Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II. Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II briefly

Despite the fact that the times of Catherine are reminiscent of the strong serfdom of the peasants against the backdrop of a privileged nobility, the empress reformed politics for the first time since the time of Peter the Great. Thanks to Catherine's domestic and foreign policy, Russia not only expanded its borders, but also became one of the great powers.

Domestic policy of Catherine II.

Very many, speaking of Catherine's domestic policy, cite as an example " enlightened absolutism". Under her rule, the autocracy was strengthened, the centralization of the country took place. Despite the opinion of Diderot and Voltaire about the equality of all people, Catherine supported the intensification of the exploitation of the peasants, but she did not spare titles and titles for those who distinguished themselves in the struggle for the good of Russia. Despite her desire to abolish the infringement of the peasants, the empress was well aware that the nobles, who elevated her to the throne, could also deprive her of power, so she was led by high society, worsening the situation of the peasants.

In 1775, the Empress allowed everyone to engage in industry by creating a Manifesto on the freedom of enterprise. Thanks to this, manufactories began to be replaced by developing factories and plants. Moreover, a significant part of the entrepreneurs had peasant roots.

The whole territory of Russia was divided by Catherine into 50 provinces of several hundred inhabitants each. Many rural settlements were renamed cities and later became administrative centers.

Ekaterina planned to change the thinking of society globally, therefore Special attention directed to education and enlightenment:

• public schools were opened in provincial towns;
• occupied a significant place in the curriculum foreign languages and humanitarian subjects;
• the reformation of the cadet corps took place, institutes for girls were created, for example, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens.

Catherine obliged in every city to open a hospital or a hospital. Due to the shortage of doctors, personnel were invited from Europe. Encouraging all kinds of leaps in the development of medicine, Catherine was the first to decide to be vaccinated against smallpox.

The foreign policy of Catherine II briefly.

Catherine the Great spent Russian throne almost 35 years old. Over the years, Russia has become a great power.

Having annexed the Crimea and Novorossia in 1794, the country received access to the Black Sea.

In 1773, 1793 and 1795, after the divisions of the Commonwealth, Western Ukraine, Belarus, part of Lithuania were annexed, which freed the local inhabitants of these lands from national oppression, but returned to serfdom, forcing them to take a step back in their development.

The article tells briefly about the domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II. The reign of the "enlightened" empress was quite lengthy and was reflected in the strengthening of the role of the nobility and Russia's success in the international arena.

1. Introduction

Domestic politics Catherine II

• Catherine II in the first years of her reign strove to realize her ideal - enlightened absolutism. She really believed in the creation in Russia of a reasonable political system based on the principles of humanistic philosophy. To this end, it was developed "Nakaz" - a program in which the most negative aspects of serfdom were condemned. Catherine II in 1767 convened a special elective commission to discuss her "Instruction" and develop a new Cathedral Code. The committee included representatives from all Russian estates. The work of the commission immediately revealed the narrow class orientation of its representatives. The nobles acted in defense of their interests, which were in conflict with the growing strength of the merchant class. However, the main attacks and demands came from the peasantry. Encouraged by the opportunity to express their dissatisfaction, the peasants declared the unbearability of their situation, about all the oppression that they suffered from the nobles. Necessary condition they put the endowment of the peasants with the right of private property. The "enlightened" empress did not expect this and, under the pretext of the outbreak of war, stopped the work of the commission.
• The war with Turkey distracted Catherine II from the planned transformations, and the peasant uprising led by Pugachev frightened her and forced her to abandon all idealistic ideas about state structure. Catherine II begins to pursue a policy of centralizing power and strengthening the positions of the nobility.
• Immediately after the suppression of the Pugachev uprising, the Zaporozhian Sich and the Cossack self-government were liquidated. Russia was divided into provinces headed by governors. Governor-generals were appointed to govern several provinces. A county became a small unit of territorial division. The nobles received the right of local self-government. They elected district and provincial marshals of the nobility.
• The most important document of Catherine II is the Charter to the nobility (1785). Noble privileges acquired the force of law. The nobles became a closed estate with the exclusive right to land ownership.
• At the same time, the Letter of Complaint to the cities was adopted, according to which all the townspeople were divided into six categories that make up the city curia. Once every three years, the townspeople from among the six curiae elected the councillors of the city duma and the mayor. Wealthy merchants and nobles had the advantage. The Duma was the executive body and dealt with secondary issues of local self-government. Her power was completely limited by the governor.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

