

3) Finland

4) Eastern Georgia

5) the territory between the Bug and the Dniester

A	B	IN	G

7. Establish a correspondence between the names of the commanders and the battles in which they led the troops. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

COMMANDERS A) P. A. Rumyantsev B) A. V. Suvorov C) F. F. Ushakov

D) A. G. Orlov, G. A. Spiridov

BATTLES

1) Battle of Poltava

2) assault on Ochakov and Izmail

3) battles on the Larga and Cahul rivers

4) Chesme fight

5) siege of the Corfu fortress

A	B	IN	G

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

8o Match the names of monarchs and their contemporaries.

For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

MONARCH A) Peter I B) Peter III C) Ivan IV D) Ivan III

CONTEMPORARY

1) Catherine the Second

2) Princess Sophia

3) Marfa Boretskaya

4) Elena Glinskaya

5) noblewoman Morozova

[ A	B -	IN	- ---------- G
With:	----------	gsh-	bpi

9" Establish a correspondence between the names of the sovereigns and the documents adopted during the years of their reign. For each position of the first column, select the corresponding position of the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

A) Alexey Mikhailovich B) Peter I C) Ivan IV

D) Peter III

DOCUMENTATION

1) “Code of Law”

2) “Cathedral Code”

3) “Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility”

4) “Decree on unified inheritance”

5) “Russian Truth”

A	B	IN	G

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

10. Match the names of the monarchs with the events associated with them.

For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

NAMES A) Ivan III

B) Catherine II

1) annexation of the Kazan Khanate to Russia

2) annexation of Veliky Novgorod to Moscow

3) Russia gaining access to the Baltic Sea

4) Russia gaining access to the Black Sea

5) joining Russia Central Asia

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols). 12. Establish a correspondence between events and dates. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

EVENTS A) adoption of the “Table of Ranks”

B) publication of the “City Charter”

B) "Great Embassy"

D) opening of the Academy of Sciences and Arts

DATES 1) 1697 2) 1700

A	B	IN	G

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

13. Establish the correct correspondence between the name of a geographical feature and the event associated with this name.

For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

NAME A) Lake Peipsi B) Vorskla River C) Danube River D) Volga River

1) annexation of Novgorod to Moscow

2) capture of Ishmael

3) Battle on the ice

4) Battle of Poltava

5) capture of Kazan

A	B	IN	G

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

14. Arrange the names of historical figures in chronological order of their lives and activities. Write down the letters of the names in the correct sequence to the table.

A) B. Khmelnitsky B) G. Otrepyev C) K. Bulavin D) G. Potemkin

15. to the table.

A) the beginning of the reign of Peter I

B) proclamation of Russia as an empire

B) adoption of the Council Code

D) Italian and Swiss campaigns by A.V. Suvorov

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

16. Arrange the documents of the 18th century. V chronological order their publications. Write down the letters that identify the documents in correct sequence to the table.

A) decree “On the secularization of church lands”

B) “Table of Ranks”

B) decree “On unified inheritance”

D) “Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility” 17. Place the following events in chronological order. Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence. to the table.

A) opening of Moscow University

B) opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy

C) founding of the Academy of Sciences and Arts

D) publication of the first Russian newspaper “Vedomosti”

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

18. Place the following events in chronological order. Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence. to the table.

A) the annexation of Crimea to the Russian Empire B) the conclusion of the Peace of Nystadt C) the battle at Cape Kaliakria D) the Battle of Poltava

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

19. Place the following names of monarchs in chronological order of their reigns. Write down the letters of the names in the correct sequence to the table.

A) Catherine II B) Elizabeth I C) Anna Ioannovna D) Peter III

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

20. Place the following events in chronological order. Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence. to table> A) the conclusion of the Deulin truce with Poland B) the uprising of Tadeusz Kosciuszko in Poland C) the conclusion of the Andrusovo truce with Poland D) the first partition of Poland

21. Place the following events in chronological order. Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence. to the table. A) the accession of the Romanovs B) the Pugachev rebellion B) the church schism D) “The Troubles”

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

22. Place the following events in chronological order. Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence. to the table.

A) Battle of Poltava

B) Seven Years' War

B) capture of the Izmail fortress

D) Gangut naval battle

23. Arrange the names of historical figures in chronological order of their lives and activities. Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence. to the table.

