Emperor Peter III Years of life 1728–1762 Years of reign 1761–1762 Mother - the eldest daughter of Peter I Anna Petrovna. Father - Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich, nephew of Charles XII. The future Russian Emperor Peter III was born on February 10, 1728 in the city of Kiel, the capital of a small

Daughters - Anna and Elizabeth (18.12.1709 - 25.121761), as born out of wedlock, had little chance of ever occupying the Russian throne. Moreover, Anna Petrovna, having married the Duke of Holstein, lost her rights to the crown. And Elizabeth, due to her age and frivolous nature, seemed to be like this all her life and would only walk and break hearts. However, fate decreed otherwise...

Biography of Elizabeth Petrovna

It was hard not to fall in love with her: cheerful, cheerful, inquisitive, spontaneous - she invariably attracted the sympathy of almost everyone from her inner circle. However, she partly inherited her father's temper. Elizabeth led a stormy social life, was considered an enviable bride, but she was in no hurry to get married. There is an assumption that the very young Emperor Peter II was in love with his aunt, and she reciprocated. One way or another, after the death of a minor ruler from smallpox and immoderate libations, Elizabeth was removed from the court, since Anna Ioannovna, who reigned, saw her as a dangerous political rival. Premonitions did not deceive the Empress. Taking advantage of the situation, knowing about the attitude towards her in the guard, Elizabeth led a palace coup and overthrew Anna Leopoldovna with the baby emperor John. Elizabeth ruled for twenty years. Her personal life has not undergone major changes. Her cordial attorney for a long time was A.G. Razumovsky, with whom, according to the fabrications of some pseudo-historians, she even secretly married. In later years, the intellectual I.I. Shuvalov, a thinker and philanthropist, became a favorite. Elizabeth, like a true woman, did little public affairs, preferring fun and entertainment to them. No wonder the poet A.K. Tolstoy in one of his poems “walked” on her account with such a stanza: “The merry queen / was Elizabeth: / Sings and has fun, / There is no order.”

Domestic policy of Elizabeth Petrovna

Elizabeth was elevated to the pinnacle of power due to the fact that she was the beloved "daughter" (daughter) of Peter the Great himself. With all the strength of her soul and decrees, she tried to maintain such an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bherself. The first Russian banks were established - Dvoryansky, Merchants and Medny. Thanks to the abolition of internal customs, trade revived. The taxation system has undergone major changes. The Senate was restored to its former rights. Public service became an exclusively noble privilege. Through the efforts of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened. Actually, the versatility of Lomonosov himself was revealed in full force precisely in the era of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, who clearly favored the poet and scientist. The first Russian public theater arose. In Ukraine, in Little Russia, the hetmanship was restored. Elizabeth abolished the death penalty, not a single person was executed during her reign (with the exception of fugitives and serfs, but they belonged, as it were, to “subhumans”). Political and economic stability set in, the institutions of state power strengthened, and Peter's reforms became irreversible.

Foreign policy of Elizabeth Petrovna

During the entire twenty-year reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, Russia practically did not fight. Only at the beginning of the reign and at its end there were armed conflicts with Sweden and Prussia, respectively. Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin contributed a lot to the pacification of the warring parties. As for the Seven Years' War, the successes of the Russian troops in it were obvious. Our troops took Berlin and Prussia was close to complete collapse, if not for the death of the empress and the rollback from what had already been achieved by the new ruler - Peter III.

Elizabeth was very zealous in ensuring that she was considered the first beauty at court and throughout the state. So, the wardrobe discovered after her death totaled as many as 15 thousand dresses. Needless to say, beauty is a terrible force!

Under Elizabeth, the career of the almighty A.I. Osterman, an experienced and crafty courtier who survived several rulers and contributed to the fall of the seemingly omnipotent A.D. Menshikov, came to an end. Sentenced to quartering, he was, however, pardoned and only exiled to Siberia for a settlement.

At the end of December 1709, the future Russian Empress Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter 1 and Catherine 1, was born. The biography of her reign began with a palace coup, thanks to which she took the throne for 20 years.

Young years

Elizaveta Petrovna was born before her parents entered into a legal marriage. She became a princess at the age of two, when Peter 1 and Catherine 1 legalized relations. The future empress was loved by her father, but she rarely saw him. The mother was also traveling.

The father's sister, Natalya Alekseevna, and the family of her father's associate were often engaged in upbringing. Elizabeth was not burdened with studies, she received only superficial knowledge. Deeply engaged only in French and spelling. Knowledge did not interest the future empress, she only liked to dress beautifully and dance.

At the age of fourteen, she began to look for a groom. Peter the Great planned suitors from the French Bourbons, but the candidates politely declined. One of the suitors, a German, died upon arrival in St. Petersburg.

After the death of both parents, Elizaveta Petrovna indulged in entertainment at court, abandoning the hassle of choosing a husband. When Anna Ioannovna took the throne, the future empress was sent to Alexandrovskaya Sloboda.

Right to the throne

The people saw in Elizabeth the makings of Peter 1 and believed that it was she who should take the throne. With the support of society, the princess began to show ambitions, not having the throne, having been born out of wedlock.

In 1741, having carried out a coup d'état, Elizabeth 1 received the title of Empress. One night, she appeared at the Preobrazhensky barracks, and she and the Privy Councilor raised a company. The servants, without hesitation, went to the Winter Palace. The baby emperor with all his relatives were arrested and sent to the Solovetsky Monastery.

Overthrowing the current government from the throne, the future empress did not have any definite plans. She did not prepare a conspiracy and, in general, did not really want to lead the country. Inspired only by the idea of ​​accession, Elizabeth was supported by the people who had a hard time under the former government. Tax fees and serfdom put pressure on the common people.

The biography of Elizabeth, as empress, began with the first document - a manifesto, which stated that it was she who should inherit the throne. In 1742, a celebration took place dedicated to the assumption of power. This event took place in the Assumption Cathedral.

The Empress generously endowed all those who helped her gain power. The lands taken from foreigners were granted to the soldiers. Servicemen, who were not from the nobility, were assigned to this class. Also, a new government was formed from like-minded people.

In power

The Empress was proud of her great parent, so she steadily followed his precepts. She did not have a special mind, but she was such a wise woman that she was able to surround herself with politically educated people on whom she could rely on issues of national importance.

There is an opinion that Elizabeth 1 entrusted the leadership of the country to her two favorites, while she herself had fun at balls. However, it should be noted that in those days the country, developing in all directions, supported the absolute power of the monarch.

The first university was opened under Elizabeth. The Empress restored many departments formed by her father, which had closed under the previous government. Too cruel decrees of Peter 1 were softened, during the time that Elizabeth was on the throne, not a single death sentence took place. By abolishing customs within the country, Elizabeth contributed to the rise trade relations and entrepreneurship. This led to the economic rise of the Russian Empire.