• The actions of Catherine II were aimed at resolving the Turkish and Polish issues. As a result of the war with Turkey 1768-1774. Russia received significant territories in the south and the Kerch fortress. The strengthening of Russia in the Turkish question caused the unification of Austria and Prussia in the Polish question, which demanded the division of Poland, which at that time was torn apart by internal contradictions. Under the influence of Austria and Prussia, Russia confirmed the conditions for the partition of Poland. Part of the territory went to Russia, part - to Austria.
• The strengthening of the military power of Russia allowed it to unilaterally annex the Crimea, which led to another war with Turkey (1787-1791). A number of outstanding victories of the Russian army consolidated the results of the war of 1768-1774, the Crimea was recognized as Russian territory.
• Contradictions were growing between Austria, Prussia and Russia regarding Poland. After making peace with Turkey, Russia was able to transfer troops and take Warsaw. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place, according to which Belarus and Right-bank Ukraine were ceded to Russia. Poland was limited to insignificant territories, as a result of which an uprising was raised in it under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko. Russian troops crushed the uprising and in 1795 the third partition of Poland took place, which destroyed it as an independent state. Russia regained its original ancient Slavic lands.
• Thus, the internal policy of Catherine II was expressed in the final approval of the nobility as the ruling class, external - in the expansion of the territory and a significant increase in influence in the world.

Catherine II - All Russian empress , who ruled the state from 1762 to 1796. The era of her reign is the strengthening of the tendencies of serfdom, the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility, active transformational activity and active foreign policy, aimed at the implementation and completion of some plans .

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Foreign Policy Goals of Catherine II

The Empress pursued two main foreign policy goals:

• strengthening the influence of the state in the international arena;
• expansion of the territory.

These goals were quite achievable in the geopolitical conditions of the second half of XIX century. The main rivals of Russia at that time were: Great Britain, France, Prussia in the West and the Ottoman Empire in the East. The empress adhered to the policy of "armed neutrality and alliances", concluding profitable alliances and terminating them when necessary. The Empress never followed in the wake of someone else's foreign policy, always trying to follow an independent course.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine II

Tasks of foreign policy of Catherine II (briefly)

The main foreign policy objectives that required a solution were:

• conclusion of a final peace with Prussia (after the Seven Years' War)
• maintaining positions Russian Empire in the Baltic;
• solution of the Polish question (preservation or partition of the Commonwealth);
• expansion of the territories of the Russian Empire in the South (annexation of the Crimea, the territories of the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus);
• exit and full consolidation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea;
• creation of the Northern System, an alliance against Austria and France.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine 2

Thus, the main directions of foreign policy were:

• western direction (Western Europe);
• east direction (Ottoman Empire, Georgia, Persia)

Some historians also point out

• the northwestern direction of foreign policy, that is, relations with Sweden and the situation in the Baltic;
• Balkan direction, referring to the famous Greek project.

Implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives

The implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives can be presented in the form of the following tables.

Table. "Western direction of foreign policy of Catherine II"

Attention! Historians suggest that the formation of the Anti-French coalition was undertaken by the Empress, as they say, "to divert eyes." She did not want Austria and Prussia to pay close attention to the Polish question.

Second anti-French coalition

Table. "North-Western Direction of Foreign Policy"

Table. "Balkan Direction of Foreign Policy"

The Balkans are becoming the object of close attention of Russian rulers, starting precisely with Catherine II. Catherine, like her allies in Austria, sought to limit the influence Ottoman Empire in Europe. To do this, it was necessary to deprive her of strategic territories in the region of Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia.