A) Elena Glinskaya B) Elizaveta Petrovna C) Sofia Paleolog D) Princess Sofia

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

24. Arrange the names of architectural monuments in the chronological order of their creation. Write down the letters that indicate the names of architectural monuments in the correct sequence to the table. A) Grand Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo B) Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye C) Assumption Cathedral in Moscow D) building of the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

25. Place the following events in chronological order. Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence. to the table. A) “standing” on the Ugra River B) Swiss campaign by A.V. Suvorov C) Prut campaign D) Chesma naval battle

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

26. The list below presents the names of Russian generals and naval commanders in the 18th and 19th centuries. Select names from the list dating back to the 18th century. Circle the appropriate numbers and write them down. to the table.

1) Mikhail Skobelev

2) Ivan Gurko

3) Alexander Suvorov

4) Peter Bagration

5) Fedor Ushakov

6) Peter Rumyantsev

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

27. The list below presents the names of Russian cultural figures. Select names from the list dating back to the 18th century. Circle the appropriate numbers and write them down. to the table.

1) A.N. Radishchev

2) I.P. Kulibin

3) M.I. Glinka

4) D.I. Fonvizin

5) V.G. Perov

6) O.A. Kiprensky

Main questions:

Definition of "Enlightened absolutism";

Social policy and reforms of Catherine II;

Foreign policy;

Results of the reign of Catherine II;

The rise to power of Paul I.

XVIII century – Age of Enlightenment in world history - an era of rapid development of natural sciences, widespread dissemination of secular knowledge. Enlightenment is a powerful ideological movement. The main ideas of the Enlightenment (“reason rules the world”, “theory of natural law”, principles of legality and separation of powers, etc.). Results of the American and Great French revolutions. Revolutionaries are followers of enlighteners.

The essence of the policy of “Enlightened absolutism”. Second half of the 18th century. called the “Era of Enlightened Absolutism.” Enlightened absolutism emerged in countries with a relatively slow development of bourgeois relations, where the nobility retained its political rights and economic privileges.

Social policy and reforms of Catherine II. Golden Age of Catherine II (1762-1796). Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name Catherine the Great. Her reign became a new era in the history of Russia.

The beginning of Catherine II's reign was difficult, primarily in moral terms. No matter how unpopular Peter III was in Russia, he was a legitimate (by God's grace) sovereign, and, moreover, the grandson of Peter the Great, albeit insufficient. Catherine was a purebred German who, in the eyes of society, usurped the ancient throne of the Moscow kings. The role of Catherine II in the murder of her husband was also unclear.

First of all, Catherine II hastened with the coronation, which was supposed to legitimize her accession to the throne. The ceremony took place on September 22, 1762. in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Catherine generously rewarded everyone who contributed to her victory. The main participants in the coup (40 people) received ranks, land holdings with serfs and large sums of money. The Empress ordered the return from exile of those who “innocently” suffered, including the former Grand Chancellor Count Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the former Prosecutor General Shakhovsky.

Wanting to win over the influential Orthodox clergy in Russia, Catherine II canceled the decree of Peter III on the confiscation of land property and peasants from monasteries. True, having strengthened her position, the empress already in 1764. nevertheless, she took away 990 thousand peasants from the monasteries in favor of the state. The former monastic peasants (there were about 1 million male souls) began to be called economic, since the College of Economy was created to manage them. The number of monasteries in Russia decreased from 881 to 385.

Acting carefully, avoiding dangerous conflicts, Catherine II made it clear from the very beginning that she did not intend to give up autocratic power.

"Manifesto on freedom for the nobility"(1762) and “Charter granted to the nobility”(1785) Catherine II finally consolidated the privileges of the nobility. The nobles were exempt from taxes and duties. Noble land ownership increased noticeably. State and palace peasants, as well as uninhabited lands, were distributed to the landowners. The period of the reign of Catherine II in historical science was called the golden age of the Russian nobility.

Anti-peasant decrees were issued in the 1760s: permission for landowners to exile peasants to Siberia and hard labor without trial, a ban on complaining about landowners, maintenance of military teams in the event of an uprising at their own expense, mass distributions of state peasants (300 thousand in 34 years), permission trade by peasants without land.

In 1985 – The charter granted cities the right to local self-government, exempting the merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds from poll tax and conscription.