New banks were opened, manufactories developed. Educational institutions developed. Historians believe that the Age of Enlightenment began precisely with the reign of Elizabeth 1. Her merits in foreign policy are also invaluable - victory in two wars, thanks to which the authority of our country was restored. By the end of the reign, Berlin was taken.

Care

The Empress left this world at the age of fifty-three. The cause was bleeding from the throat. In the second decade of her reign, diseases such as asthma, epilepsy and frequent bleeding from the nose. I had to reduce the pleasure life to a minimum.

After suffering from bronchopneumonia, which chained Elizaveta Petrovna to the bed, she was no longer able to recover. Death found the Empress on January 5, 1762 in her chambers, the funeral took place a month later in St. Petersburg.

Palace coups were mainly associated with three things. First, the decree on the succession to the throne 1722 granted the monarch the right to appoint an heir, and with each new reign the question of a successor to the throne arose. Secondly, the immaturity of Russian society, which was a consequence of Peter's reforms, contributed to the coups. Thirdly, after the death of Peter, not a single palace coup was complete without the intervention of the guards. It was the military and political force closest to power, clearly aware of its interests in this or that coup. This is explained by the composition of the guards regiments - they included mostly nobles, so the guards reflected the interests of a significant part of their class. With the strengthening of the political role of the nobility, their privileges also grew (in this, palace coups played a significant role).

Peter died (January 1725) without leaving a will. Under pressure from the guards and A.D. Menshikov, the Senate made Peter's wife, Ekaterina Alekseevna, empress. During the years of her brief reign, Menshikov acquired enormous power, becoming the de facto ruler of the state. This caused strong dissatisfaction among the group of the ruling elite and the old boyars, who remained in power under Peter. As a result of a compromise in February 1726, the Supreme Privy Council, which included representatives of the old and new nobility. It became the highest body of state administration, depriving the Senate of its former importance.

After the death of Catherine I, according to her will, the 11-year-old grandson of Peter I, Peter Alekseevich (son of Tsarevich Alexei), was proclaimed emperor. Until he came of age, the regency of the Supreme Privy Council was established. Under the new emperor, Menshikov initially retained his positions, then the princes Dolgorukovs became the favorites of Peter II. Menshikov fell into disgrace, was sent into exile, where he soon died.

In January 1730 just before his marriage to Princess E. Dolgorukova, Peter II suddenly fell ill and died. The members of the Supreme Privy Council (“the leaders”) intended to offer the throne to Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I. They believed that the Dowager Duchess of Courland, who had long lived in Mitau, had little connection with the court circles and the guards, would not interfere with them, according to D.M. Golitsyn, "add the will to yourself." Anna was offered condition(conditions) of eight points, the main of which ordered her to resolve all important matters only with the "supervisors". Rumors about the “venture” (this is the name given to these events in history) spread around Moscow and caused discontent among the nobility, who were afraid to get several rulers instead of one autocrat. Using the support of the guards, Anna tore up the previously signed conditions and, in essence, stopped all talk about limiting autocracy.

With the accession of Anna Ioannovna, the process of turning the nobility from a servant into a privileged class began. The service life has been reduced to 25 years. The role of the Secret Chancellery (political police), investigation and denunciations ("word and deed") has increased.

While still the Duchess of Courland, Anna surrounded herself with German favorites, among whom the first and most influential was the son of the court groom of the dukes - E. Biron. By his name, the reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740) got the name Bironism.(By the way, foreign dominance during the reign of Anna - already under Elizabeth Petrovna - was greatly exaggerated, but Russian historians were gladly picked up and replicated.)

Anna's sister, Catherine, was married to the Duke of Mecklenburg, and their daughter, Anna Leopoldovna, married Prince Anton of Brunswick. Shortly before her death, Anna Ioannovna appointed their two-month-old son Ivan Antonovich as her heir, and Biron as regent. But already a short time after the accession of Ivan VI, Biron was deprived of power and sent into exile. The regency post was occupied by the mother of the emperor Anna Leopoldovna, giving herself the title of ruler, but the real power remained in the hands of B.K. Minikha, and then A.I. Osterman.

Meanwhile, society got rid of the fear that Biron and Minich inspired, and colorless rulers caused more and more discontent. The situation was fueled by the French ambassador in St. Petersburg, who was interested in rapprochement between Russia and France. A conspiracy has matured in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, who was removed from the court during the time of the previous rulers. On the night of 25 to 26 November 1741 With the help of the guardsmen of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, Elizabeth made a palace coup. Ivan VI and his parents were arrested and sent into exile (later Ivan was imprisoned in a fortress, where he died). The slogan of the new reign was a return to the traditions of Peter I.

The empress herself paid little attention to state affairs, her reign was called the time of "merry Elizabeth". She loved balls, masquerades, pleasure trips and other entertainments. After her death, Elizabeth left 15,000 dresses. First of all, her favorites and confidants, A.G., were engaged in domestic and foreign policy. Razumovsky, I.I. Shuvalov, his cousins ​​Alexander and Petr Shuvalov, M.I. Vorontsov. Among the military, Elizabeth singled out I.G. Chernysheva, V.Ya. Levashov and P.A. Rumyantsev.

The main content of the policy of the government of Elizabeth was the Europeanized nationalism that arose under Peter I. In the field of government, it manifested itself in the liquidation of the Cabinet of Ministers of the times of both Annas (the Cabinet of Ministers at one time replaced the Supreme Privy Council) and the restoration of the Senate in its former functions. Other government institutions of the Petrine era were also recreated.

In estate politics, there was an increase in noble privileges and the strengthening of serfdom. The government transferred a significant part of its power over the peasants to the nobles.

Due to extensive development continued the economic growth countries. For the development of entrepreneurship, the Noble Loan Bank was opened, and the Merchant Bank was established. Great importance for the development and expansion of the all-Russian market, he had a decree of the empress (1753) on the elimination of customs duties within the country.

In foreign policy under Elizabeth, Russia gradually freed itself from the influence of France and resumed a defensive alliance with Austria against the increasing aggression of Prussia, whose king at that time was Frederick II. The alliance between Prussia and England became the diplomatic preparation for the Seven Years' War between the European powers. Russia, after some hesitation, took the side of Austria, France and Saxony. AT 1756 she declared war on Prussia, and in the summer of the following year, Russian troops entered East Prussia. Having defeated the Prussian army near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army S.F. Apraksin unexpectedly ordered to retreat. The retreat turned into a stampede. Apraksin's indecision and court intrigues led to the loss of all the fruits of victory at Gross-Jegersdorf.