Attention! The Empress planned the Greek project even before the birth of her second grandson, Constantine (hence the choice of name).

He has not been implemented due to:

• changes in Austria's plans;
• independent conquest by the Russian Empire of a large part of the Turkish possessions in the Balkans.

Greek project of Catherine II

Table. "The Eastern Direction of the Foreign Policy of Catherine II"

East direction foreign policy of Catherine II was a priority. She understood the need to consolidate Russia on the Black Sea, and also understood that it was necessary to weaken the position of the Ottoman Empire in this region.

Attention! The successes of the state in the East were associated, first of all, with the activities of outstanding commanders and naval commanders, "Catherine's eagles": Rumyantsev, Orlov, Ushakov, Potemkin and Suvorov. These generals and admirals raised the prestige of the Russian army and Russian weapons to an unattainable height.

It should be noted that a number of Catherine's contemporaries, including the illustrious commander Frederick of Prussia, believed that the successes of her generals in the East were merely a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the decomposition of its army and navy. But, even if this is true, no other power, except Russia, could boast of such achievements.

Russo-Persian War

The results of Catherine II's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century

All foreign policy goals and objectives Catherine were brilliantly executed:

• The Russian Empire entrenched itself in the Black and Azov Seas;
• confirmed and secured the northwestern border, fortified in the Baltic;
• expanded territorial possessions in the West after the three partitions of Poland, returning all the lands of Black Russia;
• expanded possessions in the south, annexing the Crimean peninsula;
• weakened the Ottoman Empire;
• gained a foothold in the North Caucasus, expanding its influence in this region (traditionally British);
• having created the Northern System, strengthened its position in the international diplomatic field.

Attention! When Ekaterina Alekseevna was on the throne, the gradual colonization of the northern territories began: the Aleutian Islands and Alaska (the geopolitical map of that period of time changed very quickly).

Results of foreign policy

Evaluation of the reign of the empress

Contemporaries and historians assessed the results of Catherine II's foreign policy in different ways. Thus, the division of Poland was perceived by some historians as a "barbarian action" that ran counter to the principles of humanism and enlightenment that the Empress preached. The historian V. O. Klyuchevsky said that Catherine created the prerequisites for the strengthening of Prussia and Austria. Later on with these big countries, directly bordering the Russian Empire, the country had to fight.

Receivers of the Empress, and, criticized the policy his mother and grandmother. The only constant direction over the next few decades remained anti-French. Although the same Paul, having conducted several successful military campaigns in Europe against Napoleon, sought an alliance with France against England.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Conclusion

The foreign policy of Catherine II corresponded to the spirit of the Epoch. Almost all of her contemporaries, including Maria Theresa, Frederick of Prussia, Louis XVI, tried to strengthen the influence of their states and expand their territories through diplomatic intrigues and conspiracies.

Catherine II- Russian Empress, who ruled from 1762 to 1796. Unlike previous monarchs, she came to power thanks to a palace coup, overthrowing her husband, a close-minded Peter III. During her reign, she became famous as an active and powerful woman, who finally culturally strengthened the highest status of the Russian Empire among European powers and metropolises.

Domestic policy of Catherine II:

Adhering in words to the ideas of European humanism and enlightenment, in fact, the reign of Catherine II was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of noble powers and privileges. The following reforms have been carried out

1. Reorganization of the Senate. Reducing the powers of the Senate to a body of judicial and executive power. The legislative branch was transferred directly to Catherine II and the Cabinet of Secretaries of State.

2. Statutory Commission. It was created to find out people's needs for further large-scale transformations.

3. Provincial reform. The administrative division of the Russian Empire was reorganized: instead of the three-level "Province" - "Province" - "County", a two-level "Gubernia" - "County" was introduced.

4. Liquidation of the Zaporizhian Sich. After the Provincial reform led to the equalization of rights between the Cossack chieftains and the Russian nobility. That. the need to maintain a special control system has disappeared. In 1775 the Zaporizhian Sich was disbanded.

5. Economic reforms. A number of reforms were carried out to eliminate monopolies and establish fixed prices for vital products, expand trade relations and boost the country's economy.