By the time of her accession to the throne, Catherine II was well acquainted with the liberal ideas of European philosophical, political and economic thought. Even in her youth, she read the works of French educators - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, D'Alembert– and considered herself their student. In 1763 Catherine began a correspondence with Voltaire, which continued until 1777, i.e. almost until the death of the famous French educator. In letters to Voltaire, Catherine told the “teacher” about activities for the benefit of her subjects and about military events, and Voltaire showered the “student” with flattery and compliments. Catherine II emphasized that the book of the French educator Montesquieu became her guide in politics. In Western European countries they started talking about the “great Semiramis of the north.”

Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine developed a certain idea of what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state. Combined with knowledge of Russian reality, these ideas influenced the formation of the empress’s political program. How Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch, which she sincerely considered herself to be, can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation that is to be governed. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors” (“Notes”).

Since ideologically this program, and therefore Catherine’s internal policy, was based on the principles of the Enlightenment, this period of Russian history itself received the name “enlightened absolutism” in the literature (E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky).

The largest event of enlightened absolutism was the convening in 1767. commission on the drafting of a new code (Laid Commission). It should be noted that the convening of the Statutory Commission was preceded by Catherine II's study tours around Russia. “After Peter the Great, Catherine was the first empress who undertook travel around Russia for government purposes” (S.M. Soloviev).

Catherine II decided to give Russia a legislative code based on the principles new philosophy and sciences discovered by the modern Age of Enlightenment.

As guidance document the empress prepared the commission "Order" which consisted of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles. Almost a quarter of the text of the “Nakaz” consisted of quotations from the works of enlighteners (Beccaria, Bielfeld, Montesquieu, Justi). These quotes were carefully selected, and “Nakaz”, thus, was a complete work in which the need for strong autocratic power in Russia and the class structure of Russian society was proved.

Catherine’s commission failed to draw up a new code of laws, since it was difficult to bring the old legislation into agreement, on the one hand, with Catherine’s liberal “Order” (built on book theories, without taking into account the real facts of Russian life), and on the other, with conflicting needs , wishes and many individual orders from different groups of the population.

The collapse of the policy of enlightened absolutism was influenced by two events of the 18th century: the peasant war led by E. Pugacheva in Russia and the Great French Revolution in Europe.

Foreign policy. Transformation of Russia into a great European power. In the second half of the 18th century. Russia played an increasingly active role in international relations. It is a member of European military-political alliances and, thanks to its strong army, has significant influence in them.

The influence of foreign officers is declining. Russian officers and commanders take their place. The Russian army is increasingly acquiring national character.

Foreign policy objectives:

Firstly, the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov;

Secondly, the liberation of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus from foreign domination and the unification of all Eastern Slavs;

Thirdly, the struggle with revolutionary France in connection with the war that began in 1789. Great French Revolution;

Fourthly, asserting its interests in European politics, Russia sought to play the role of guarantor of the independence of the British colonies in North America; compliance with Russian interests in this region - participation in colonization North America.

Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774. In the 60s of the XVIII century. A complex political game is taking place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement between certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. Russia had its strongest contradictions with France and Austria.

The Russian government was pushed to take active action in the south both by the interests of the country's security and by the need of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and developing industry and trade, which dictated the need for access to the Black Sea coast.

Türkiye, incited by France and England, in the fall of 1768. declared war on Russia. After the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. Brilliant victories were won on land: in 1770. under the command of a talented commander P.A. Rumyantseva, in 1771 under the command of the prince V.A. Dolgoruky, in 1774 - Major General A.V. Suvorov. In the famous Battle of Chesma at sea under the command of admirals G.A. Spiridonova, A.G. Orlova and S.K. Greig victory was also won.

According to the terms Kuchuk-Kainardzhisky world(1774) Russia received:

Access to the Black Sea;

Steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossiya;

The right to have your own fleet on the Black Sea;

Right of passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits;

Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia;

The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey;

Türkiye paid an indemnity in the amount of 4 million rubles;

The Russian government sought the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish War, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and personalized weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov began to be called Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, P.A. Rumyantsev - Zadunaisky. A.V. Suvorov received a gold sword with diamonds.

Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791. Since 1780, a rapprochement between Russia and Austria began on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.

Türkiye did not want to come to terms with Russia's assertion in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea to its rule, Russian troops occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a base for the fleet (1783). G.A. Potemkin for the successes and annexation of Crimea (the old name of Taurida) he received a prefix to his title “Prince of Tauride”.