The second campaign in East Prussia (in the winter of 1757/1758) ended with the capture of Koenigsberg and the annexation of all of East Prussia to Russia. However, there were no more successes in the 1758 campaign. The battle at Zorndorf was due to the fault of the commander of the Russian troops V.V. Fermor did not lead to victory. However, in 1759, when Fermor was replaced by P.S. Saltykov achieved the most significant victory over the Prussian troops led by the previously invincible Friedrich. In August 1759 Russian troops, together with the Austrians, defeated the enemy at Kunersdorf. The most notable event of 1760 was the capture by Russian troops of the capital of Prussia, Berlin, for several days. In 1761, Russian troops under the command of the young general P.A. Rumyantsev won a number of victories in Pomerania and took the strategically important fortress of Kolberg. However, Russia was unable to take advantage of these successes. In December 1761, Elizabeth died. The accession of Peter III dramatically changed the political situation, saved Frederick from the final defeat. AT 1762 the new emperor signed an agreement according to which all the lands occupied by Russian troops during the war were returned to Prussia.

The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna was a relatively quiet time. The sinister Secret Chancellery ceased to exist, the practice of "the words and deeds of the sovereign" was eliminated. The twenty-year reign of Elizabeth was marked by a unique phenomenon in Russian history - assuming the throne, she vowed to abolish the death penalty and fulfilled her promise.

OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS

With a light hand, V.O. Klyuchevsky second quarter of the eighteenth century. began to be called the era of palace coups (see . Palace coups era). In the image of Russian and Soviet historians (S.M. Solovyov, S.F. Platonov, N.Ya. Eidelman, etc.), this period was a significant step back in the development of Russian statehood compared to the ebullient activity of Peter. The rulers and rulers of this era in historical writings seemed to be nonentities in comparison with the powerful figure of the reforming king. The characteristics of the era of palace coups included ideas about the weakening of absolutism, the dominance of foreigners during the time of both Annas, the exaggerated role of the guard in solving political issues, and the patriotic motives for the coup of Elizabeth Petrovna. Bironovshchina, for example, was interpreted as a particularly ferocious regime, similar to the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible. In the works of modern historians (D.N. Shansky, E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky), there is a tendency to abandon such unambiguous assessments, and recognize, albeit contradictory, the development of Russian statehood.

Anna Ioannovna (1693–1740)- Russian Empress since 1730. Daughter of Ivan V Alekseevich, niece of Peter I. In 1710 she was married to the Duke of Courland Friedrich Wilhelm. Granted significant benefits to the nobility. She paid little attention to state affairs. The main support of Anna Ioannovna was the German Baltic nobles, who, led by her favorite Biron, occupied a dominant position in the government.

Anna Leopoldovna (1718–1746)- ruler of Russia in 1740-1741. under the young son-emperor Ivan VI Antonovich. Daughter of the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Princess Catherine, sister of Empress Anna Ioannovna. Overthrown by Elizaveta Petrovna during the coup and exiled to Kholmogory.

Biron Ernst Johann (1690–1772) - a favorite of Empress Anna Ioannovna. From 1718 he was at her court in Courland, he came with her to Russia in 1730 as a chief chamberlain. In 1737, with the assistance of the Empress, he was elected Duke of Courland. According to the will of Anna Ioannovna, after her death in 1740, Biron became regent under the infant Tsar Ivan VI Antonovich. After the palace coup on November 9, 1740, he was sentenced to death, then replaced with exile. Biron was returned to St. Petersburg by Peter III, restored by Catherine II to the Courland ducal throne.

Volynsky Artemy Petrovich (1689–1740)- statesman, Cabinet Minister of Empress Anna Ioannovna, opponent of the Bironovshchina, one of the authors of the project of state reorganization. He spoke in favor of an autocratic form of government, at the same time he proposed to increase the role of the Senate, to expand the competence of the Cabinet of Ministers. He called, while maintaining landownership, to improve the position of the peasantry. In 1740 he was executed on charges of embezzlement of public funds and in an attempt to seize the throne.

Vorontsov Mikhail Illarionovich (1714–1767) statesman, diplomat, count. Member of the palace coup on November 25, 1741 in favor of Elizabeth Petrovna. Since 1744 - Vice-Chancellor. In 1758 he directed the foreign policy of Russia. From 1759 - senator. In 1758–1762 - Chancellor.

Vorontsov Roman Illarionovich (1707–1783) - statesman, count, general-general. From 1760 - senator. In 1760–1763 - Member, and then Chairman of the Legislative Commission. At the court of Peter III, whose favorite was his daughter Catherine, he was the most influential figure. After the overthrow of Peter III, he was arrested and exiled to Moscow, deprived of many estates. Viceroy of Vladimir, Penza, Tambov, Kostroma provinces, famous for bribery and abuse of office (popularly nicknamed "Roman - a big pocket").

Golitsyn Dmitry Mikhailovich (1665–1737)- prince, statesman; since 1686 - steward of Peter I; from 1694 - captain of the Preobrazhensky regiment. In 1718–1722 - President of the Board of Chambers. In 1726 he was one of the organizers of the Supreme Privy Council, President of the College of Commerce. After the death of Emperor Peter II, he initiated the invitation to the throne of Anna Ioannovna and the restriction of her power by the Supreme Privy Council. After the dissolution of the Council, he was sent to an estate near Moscow, where he lived, retaining the title of senator. In 1737, he was stripped of his ranks and titles and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg Fortress, where he soon died.

Catherine I Alekseevna (1684–1727) - nee Marta Skavronskaya. Empress of Russia from 1725 to 1727, the second wife of Peter I. She was born in the family of a Baltic peasant. In 1702, during the capture of Marienburg by the Russians, she was captured and soon became the civil wife of Peter I, converted to Orthodoxy. In 1712, she married Peter I in a church marriage. From this marriage, only two daughters survived - Anna and Elizabeth. After the death of Peter I, who did not appoint a successor, Catherine was elevated to the throne by the guards regiments under the leadership of A.D. Menshikov. Ruled the country with the support of the Supreme Privy Council. Among its main decisions were the prohibition of serfs to freely go to the crafts, the organization of the first Kamchatka expedition of V. Bering, the conclusion of an alliance treaty with Austria. A few days before her death, Catherine I signed a will on the transfer of the throne to the grandson of Peter I - Peter II.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1709–1761)- Russian empress in 1741-1761. The daughter of Peter I and Catherine I, Elizaveta Petrovna, with the support of the guards, carried out a coup d'état on November 25, 1741, during which she overthrew Ivan VI and the ruler-regent Anna Leopoldovna. The main principles of domestic and foreign policy proclaimed a return to Peter's reforms. During her reign, significant successes were achieved in the development of the economy, culture and foreign policy of Russia; the orders and bodies created under Peter I were restored; organizational improvement and rearmament of the army and navy. In 1755, at her command, the first university in Russia was founded in Moscow. The Academy of Arts was formed, outstanding cultural monuments were created (Tsarskoye Selo Catherine Palace, the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, etc.). The privileges of the nobility expanded. The actions of the peasants were brutally suppressed by armed force. Elizabeth appointed her nephew (the son of her sister Anna) Pyotr Fedorovich as the official heir to the throne.