6. Corruption and favorites. In view of the increased privileges of the ruling elite, corruption and abuse of rights were widespread. The favorites of the Empress and those close to the court received generous gifts from the state treasury. At the same time, among the favorites were very worthy people who participated in the foreign and domestic policy of Catherine 2 and made a serious contribution to the history of Russia. For example, Prince Grigory Orlov and Prince Potemkin Tauride.

7. Education and science. Under Catherine, schools and colleges began to open widely, but the level of education itself remained low.

8. National policy. For the Jews, the Pale of Settlement was established, German settlers were exempted from taxes and duties, the most disenfranchised stratum of the population became the indigenous

9. Class transformations. A number of decrees were introduced expanding the already privileged rights of the nobility

10. Religion. A policy of religious tolerance was pursued, and a decree was introduced prohibiting the Russian Orthodox Church from interfering in the affairs of other confessions.

Catherine's foreign policy:

1. Expanding the boundaries of the empire. Accession of Crimea, Balta, Kuban region, Western Russia, Lithuanian provinces, Duchy of Courland. Partition of the Commonwealth and the war with the Ottoman Empire.

2. Georgievsky treatise. Signed to establish a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (Georgia).

3. War with Sweden. Tied for territory. As a result of the war, the Swedish fleet was defeated, and the Russian fleet was sunk by a storm. A peace treaty was signed, according to which the borders between Russia and Sweden remain the same.

4. Politics with other countries. Russia often acted as an intermediary establishing peace in Europe. After the French Revolution, Catherine joined the anti-French coalition because of the threat to the autocracy. Active colonization of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands began. The foreign policy of Catherine 2 was accompanied by wars, in which the Empress was helped to win by talented commanders, such as Field Marshal Rumyantsev.

Russia during the reign of Catherine II.

Origin

Catherine 2, whose biography was so amazing and unusual, was born on May 2 (April 21), 1729 in Stettin, Germany. Her full name- Sophia Augusta Frederick, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her parents were Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst and his equal in title Johanna-Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, who was related to such royal houses as English, Swedish and Prussian. The future Russian empress was educated at home. She was taught theology, music, dance, the basics of geography and history, and, in addition to her native German, she also knew French. Already in early childhood, she showed her independent character, perseverance and curiosity, preferred lively and outdoor games.

Marriage

In 1744, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna invited the Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst to come to Russia with her mother. Here the girl was baptized according to the Orthodox custom and began to be called Ekaterina Alekseevna. From that moment on, she received the status of the official bride of Prince Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter 3. So, the exciting story of Catherine 2 in Russia began with their wedding, which took place on August 21, 1745. After this event, she received the title Grand Duchess. As you know, her marriage was unhappy initially. Her husband Peter was at that time still an immature youth who played with soldiers instead of spending his time in the company of his wife. Therefore, the future empress was forced to entertain herself: she read for a long time, and also invented various amusements.

Domestic politics

The Empress chose three postulates on which her activities were based: consistency, gradualness and consideration of public sentiments. Catherine was in words a supporter of the abolition of serfdom, but pursued a policy of supporting the nobles. She set the number of population in each province (the inhabitants should not be more than 400 thousand), and in the county (up to 30 thousand). In connection with this division, many cities were built. A number of government agencies were organized in each provincial center. These are such as the main provincial institution - the Office - headed by the governor, the Criminal and Civil Chambers, the financial management body (Treasury Chamber). Also were established: the Upper Zemstvo Court, the Provincial Magistrate and the Upper Massacre. They played the role of a court for different estates and consisted of chairmen and assessors. A body was created for the peaceful resolution of conflicts, which was called the Constituent Court. Cases of insane criminals were also dealt with here. The problems of organizing schools, shelters and almshouses were dealt with by the Order of Public Charity.
Political reforms in counties

The internal policy of Catherine II also influenced the cities. Here, too, a number of boards appeared. Thus, the Lower Zemstvo Court was responsible for the activities of the police and administration. The district court was subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court and considered the cases of the nobles. The place in which the townspeople tried was the City Magistrate. To solve the problems of the peasants, the Lower Massacre was created. Control over the correct implementation of the law was assigned to the provincial prosecutor and two solicitors. The governor-general monitored the activities of several provinces and could directly address the empress. The internal policy of Catherine 2, the table of estates are described in many historical books.