In 1787 Türkiye presented an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The Second Russian-Turkish War took place in a difficult international situation for Russia. At this time, an alliance between England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia’s position in the Baltic. these countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788-1790. weakened the forces of Russia, although the peace treaty of 1790 did not make any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. At this time, only Austria provided support to Russia, and then only with insignificant forces. Nevertheless, this war also showed the superiority of the Russian army.

During these years, his military leadership talent was especially evident. A.V. Suvorov. In 1787 he defeats the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788. takes the powerful fortress of Ochakov, and in 1789. wins two convincing victories over many times superior enemy forces at Focshanny and on the river. Rymnik, for which he receives the title of Count Rymninsky.

Of particular importance was the taking Ishmael(1790) - citadels of Turkish rule on the Danube. After a 10-hour assault, Izmail was taken. In battle, student A.V. glorified himself. Suvorova - future commander M.I. Kutuzov.

Along with ground forces The fleet commanded by Admiral F.F. operated successfully. Ushakov. In the battle of Cape Kalpakria in 1791. the Turkish fleet was destroyed.

By Treaty of Jassy(signed in Iasi) Türkiye recognized Crimea as possession of Russia; the border between the two countries became the Dniester River; the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia; Türkiye recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.

As a result Russian-Turkish wars economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the Mediterranean countries expanded. The Crimean Khanate was liquidated - a permanent center of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands in the south of Russia, Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded.

Russia and US education. One of the significant international events was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution, which led to the creation of the United States of America.

Disagreements between England and Russia had a beneficial effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780 government adopted Declaration of Armed Neutrality, supported by most European countries. Ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by a belligerent fleet. This resulted in England abandoning attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.

At the same time, Russia participated in colonization of North America. Movement of Cossacks and Russian settlers in the 16th-17th centuries. led through Siberia and the Far East in 1784. to the landing of G.I. Shelekhov in Alaska and the appearance Russian America– permanent settlements of Russians on Alaska, and then in California.

Partitions of Poland. The strengthening of Prussia, Austria, Russia and the constant weakening of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to its divisions.

For the first section(1772) The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired part of eastern Belarus.

For the second section(1793) - Russia received the remaining part of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia.

According to the third section(1795) western Belarus, western Volyn, Lithuania, and Courland went to Russia.

Under the rule of the Russian emperors, almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs, who were part of the Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria.

The meaning of these events was controversial. On the one hand, this raised the political prestige of Russia. In addition, Russia has become one of the most populated countries in Europe. But, on the other hand, the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to an aggravation of national problems in the Russian Empire. The Polish nobility, who fought for national independence, became a destabilizing factor in the life of the country. His activity caused a response in the form of the government's Russification policy.

War with revolutionary France. The Great French Revolution of 1789 created a new political situation in Europe. and the execution of King Louis XVI. Relations between Russia and France were severed. Russia entered into an alliance with Prussia, England and Austria for a joint struggle against revolutionary France. It was an alliance of the reactionary forces of Europe against the hotbed of ideas of freedom and democracy, which was France.

Thus, thanks to Russia’s active foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. became a great European power. This was a victory for the policy of adaptation (adjustment) to Europe, begun by Peter I. However, Russia's political role in Europe far exceeded its economic position in the European market, similar to the place of Prussia, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia remained a socio-economically backward country, which made its position in the system of European civilization unstable and contradictory.

Results of the reign of Catherine II.

1. Imperial events in foreign and domestic policy.

2. Strengthening absolutism by reforming government institutions and the new administrative structure of the state, protecting the monarchy from any attacks.

3. Socio-economic measures for further “Europeanization” of the country and finalization and strengthening of the nobles.

4. liberal educational initiatives, care for education, literature and the arts.

5. The unpreparedness of Russian society not only for the abolition of serfdom, but even for more moderate reforms.

In addition, the country waged continuous wars, as a result of which there was a sharp increase in tax oppression and exploitation, which led to numerous popular uprisings: 1771. – Plague riot, 1773-1775. - Peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev.

It is worth pointing out the general features of peasant wars in Russia:

They started on the outskirts;

The main driving force is the Cossacks;

They passed under tsarist slogans.