Ivan VI Antonovich (1740-1764) - Russian emperor in 1740-1741, "iron mask" of Russian history. As a baby, he was proclaimed king. Biron was regent for a short time, then his mother, Anna Leopoldovna. After the coup in 1741, he was sent into exile with his family, then he was kept in the Shlisselburg fortress. In 1764 he was killed while trying to free him by lieutenant V.Ya. Mirovich.

Minich Burchard Christoph (Christopher Antonovich) (1683–1767)- Count, statesman and military figure. In the Russian service since 1721 Field Marshal General (1730), Count (1728). From 1728 - Governor-General of Karelia and Finland. Under Anna Ioannovna, he was the president of the Military Collegium. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1735–1739. commanded the Russian army in the Crimea and Bessarabia. After the death of Anna Ioannovna, he participated in a conspiracy against Biron. He became the first minister during the regency of Anna Leopoldovna, but was soon dismissed. After the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was exiled in 1742 to Pelym, from where he returned only under Peter III. During the palace coup of 1762, he initially supported Peter III, but then joined the supporters of Catherine II. Later he was the commander of the Baltic ports and canals. He had no political influence in the last years of his life.

Osterman Andrei Ivanovich (Heinrich Johann Friedrich) (1686–1747)- statesman, diplomat, count (1730). The son of a Lutheran pastor from Westphalia. In the Russian service since 1703. Since 1723 - Vice-President of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. In 1725–1741 - Vice Chancellor. From 1726 he was a member of the Supreme Privy Council. In 1727–1730 - educator and mentor of Peter II. In 1730, he took the side of Anna Ioannovna in her struggle with the "supervisors". Since 1731 - the actual leader of the domestic and foreign policy of Russia. After the death of Anna Ioannovna, he achieved the resignation of Biron and Munnich. Under Anna Leopoldovna, he again occupied key positions. After the palace coup of 1741, he was arrested, put on trial, and sentenced to death. By decision of Elizabeth Petrovna, the execution was replaced by exile in Berezov, where Osterman died.

Peter II Alekseevich (1715–1730)- Russian emperor since 1727, son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, grandson of Peter I. In the first months of his reign, power was actually in the hands of A.D. Menshikov. After his exile, Peter II was influenced by the old boyar aristocracy, headed by the princes Dolgorukov. Peter II declared himself an opponent of his grandfather's transformations and transferred the royal court to Moscow. At the same time, institutions created by Peter I were destroyed. He was engaged to Princess E.A. Dolgorukova. While preparing for the coronation, he died of smallpox.

Peter III Fedorovich (Karl Peter Ulrich) (1728–1762) - Russian emperor in 1761-1762. Grandson of Peter I. The son of Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp and Tsesarevna Anna Petrovna, daughter of Peter I. In 1742, he was declared heir to the throne by Elizabeth Petrovna. Since 1745 he has been married to Princess Sophia Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst (future Empress Catherine II). After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna on December 25, 1761, he was proclaimed emperor. Ruled 186 days. At the end of June 1762, he was overthrown as a result of a conspiracy led by his wife, Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna. He was arrested and soon killed with her knowledge. From her marriage to Peter III, Catherine had a son, Pavel. The palace coup of 1762 gave rise to unfounded rumors that Pyotr Fedorovich, who “miraculously slept”, was overthrown by the nobles for his intention to free the peasants. Many impostors spoke under the name of Peter III, the most famous of them was Yemelyan Pugachev.

Razumovsky Alexei Grigorievich (1709-1771) - statesman, count. He comes from a registered Ukrainian Cossack family. From 1731 he was a chorister in the Ukrainian chapel at the imperial court. Favorite of Tsesarevna Elizaveta Petrovna. After the palace coup in 1741, he became a chamberlain, a lieutenant general, and in 1756 a field marshal general. In 1742 he secretly married Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. After the coup of 1762, retired.

Razumovsky Kirill Grigorievich (1728–1803)- statesman, Count. From 1745 he was a chamberlain. From 1746 to 1798 - President of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Actively supported M.V. Lomonosov. From 1750 - hetman of Ukraine. For active participation in the preparation of the coup in 1762, Catherine II was promoted to senator and adjutant general. In 1764, in connection with the abolition of the hetmanship, he was deprived of this position, but at the same time he was promoted to field marshal general. Member of the State Council.

Shuvalov Ivan Ivanovich (1727–1797)- statesman. Service began at the court of Elizabeth Petrovna. In the 50s. 18th century as the favorite of the empress provided big influence on Russian domestic and foreign policy. The first curator of Moscow University, President of the Academy of Arts. After the accession of Catherine II, he fell into disgrace and was forced to go abroad. He returned to Russia in the late 70s. XVIII century, entered the circle of courtiers close to Catherine, but did not play a serious role in politics.

Shuvalov Petr Ivanovich (1710-1762)- statesman and military figure. Count, Field Marshal General. Participant in the palace coup of 1741. Actual head of government under Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. One of the leaders of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War. In the 50s. 18th century determined the domestic policy of Russia, which was based on the ideas of "enlightened absolutism". Author and initiator of a number of reform projects in the field of economics and finance. Actively participated in the work of the Legislative Commission, the reorganization of the army.

The second half of the eighteenth century can be called the era of Catherine II. Like Peter I, she was honored during her lifetime to receive the title of Great from her subjects.

Catherine II, like Elizabeth, became empress as a result of a palace coup. Moreover, she reigned under two living emperors - Ivan Antonovich (imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress) and Peter III (her husband, a week after the coup, was killed in Ropsha). To understand these events, it is necessary to return to the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.

Back in 1742, Elizabeth announced her nephew, grandson of Peter I, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein Karl Peter Ulrich, heir to the Russian throne. Soon his wedding took place with Princess Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst. The bride arrived in Russia, converted to Orthodoxy and was named Ekaterina Alekseevna. After the death of Elizabeth in December 1761, her nephew ascended the throne under the name of Peter Fedorovich (Peter III).