Judicial reform

In 1775 it was established new system for resolving disputes. In each estate, the problem was solved by its own judicial body. All courts, except for the Lower Punishment, were elected. The Upper Zemstvo dealt with the affairs of the landowners, and the Upper and Lower massacres dealt with peasant strife (if the peasant was a state peasant). The disputes of the serfs were sorted out by the landowner. As for the clergy, they could only be judged by bishops in provincial consistories. The Senate became the Supreme Judiciary.

municipal reform

The empress strove to create local organizations for each estate, granting them the right to self-government. In 1766, Catherine II presented the Manifesto on the formation of a commission to resolve local issues. Under the leadership of the chairman of the society of nobles and the elected head for the city, deputies were elected, as well as the transfer of orders to them. As a result, a number of legislative acts appeared, which fixed separate rules of local self-government. The nobility was endowed with the right to elect county and provincial chairmen, secretary, county judge and assessors and other managers. Two Dumas were engaged in the management of the city economy: the General and the Six-Glass. The first had the right to issue orders in this area. The mayor was the chairman. The general council met as needed. The six-vowel met every day. It was the executive body and consisted of six representatives of each estate and the mayor. There was also the City Duma, which met every three years. This body had the right to elect the Six-voice Duma. The internal policy of Catherine 2 did not ignore the police. In 1782, she created a decree that regulated the structure of law enforcement agencies, the direction of their activities, as well as the system of punishments.

The life of the nobility

The internal policy of Catherine 2 legally confirmed by a number of documents vantage point of this estate. It was possible to execute a nobleman or take away his property only after he had committed a grave crime. The court verdict was necessarily coordinated with the empress. The nobleman could not be subjected to physical punishment. In addition to managing the fate of the peasants and the affairs of the estate, a representative of the estate could freely travel abroad, direct his complaints immediately to the governor-general. The foreign and domestic policy of Catherine II was based on the interests of the class. The rights of the poor representatives were slightly infringed. So, an individual with a certain property qualification could take part in the provincial noble assemblies. This also applied to approval for a position, in which case the additional income should be at least 100 rubles per year.

Foreign policy

Catherine II did not forget about improving ties with other states. The Empress achieved the following results:

1. Thanks to the annexation of the Kuban region, Crimea, Lithuanian provinces, Western Russia, the Duchy of Courland, the borders of the state expanded noticeably.

2. The Treaty of St. George was signed, which indicated the role of Russia's protectorate over Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti).

3. A war for territories with Sweden was unleashed. But after the signing of the peace treaty, the borders of the states remained the same.

4. Exploration of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.

5. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war, part of the territory of Poland was divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

6. Greek project. The purpose of the doctrine was to restore Byzantine Empire centered in Constantinople. According to the plan, the grandson of Catherine II, Prince Konstantin, was to head the state.

7. In the late 80s began Russian-Turkish war and fighting with Sweden. The Peace of Jassy, ​​concluded in 1792, consolidated the influence of the Russian Empire in Transcaucasia and Bessarabia, and also confirmed the annexation of Crimea.

Foreign and domestic policy of Catherine 2. Results

The great Russian Empress left an indelible mark on the history of Russia. Having overthrown her husband from the throne, she carried out a number of activities, many of which significantly improved the life of the people. Summing up the results of the domestic policy of Catherine II, one cannot fail to note the special position of nobles and favorites at court. The Empress strongly supported this estate and her beloved associates. The domestic policy of Catherine 2, briefly describing it, has the following main aspects. Thanks to the decisive actions of the Empress, the territory of the Russian Empire increased significantly. The population in the country began to strive for education. The first schools for peasants appeared. Issues related to the administration of counties and provinces were resolved. The Empress helped Russia to become one of the great European states.