Contradictions of personality and politics of Paul I (1796-1801). In historical studies, there is no unity in assessing the reign of Paul I. Some historians call his reign “unenlightened absolutism”, others - a “military-police dictatorship”, others consider Paul a “Russian Hamlet”, and others - a “romantic emperor”.

The enlightener D'Alembert found in Pavel Petrovich an “exalted character” and education.

According to researchers, the main motives of activity Paul were the following:

Firstly, the desire to oppose oneself to the mother, to change everything that Catherine had done and to build her reign in defiance of the traditions of government laid down by her;

Secondly, fear, fear of the aristocratic opposition, peasant unrest, French republican ideas.

Paul I ascended the throne at the age of 42, already a mature, established man. He removed from power the former favorites of Catherine, whom he hated and blamed for the death of his father.

Paul I introduced a military-police regime in the country and at the same time returned Radishchev, Novikov, Kosciuszko from exile, laid the foundation for the foundation of the University of Dorpat, the Pavlovsk Corps (a school for military orphans in St. Petersburg), and amnestied the living Pugachevites. Ideal liberal politics, based on the self-government of classes, their rights and privileges, Paul I contrasted the ideal guardianship policy, based on the strong power of the king and his care for his people.

In general, the policy of Paul I was, in spite of everything, a direct continuation of Catherine’s reign.

Fighting the influence of the French Revolution, Paul I introduced the most severe censorship and banned all private printing houses.

Towards nobility Paul's politics also encountered contradictory trends. On the one side - the king's concern for strengthening the economic position of the nobility, which was expressed in financial assistance through the credit and banking system, the creation of a regime of maximum favorability for the nobility in the service (decrees of 1797 and 1798). Another trend emerged in limitation of class self-government and its absorption by the bureaucratic apparatus.

The most unacceptable for the nobility were Paul I's transformation in the army. An ardent admirer of the Prussian military doctrine of Frederick II, he issued new infantry and cavalry regulations just three weeks after his accession; The basic principles of strategy and tactics of Russian military art fell into oblivion.

Ultimately, it was the infringement of the interests of the nobility that became the decisive moment that determined the fate of Paul I.

Foreign policy of Paul I. There are three stages to be distinguished:

1st stage 1796-1797. – proclamation of peaceful coexistence with all countries, an attempt to develop an ideological counterbalance to the ideas of the French Revolution;

2nd stage 1798-1799– Russia’s entry into the second anti-French coalition, Suvorov’s Italian and Swiss campaigns, Ushakov’s naval landings in Greece and Italy; indicate the reasons for the break with England (failure to provide assistance to Suvorov and refusal to liberate the island of Malta).

3rd stage 1800-1801- rapprochement with France and preparation of a joint campaign with her in India against England. However, his murder thwarted the plans of the French-Russian coalition.

On the night of March 12, 1801, Paul I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle by a group of conspirators, which included former favorites of Catherine II: the Zubov brothers, General L.L. Bennigsen, commanders of the guards regiments P.A. Talyzin and F.P. Uvarov, St. Petersburg governor P.A. Palen, Senator D.P. Troshchinsky. The conspiracy was supported by the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich.

Development of culture in the second half of the 18th century

The development of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by Peter's reforms at the beginning of the century. The following prevailed trends.

Strengthening Western influence. Imitation of Western culture.

Reducing the sphere of cultural influence of the church. Culture became increasingly secular in nature. Her further secularization took place.

Deepening the rationalism of the worldview.

The beginning of the formation of the Russian intelligentsia, to which in the 18th century. could include officers, government officials, professional teachers, scientists, actors.

Preservation of traditionalism of folk culture.

Ideological factors that influenced the development of the culture of this period.

The ideology of “enlightenment” with its preaching of natural human rights, freedom and equality.

Freemasonry with its search for ways of moral improvement.

Freemasons (from French - free masons) are an international religious and philosophical movement that set itself the goal of “morally ennobling people, uniting them on the principles of brotherly love, equality and mutual assistance.” In the Masonic movement of the 18th century. Many outstanding Western educators took part.

The first information about Freemasonry in Russia dates back to 1730-1740. Were Freemasons famous figures of his time, Count R.I. Vorontsov, princes Golitsyn, Trubetskoy, Meshchersky, prince M.M. Shcherbatov, poet A.P. Sumarokov, writer and historian I.P. Elagin, director and then curator of Moscow University M.M. Kheraskov, educator N.I. Novikov et al. In the 18th century Freemasonry was an extremely narrow social phenomenon limited in the number of participants and could not significantly influence the situation in the country.