At the beginning of the reign of Peter III (February 18, 1762) a manifesto was adopted, which the Russian nobility had been seeking for so long - “On the Liberty of the Nobility”. The document was of great importance, as it completed the process of turning the service class into a privileged one. On this occasion, V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: "At the request historical logic and public justice the next day, February 19, was to be followed by the abolition of serfdom; she followed the next day, only after 99 years. The nobility, exempted from compulsory service, from the second half of the eighteenth century. sharply increases its power over the peasants, serfdom reaches its climax.

The manifesto was greeted with enthusiasm by the nobility, but very quickly the policy of Peter III began to cause discontent among the court circles. An unexpectedly concluded peace and an alliance with a recent enemy - the Prussian king, preparations for a war with Denmark for the interests of Peter's Holstein homeland, the intention to send guards to war, the threat to imprison his wife in a monastery, and much more created fertile ground for a conspiracy in favor of Catherine. Her actions and behavior were the exact opposite of what Peter did. A group of guards officers made a conspiracy, in which Catherine and a number of senior dignitaries participated.

OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS

In pre-revolutionary Russian historiography, the personality and activities of Peter III were unanimously evaluated extremely negatively. For a long time, this was facilitated by the official position of the authorities regarding Peter III. Soviet historiography generally paid little attention to the personality of the monarchs, considering the degree of their participation in government and their personal qualities as secondary in determining the general policy of the Russian Empire. Attempts by a number of modern domestic and foreign historians to give the personality of Peter III more attractive features, noting his passion for playing the violin and Italian music, love for painting, ease of dealing with subjects, etc., cannot, apparently, change in better side image of this king.

Catherine, brought up on the ideas of the French Enlightenment, in the first period of her reign tried to soften morals Russian society, to streamline the decrepit legislation, to limit serfdom. To this end, she decided to develop new laws based on the philosophy of the Enlightenment. She wrote "Instruction", which was to serve as a guide for the future legislative assembly. For that time, this document was very radical. Suffice it to say that the "Instruction" carried the idea of ​​the separation of powers and the creation of elements of the rule of law, that is, it reflected the most advanced ideas of European thought of that time. Although it should be noted that it did not talk about the elimination of the autocracy. On the contrary, autocracy, because of the vast territory of the country, was recognized as a boon for Russia. Timidly, the "Instruction" spoke only about the easing of serfdom.

July 30 1767 in the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin, Catherine solemnly opened the meetings of the Commission to draft a new code (legislative assembly). 565 deputies represented all classes of Russia, except for privately owned peasants and the clergy. However, the activities of the deputies, mainly due to organizational confusion, suffered a complete collapse. The very next year, the Commission was actually dissolved. But, despite the failure of the Commission, its activities had some positive consequences. Deputies of different classes brought with them more than a thousand mandates from the localities, and these mandates had a certain influence on Catherine's further domestic policy.

The reign of Catherine is usually called the era of "enlightened absolutism". Russian historian N.I. Kareev defined the essence of enlightened absolutism as follows: an agreement “between absolute state power and rationalistic enlightenment”, which had “known transformative goals”. This agreement was based on the idea that the state arises as a result of a social contract, and hence the mutual obligations of the monarch and subjects. The duty of the state is to carry out reforms leading to the well-being of its subjects. The success of the reforms largely depends on the education of the people, so it is necessary to educate citizens who would consciously fulfill their duties to the state.

This is how the ideologists of enlightened absolutism imagined the development of relations between power and society. To a certain extent, Catherine tried to implement these ideas in her domestic policy within the framework of a feudal state.

In the reign of Catherine II, serfdom reached its highest development. Although the empress herself understood the harm and immorality of the slave position of a significant part of the peasantry, the fear of losing the support of the nobility forced her to pursue a policy primarily in the interests of the nobles. The legislation on peasants also developed in this direction, and the power of the landlords over the serfs was further strengthened. So, in 1766, the landowners received the right not only to exile their serfs to Siberia (such a law was already in force under Elizabeth), but also to send them to hard labor. The landowner could give his serf to the soldiers. In 1767, under pain of punishment, the peasants were forbidden to complain about their landowner. It should also be noted that at the same time there was a process of spreading serfdom in territories where it had not existed before. The response of the peasantry soon followed: a revolt that grew into a powerful peasant uprising - an uprising led by E.I. Pugacheva ( 1773–1775 ). The government had to make every effort to suppress the uprising that engulfed the eastern regions of the country and the Volga region. Hastily concluded peace with Turkey (1774) , and troops from the Turkish campaign were sent to fight the rebels. The seriousness of the situation is also evidenced by the following fact: one of the best Catherine's commanders A.V. Suvorov at the last stage took part in the suppression of the uprising.

After the suppression of the Pugachev movement, Catherine's policy became more conservative. Held in 1775 the regional reform, increasing the number of provinces in Russia to 50, transferred local power completely into the hands of the nobility, and strengthened administrative control over the peasantry. After ten years (1785) A charter to the nobility was issued, which further expanded its privileges. At the same time, a charter was issued to the cities, providing a number of benefits to merchants and artisans.

During the reign of Catherine, the feudal system of economy reached its highest development and the first signs of its decomposition appeared. The most important of these was the undermining of noble land ownership. In the second half of the eighteenth century. all more land concentrated in the hands of merchants and wealthy peasants, and not only in the northern and eastern regions of Russia, but also in the provinces, which were considered the citadel of noble land ownership. The exploitation of the peasants in the black earth provinces reached its limit. Here the landowners often transferred their peasants to a month, thereby undermining the foundations of serfdom - the economy of the possessing peasants. In the non-chernozem provinces developed otkhodnichestvo peasants to work in the city, their separation from agricultural activities. The development of commodity relations gradually led to a change in the forms of feudal rent. The share of payments in kind by peasants has decreased, and cash dues have increased. With the expansion of commodity relations, the preservation of serfdom became a brake on further development industry and agriculture.

In foreign policy, the following main tasks can be distinguished: ensuring access to the Black Sea and the Polish question.

In connection with the death of the Polish king Augustus III first The Polish question was on the agenda. Under pressure from Russia, Stanislav Poniatowski was elected the new Polish king, and the Polish Sejm passed a law that equalized the rights of Catholics and Orthodox. In response, the Polish gentry (the Bar Confederation) rebelled. Russian troops that entered Poland suppressed the uprising of the gentry. Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria agreed on the division of part of the Polish territory and attracted Russia to this agreement. AT 1772 The so-called first partition of Poland took place. Austria captured Galicia, Prussia - Pomerania and part of Greater Poland, Russia - Eastern Belarus. Territorial losses and the threat of the collapse of the state caused a patriotic movement in Poland in 1772. Influenced by the slogans of the French Revolution, the Polish Sejm in May 1791 adopted a new constitution, the main provisions of which were to strengthen the Polish statehood. In response, Prussia and Russia opposed the "revolutionary ferment" in Poland and occupied it. Threatened by military force the Sejm was forced into 1793 submit to the second partition of Poland. Western Belarus, Volhynia and Podolia went to Russia.

The following year, Polish patriots led by General T. Kosciuszko revolted. Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov took Warsaw and crushed the uprising. AT 1795 between Russia, Prussia and Austria, the third partition of Poland took place, which eliminated the Polish statehood. Courland and Lithuania went to Russia.

Even at the height of the Polish events, in 1768 Turkey and the Crimea, incited by France hostile to Russia, opened hostilities with a raid of the Crimean Tatars on the border Russian lands. The first Russian-Turkish war began in the second half of the 18th century. The military advantage was on the side of Russia. Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army P.A. Rumyantsev in 1770 won brilliant victories near the Ryaba Mogila, at Larga and Cahul over the combined forces of the Turkish and Tatar troops. In the same year, Admiral G.A. Spiridov in the Chesme Bay destroyed the Turkish fleet (100 warships). But with the support of France and the benevolent neutrality of Austria and Prussia, Turkey continued to resist. In 1774, the troops of A.V. Suvorov crossed the Danube and threatened to invade the interior provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Only then did the Turks ask for peace. In July 1774 Russian-Turkish negotiations began in the village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi. Under the terms of the peace, Russia received access to the Black Sea (the mouths of the Don, Dnieper and Bug with adjacent territories). Crimea was proclaimed an independent state from Turkey, and thus the issue of annexing Crimea to Russia was resolved (1783).

AT 1787 Turkey, accusing Russia of violating the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhy peace, began hostilities and attacked Kinburn (on the Black Sea coast). Troops under the command of Suvorov repulsed the attack. New war with Turkey began in unfavorable foreign policy conditions for Russia (the hostile attitude of England and Sweden's attack on Russia without declaring war). Despite this, military operations for Russia developed successfully. Suvorov's troops won victories at Focsani and near Rymnik. The young Black Sea Fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov inflicted a number of defeats on the Turks. The victorious point in the war was put by the troops of Suvorov (they took the powerful fortress of Izmail) and M.I. Kutuzov (they defeated the Turks at Babadag and at Machin). Ushakov's fleet sank the Turkish squadron at Cape Kaliakria. December 1791 between Russia and Turkey, the Treaty of Yassy was signed, confirming the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji Treaty.

In the last years of her reign, Catherine was greatly disturbed by the revolutionary events in France. Although at this time Russia did not directly participate in the hostilities against revolutionary France, she supported the anti-French forces and the royalists materially and morally.

Summing up the results of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century, it should be noted that Catherine brilliantly completed the creation of the Russian Empire as a great power, begun by Peter I. Significant territorial acquisitions, one of the leading roles in world politics, allowed Russia to act in its own interests in solving any world issues. At the same time, the success of foreign policy mothballed the serf regime. The integration of the newly acquired territories into the Russian Empire aggravated interethnic relations and increased anti-Russian sentiment.

OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS

Most pre-revolutionary historians considered the second half of the eighteenth century. "golden age" of the Russian Empire and considered this time as an important stage in the development of Russian statehood and further Europeanization of the country. In the historical literature, this period of Russian history has also been called "enlightened absolutism." This is how the Catherine era was assessed, for example, by N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov, A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky. A more critical position was taken by V.O. Klyuchevsky, A.A. Kizivetter, V.I. Semevsky.

In the studies of Soviet historians, the main attention was paid to the pro-noble nature of the policy of the government of Catherine II, the strengthening of serfdom and the police functions of the state, and the resistance of the peasantry to the serf policy of the autocracy. The enlightened absolutism of Catherine was seen as demagogy and maneuvering in the conditions of the disintegration of the feudal-serf system.

The modern view of the Catherine's era has freed itself from the "class approach" and has become more balanced, taking into account the nature of the era. In particular, in the works of A.B. Kamensky and N.I. Pavlenko's view of this period in the history of Russia is very close to the assessments of pre-revolutionary historians.

The personality and activities of Catherine II herself, who ruled Russia for 34 years, were also assessed differently by contemporaries and descendants, sometimes even diametrically opposed. If the moral image of the empress as a whole fits into the words of V.O. Klyuchevsky: “We pass in silence about the moral character of Catherine, which cannot be read without a mournful sigh,” then her contribution to domestic and foreign policy is controversial to the present. For example, the concept of "enlightened absolutism" is interpreted differently. Some historians prefer to call him "enlightened despotism", and Catherine - "enlightened despot", and in general the question is raised: is the concept of "enlightened absolutism" applicable to the reign of Catherine?

During the reign of Catherine II, the imperial character of Russia reaches its highest peak. There is a debate among historians about the extent to which the empire, as a form of organization of the human community, met the interests of its multinational population. A number of historians believe that the empire was an artificial formation based on the fear of the conquered population and its military power. Others hold a directly opposite opinion, noting that this form of statehood undermined the national isolation of the peoples inhabiting it and contributed to their inclusion in a single world process. Later, Emperor Nicholas I said: "A German, a Finnish, a Tatar, a Georgian - that's what Russia is."

The short reign of Pavel Petrovich was distinguished by the fact that he largely sought to act contrary to the policy of his mother. Catherine did not love her son and even made plans to make her grandson Alexander emperor, bypassing Paul.

After becoming king, Paul removed most of Catherine's associates from service. It seemed to him possible to stop all the vices of Catherine's time, "bring discipline" in the nobility, to ease the tax burden of the people. However, his reign is an example of how far ideas and reality diverge. Keeping a good memory of his father (Peter III), Pavel introduced the Prussian order in the army, which A.V. caustically ridiculed. Suvorov. Fear of the French Revolution forced the tsar to social policy aimed at strengthening autocracy. The equal lack of rights of all classes before the monarch seemed to him an important condition for strengthening his power. Pavel limited the privileges of the nobility (self-government, free travel abroad and entry into Russia, exemption from corporal punishment, etc.). Paul's idea of ​​peasant well-being was associated with the fact that the peasants were under the rule of the landowners. The petty regulation of everything and everyone during the reign of Paul at times reached absurdity: he forbade the use of words reminiscent of the French Revolution (citizen, club, fatherland, etc.); by a special decree of the emperor, the inhabitants of the city had to turn off the light at a certain time; it was forbidden to dance the waltz, wear sideburns, etc.

Only one law of Paul had important consequences for the government and the country. In 1797, the “Institution on the Imperial Family” was adopted, which regulated the order of succession to the throne (from father to eldest son). In addition, it should be noted the activities of the "Commission for the drafting of the laws of the Russian Empire", transformed from the inactive Catherine's Commission. She was given the task of streamlining Russian legislation. During the reign of Paul I, this commission collected extensive legislative material and drafted preliminary plans for the codification of laws.