The growing needs of the state for qualified specialists have led to transformations in field of education. In 1731, the Cadet Corps for nobles was established - a military educational institution closed type. He trained future officers Russian army and civil officials. In 1764, the “Educational Society for Noble Maidens” (Smolny Institute) was opened in St. Petersburg, which became the first secular institution for girls from noble families. Closed educational institutions were also created for children of other classes. For example, in 1779 a Commercial School was opened in Moscow for the children of merchants and townspeople. Children of the clergy studied in theological seminaries and theological academies. Recruit children are in soldiers' schools. The nobles received their education with the help of private teachers, and studying abroad also became common. Education was class-based. For the majority of the population it remained inaccessible.

In the second half of the 18th century. a system began to take shape secondary school. In 1786, the Charter of public schools was approved, according to which main four-year schools were created in provincial cities, and small two-year schools in district cities. The schools taught reading, writing, sacred history, and the basics of arithmetic and grammar. For the first time, unified educational plans, class-lesson system, teaching methods were developed.

In the 18th century the beginning of the formation of university education in Russia was laid. IN 1755 Empress Elizaveta Petrovna approved the presented I.I. Shuvalov organization project Moscow University. The main role in developing the plan for the creation of the university belonged to M.V. Lomonosov. In accordance with Lomonosov's ideas, education there was classless. The university was under the patronage of the empress,

subordinated only to the Senate, and was exempt from all kinds of taxes and other fees. In 1757, the Academy of Arts was opened at the university.

Middle, second half of the 18th century. were the time geographical discoveries, success in the development of scientific and technical thought.

In 1733-1741 The Second Kamchatka Expedition took place under the leadership IN AND. Bering(1681-1741), during which the strait between Chukotka and Alaska (Bering Strait) was opened. Explorer of Siberia and Kamchatka S.P. Krasheninnikov(1711-1755) compiled “Description of the Land of Kamchatka.” The names of brave Russian polar explorers are inscribed in the history of geographical discoveries. S.I. Chelyuskina(c.1704-1764), after whom the northernmost point of the Eurasian continent is named - Cape Chelyuskin, cousins D.Ya. and H.P. Laptev, after whom one of the seas of the Arctic Ocean is named - the Laptev Sea.

Made an invaluable contribution to the development of world and domestic science M.V. Lomonosov(1711-1765) - the first Russian academician, a person with encyclopedic knowledge. His genius manifested itself in all branches of knowledge of that time: chemistry, physics, astronomy, mineralogy, geology and soil science, geography, cartography. Along with the natural sciences, he also studied the humanities: grammar, stylistics of the Russian language, history. By the middle of the 18th century. historical knowledge has become a science, which was greatly facilitated by the works V.N. Tatishcheva(1686-1750). M.V. Lomonosov in his works on history focused on ancient period Russian history and the time of Peter I. He was the first to oppose the Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state.

Important technical inventions were made I.I. Polzunov(1728-1766) and I.P. Kulibin(1735-1818). I.I. Polzunov was the first in the world to develop a design for a universal steam engine. However, the steam engine he created in the conditions of serfdom turned out to be unnecessary and forgotten. Self-taught mechanic inventor I.P. Kulibin invented many original devices and instruments, improved the grinding of glass for optical instruments, created a semaphore telegraph, and a “lifting chair” - an elevator. Kulibin's most fundamental work was the design of a single-arch 300-meter bridge across the Neva. But his inventions also did not find application. Truly they say that there are no prophets in their own country.

Architecture received further development. Until the 1760s the prevailing style remained baroque, the greatest master of which was F.B. Rastrelli. The Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo and the Grand Palace in Peterhof were built in this style.

Baroque has replaced classicism. The distinctive features of classicism are clarity and simplicity of forms while maintaining monumentality. The style was based on an appeal to the laws of classical architecture of Greece and Rome. Classicism provided for a symmetrical layout, highlighting the main parts of the building, and clarity of lines. The founders of classicism in Russia are IN AND. Bazhenov(1737-1799) – Pashkov’s house in Moscow, Engineering Castle in St. Petersburg, I.E. Starov(1745-1808) – building of the Tauride Palace, Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. With the name of Bazhenov’s student F.M. Kazakov(1738-1812) associated creation large quantity buildings and mansions in Moscow. This is the Senate building in the Kremlin, the old building of Moscow University, the Golitsyn hospital, the house of the Dolgoruky princes, transferred to the noble assembly, etc. A bright representative Russian classicism was D. Quarenghi(1744-1817), who worked in Russia since 1780, - the building of the Academy of Sciences, the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the Smolny Institute, etc. Wonderful Russian architect Yu.M. Felten(c.1730-1801) together with P.E. Egorov(1771-1784) designed the Neva embankment and the lattice of the Summer Garden.

In the second half of the 18th century. in painting A system of genres is emerging: portrait, monumental and decorative painting, landscape, historical painting. The first Russian historical painter was A.P. Losenko(1737-1773). One of his most famous paintings is “Vladimir in front of Rogneda”. Worked in the historical genre G.I. Ugryumov(1764-1823) - “The election of Mikhail Fedorovich to the kingdom”, “The Capture of Kazan”. However, the portrait received the greatest development in painting. A gallery of beautiful portraits has been created A.P. Antropov (1716-1795), I.P. Argunov(1729-1802), F.S. Rokotov(c.1735-1808), D.G. Levitsky (1735-1822), V.L. Borovikovsky(1757-1825), etc.

During the period under review, the foundations of secularism were laid sculptures. F.I. Shubin(1740-1805) - a fellow countryman of Lomonosov, who came from among Pomeranian peasants - created a gallery of sculptural portraits - M.V. Lomonosov, A.M. Golitsyna, G.A. Potemkina and others.

The monument to Peter I (“Bronze Horseman”) by the French master is rightfully included among the masterpieces of world sculpture EM. Falcone In Petersburg. M.I.Kozlovsky(1753-1802) glorified himself with the monument to A.V. Suvorov on the Champ de Mars in St. Petersburg. He is also the author of the main statue of the Peterhof cascade of fountains - “Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion.”

Mid XVIII V. - an important milestone in theatrical Russian culture. In 1750, the first professional theater arose in Yaroslavl. Its initiator was a merchant F.G. Volkov(1728-1763). Rumors about him reached St. Petersburg and Yaroslavl residents were summoned to the capital. In 1756 it was converted into a public theater “for the presentation of tragedies and comedies.”

Culture of Russia in the 18th century. prepared the extraordinary rise of Russian culture for the first time half of the 19th century V..

Issues for discussion

1. What are the reasons for Peter’s modernization and what were its

contradictory consequences?

2. Why were the palace coups of 1725-1762? could not change the beings of the system?

3. Could Catherine II have abolished serfdom in Russia?

4. What was the significance of the annexation of Crimea to Russia in 1783?

5. What were the features of territorial acquisitions

Anisimov E.V. State transformations and autocracy of Peter the Great in the first quarter of the 18th century. St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 1997. 331 p.

Brickner A.G. History of Peter the Great. The history of Catherine the Second: complete edition in one volume. M.: Alfa-Kniga, 2015. 1047 p.

Story Russian foreign policy. XVIII century / Zh.A. Ananyan [etc.] M.: International relationships, 1998. 302 p.

Kamensky A.B. Russian Empire in the 18th century: traditions and modernization. M.: New lit. review, 1999. 326 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Historical portraits. M.: Pravda, 1990. 624 p.

Moryakov V.I. Russian enlightenment of the second half of the 18th century. M.: MSU, 1994. 215 p.

Musskaya I.A. The most famous entrepreneurs of Russia. M.: Veche, 2003. 412 p.

Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. M.: World of Avanta+ encyclopedias: Astrel, 2009. 829 p.

Semin V.P. History: Russia and the world: textbook. –M.: KNORUS, 2012. 544 p.

Fortunatov V.V. History of world civilizations. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2014. 528 p.

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In the second half of the 18th century. Merchants and the economy in the second half of the 18th century

Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century.

Russian-Turkish War 1768 – 1774

Russian-Turkish War (1787 – 1791)

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12. Partitions of Poland.

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14. Domestic policy of Catherine II.

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21. Economic policy of Catherine II. The situation of the peasants.

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24. Peasant war led by Pugachev. (1773 – 1775)

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27. Social and political thought in the second half of the 18th century.

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29. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

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Serf Russia in the second half of the 18th century

Development of culture in the second half of the 18th century

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