Sharp turns in domestic and foreign policy, restrictions on the privileges of the nobility caused dissatisfaction with Paul, especially in St. Petersburg society. Conspiracies followed one another. Finally, on the night of 11 on the March 12, 1801 a group of conspirators killed the king. The emperor was the eldest son of Paul - Alexander, who knew about the conspiracy against his father.

OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS

Most pre-revolutionary historians defined this period as a "kingdom of fear", when the struggle against class privileges led to a sharp restriction of elementary human rights, and order and discipline depended on the whim of the autocrat. Paul's policy was characterized as a desire to do everything in defiance of Catherine. A number of historians even considered Pavel Petrovich crazy (S.F. Platonov, M.K. Lyubavsky and others). Although the opposite view was also expressed. YES. Milyutin noted the importance of Paul's military reforms in restoring order in the management of the army. M.V. Klochkov painted the image of Paul as a noble knight, the defender of the common people, whom the nobility disliked. Some romantic flair of Paul's personality was given by his passion for medieval chivalry, as well as direct analogies between him and Shakespeare's Hamlet ("Russian Hamlet" is about him).

Soviet historiography, noting the eccentricity in the behavior of Paul, rejecting the pre-revolutionary point of view on the wide nature of repression against the nobility, generally considered the government policy of that time to be a continuation of the former, pro-noble and serf-owning, although by somewhat different means (S. B. Okun). N.Ya. Eidelman called Paul's policy "unenlightened absolutism".

A number of modern historians (E.V. Anisimov, E.V. Kamensky) consider Paul's policy as contradictory, and the emperor himself as one of the most mysterious figures in Russian history. Clearly apological works also appeared, for example, G.L. Obolensky.

Reforming the state, Peter I could not but affect the church. As the bearer of the state idea, Peter did not allow the independence of the clergy, among whom there were a significant number of opponents of the reforms. His associate in reforming the church was Feofan Prokopovich.

In 1700 Patriarch Adrian died. Peter did not want the election of a new patriarch and appointed the Western Russian Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky devoted to him as locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. AT 1718 when orders were replaced by colleges, the Theological College, or the Holy Synod, was created (see. Synod), who replaced the patriarchate. With the establishment of the Synod, the church was finally included in the system of the state apparatus and subordinated to autocratic power.

In addition, Peter transferred the monastic administration into the hands of officials. Without a royal decree, it was forbidden to tonsure new novices as monks and nuns. And men under the age of 30 were generally forbidden to be admitted to monasteries. In the time of Peter the Great, the natural loss of monks was made up, as a rule, by retired soldiers.

At the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, a secularization church lands. Land holdings were confiscated from churches and monasteries in favor of the state. About 2 million so-called monastic peasants were transferred from the jurisdiction of the clergy to the management of the College of Economy. The peasants who previously belonged to the clergy began to be called economic (managed by the College of Economy), and later they were transferred to the category state peasants. Their situation improved somewhat, since the government replaced their corvée with cash quitrents in favor of the state, which unleashed the economic initiative of the peasantry. In addition, part of the monastery land was transferred to the economic peasants.

Thus, in XVIII century ended the political and economic struggle between the "priesthood" and the "kingdom" in favor of the latter.

Catherine II the Great (born Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst) (1729–1796)- Russian empress in 1762-1796. Originally from Prussia. Father - Prince Christian August, general of the Prussian service. Mother - Princess Johanna Elisabeth, nee Princess of Schleswig-Holstein. She arrived in Russia in February 1744 at the invitation of Elizaveta Petrovna to marry the heir to the throne, Peter Fedorovich. Accepted Orthodoxy. She married in August 1745. In 1754 she gave birth to a son, Paul (future Emperor Paul I). My relationship with my husband was strained. In the summer of 1762, he repeatedly stated the need to send his wife to a monastery. Catherine led the conspiracy of the guards and overthrew Peter III, proclaiming herself the ruling empress. Catherine II was well educated, maintained correspondence with the most prominent representatives of European culture. She provided all possible assistance to the development of culture, science, education in Russia. She was a smart, businesslike, energetic, ambitious and cunning woman. Already on the throne, she repeatedly stated that she was the successor of Peter I; emphasized her "Russianness"; showed piety; improved in the knowledge of the Russian language; stressed the need to follow the best traditions people. Realizing that she had no “blood” rights to the throne, she sought to rely on the upper strata of the nobility and clergy. Fearing a legitimate contender for the throne - her son Paul (in terms of the traditions of succession to the throne), she kept her son at a respectful distance from the throne throughout her reign. With the birth of her grandson, Alexandra repeatedly announced her intention to transfer power to him, bypassing her son.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II sought to pursue a policy of "enlightened absolutism." In 1765, through the Free Economic Society she created, the Empress announced a competition for the best solution to the question of the possible liberation of the peasants from serfdom; in 1766 the Legislative Commission was convened to prepare a new set of state laws. However, in connection with the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war (1768), the commission was dissolved and no longer convened. After Pugachev's peasant war, and then the Great French Revolution, the regime became tougher and repression intensified.

In the field of foreign policy, the reign of Catherine II became a time of significant expansion of the Russian Empire through the annexation of the Crimea, the Northern Black Sea region, the Baltic states, Poland, the Aleutian Islands, the creation of Russian settlements in Alaska, and the taking under the protection of Eastern Georgia. The prestige of Russia in Europe under Catherine the Great increased extraordinary.

The reign of the empress was one of the most brilliant in the history of Russia. It intertwined in a single whole the growth of the country's power, its influence on international affairs, the most severe feudal exploitation of the people, greatness - and internal emptiness, brilliance and poverty.

Kosciuszko Tadeusz (1746–1817)- leader of the Polish uprising of 1794. Member of the War of Independence in North America.

Orlov Alexey Grigorievich (1737–1808)- statesman and military figure. Admiral-General, Count, an active participant in the coup of 1762, which elevated Catherine II to the throne. He was one of the most influential political figures at the court. In 1768–1769 developed a plan for a naval expedition against Turkey and was placed at the head of the Russian squadron sent to the Mediterranean. After the naval victory over the Turks at Chesme (1770), as commander-in-chief of the fleet, he received the title of Prince of Chesme. Since 1775 - retired. A man of extraordinary talents and abilities. He brought out the famous breed of Oryol trotters. After Paul I came to power, he emigrated abroad. He returned to Russia after his death in 1801.

Orlov Grigory Grigorievich (1734–1783)- Military and statesman. Favorite of Catherine II. He led the palace coup of 1762, which brought Catherine II to power. After the coup - chamberlain, count, feldzeugmeister general (artillery commander). In 1771, he led the suppression of the "Plague Riot" in Moscow. He was the initiator of the establishment and the first president of the Free Economic Society (1765). In 1775 he retired and went abroad.

Paul I (1754–1801)- Russian emperor in 1796-1801. Son of Peter III and Catherine II. He was brought up at the court of Elizabeth Petrovna, who saw in him the future heir to the throne. Pavel's main tutor was N.I. Panin. In 1773, Paul married the Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and after her death, Princess Sophia of Württemberg (Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy). He had sons Alexander, Konstantin, Nikolai, Mikhail and daughters Alexander, Elena, Maria, Ekaterina, Olga, Anna. Catherine II actually removed her son from state affairs and temporarily removed him from the capital, sending him on a long honeymoon trip around Europe, and then gave him Gatchina, where he lived from 1783, having his own court and a small army.

After the death of his mother and accession, Paul began a radical break in everything that was created by Catherine II. Many of her closest associates were disgraced. Others, convicted under Catherine (including A.N. Radishchev, N.I. Novikov, T. Kosciuszko), were returned from places of imprisonment and exile. At the same time, the general direction of domestic policy has not changed. The army was rebuilt according to the Prussian model. Strict censorship was introduced, private printing houses were closed, and the import of foreign books was prohibited.

In the field of foreign policy, Paul I continued the course of Catherine II to combat the pernicious influence of the French Revolution. Under him, the heroic Italian and Swiss campaigns of the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov, who fought together with Russia's allies against Napoleonic France.

The unexpected rapprochement with France and the rupture of relations with England hit the incomes of the nobles, since the bulk of agricultural exports went to England, the main suppliers of which were the landowners.

The aggravation of relations between the emperor and the nobility led to a conspiracy against Paul. On March 12, 1801, the last palace coup in the history of Russia took place. Pavel I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle.

Panin Nikita Ivanovich (1718–1783) statesman, diplomat, count. Participated in the palace coup of 1762 and the enthronement of Catherine II. Tutor of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich. He headed the Collegium of Foreign Affairs (1763-1781). A supporter of the relative limitation of the autocratic power of Catherine II. Since 1781 - retired.

Panin Petr Ivanovich (1721–1789)- military leader, general-in-chief, brother N.I. Panin. Graph. Member of the Seven Years and Russian-Turkish wars. In 1774 he was appointed commander of the troops aimed at suppressing the Pugachev uprising.

Potemkin Grigory Alexandrovich (1739-1791) - major statesman and military figure. Field Marshal General. Favorite of Catherine II. A native of the small estate nobles of the Smolensk province. Member of the palace coup of 1762. Distinguished himself in a number of major battles Russian-Turkish war (1768–1774). Since 1774 - General-in-Chief and Vice-President of the Military Collegium, Count. He proved to be a talented organizer. In 1774, he participated in the suppression of the Pugachev uprising. In 1775, he initiated the liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich and its troops as potential centers of social tension. In 1776 he was appointed governor-general of the Novorossiysk, Azov and Astrakhan provinces (the entire south of Russia). In 1783, he achieved the annexation of Crimea to Russia, for which he received the title of His Serene Highness Prince of Tauride; supervised the creation of the Black Sea Fleet. During the Russian-Turkish war (1787–1791) he was the commander-in-chief of the Russian army. He died in the midst of peace negotiations with Turkey (in Iasi). Under the command of Potemkin were such outstanding generals as P.A. Rumyantsev and A.V. Suvorov, naval commander F.F. Ushakov.

Pugachev Emelyan Ivanovich (1740 or 1742–1775)- was born in the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don, in a family of poor Cossacks. From the age of 17 he took part in the wars with Prussia and Turkey, received the junior officer rank of cornet for bravery in battle. Pugachev more than once acted as a petitioner from peasants and ordinary Cossacks, for which he was arrested by the authorities. In 1773, he escaped from the Kazan prison to Yaik (Urals), where he introduced himself to the local Cossacks as Emperor Peter III. Under this name, he raised an uprising of the Yaik Cossacks in August 1773, showed outstanding military and organizational skills. In September 1774, the conspirators handed Pugachev over to the authorities. He was executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow.

Rumyantsev Petr Alexandrovich (1725–1796)- an outstanding Russian commander, field marshal general, count. The combat path began in 1741 during the Russian-Swedish war. P.A. Rumyantsev, as a commander, was one of the creators of new forms of warfare. Outstanding military theorist. Wrote a number of works that not only served teaching aids, but also influenced the creation of the charters of the Russian army.

Spiridov Grigory Andreevich (1713–1790)- military leader, admiral. From an officer's family. In the Navy since 1723. Sailed on the Caspian, Azov, White and Baltic Seas. Since 1741 - the commander of the battleship. Member of the Russian-Turkish War (1735-1739), the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) and the Russian-Turkish War (1768-1774). Since 1762 - Rear Admiral. He made a great contribution to the development of Russian naval art.

Suvorov Alexander Vasilyevich (1730–1800)- the great Russian commander of the 18th century, Count Rymniksky (1789), Prince of Italy (1799), Generalissimo (1799). In 1742, he was enrolled in the Semyonovsky Guards Regiment. He began his service as a corporal in 1748. Member of the Seven Years' War. During the Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774 and 1787-1791) he won a number of resounding victories. In 1799, he brilliantly conducted the Italian and Swiss campaigns, defeating the French troops, and then crossed the Swiss Alps and left the encirclement. For the most difficult campaign in Switzerland, he was awarded the rank of Generalissimo. He was soon retired. Died in exile. Suvorov is the author of the military-theoretical works "Regimental Establishment" and "The Science of Victory". He created the original progressive system views on the methods of warfare and combat, education and training of troops, in many ways ahead of his time. The commander's strategy was offensive in nature and set the main task of completely defeating the enemy in a field battle. Suvorov was an enemy of a dogmatic, stereotyped approach to military affairs. During his military activities in the army, he did not lose a single battle.

Ushakov Fedor Fedorovich (1745-1817)- an outstanding Russian naval commander, admiral (1799). He graduated from the Naval Cadet Corps in 1766. He served in the Baltic Fleet. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. commanded the battleship St. Paul. In 1788, the vanguard of the Black Sea squadron led by him played a decisive role in the victory at about. Fidonisi over the Turkish fleet. Since 1789 - Rear Admiral. Since 1793 - Vice Admiral. During the war against France (1798-1800) he led the campaign of a military squadron in the Mediterranean. Didn't lose a single one Naval battle. Since 1807 - retired. In 2001, he was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.