Frequent palace coups, conspiracies, the dominance of foreigners, squandering of the court, favoritism, due to which the wealth of individual upstarts was formed, rapid changes in foreign policy, along with the strengthening of serfdom and the ruin of the working masses, had a negative impact on the pace of economic development in Russia.

The general situation changes in the second half of the 18th century. during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1709-1761 / 62) and especially Catherine 11 (1729-1796).

In the middle of the 18th century. the first cotton factories appeared in Russia, which belonged to merchants, and somewhat later to rich peasants. By the end of the century, their number had reached 200. Moscow was gradually becoming a major center of the textile industry.

Important for the development of domestic industrial production had the publication in 1775 of Catherine's manifesto on the free establishment of industrial enterprises by representatives of all strata of the then society. The manifesto removed many restrictions on the creation of industrial enterprises and allowed "everyone and everyone to start all kinds of camps." In modern terms, freedom of entrepreneurship was introduced in Russia. In addition, Ekaterina I canceled fees in a number of industries from small industries. The adoption of the manifesto was a form of encouraging the nobility and adapting it to new economic conditions. At the same time, these measures reflected the growth of the capitalist structure in the country.

By the end of the 18th century. more than 2 thousand industrial enterprises operated in the country, some of them were very large, with more than 1200 workers.

At that time, in heavy industry, the Ural mining and metallurgical region was in first place in terms of the main indicators.

The leading position was still occupied by the metallurgical industry. Its development was based on the needs of both the internal and external markets. Russian metallurgy at that time took leading positions in Europe and the world. It was distinguished by a high technical level, the Ural blast furnaces were more productive than Western European ones. As a result of the successful development of domestic metallurgy, Russia was one of the world's largest iron exporters.

In 1770, the country was already producing 5.1 million poods of cast iron, and in England - about 2 million poods. In the last years of the XVIII century. pig iron smelting in Russia reached 10 million poods.

The South Urals became the center of copper production. In the middle of the 18th century. the first gold-mining enterprises were founded in the Urals.

Other industries, including glass, leather, and paper, were further developed. Industrial development took place in two main forms

Small-scale production and large-scale manufacturing. The main trend in the development of small-scale commodity production was its gradual growth into enterprises such as cooperatives and manufactures.

The development of trade was facilitated by the improvement of roads, the construction of canals, and the development of shipping. The role of the commercial bourgeoisie has increased. New trade points arose, the number of fairs, bazaars, and marketplaces increased. The number of merchants grew. In 1775, the merchants were exempted from the poll tax and imposed a guild duty in the amount of 1% of the declared capital. The merchants received the right to participate in the local court.

In the second half of the 18th century. in connection with the abolition of the protectionist tariff of Peter the Great, Russia's foreign trade turnover revived. She traded with England, Sweden, Iran, China, Turkey and others. However, the lowering of import duties worsened the position of Russian manufacturers, and in 1757. a new tariff was worked out, intensely protectionist.

The first banks were created during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1754. This is the Merchant Bank for issuing loans to Russian merchants for goods from 6% per annum. At the same time, the Noble Bank was established with offices in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Banks were created by the treasury. In 1786, instead of them, the State Loan Bank was established for loans secured by real estate, which contributed to the development of credit. The system of credit institutions in Russia also included loan and treasury treasuries (cash desks), created in 1772 for obtaining a small loan. In 1775, orders of public charity were opened in large provincial cities, i.e. state-owned pawnshops. In general, this system was created on the basis of class principles and was inactive. In 1758 the Copper Bank was organized, which had bank offices in Moscow and St. Petersburg, but it did not last long. Under Catherine, paper money (banknotes) and government loans were issued. At the same time, the Russian government began to resort to external loans.

Enlightened absolutism in Russia

In Russia * as in other European countries, the transitional era from feudalism to capitalism gave birth to the ideology of the Enlightenment. The 60s belong to the period of enlightened absolutism. - during the reign of Empress Catherine I.

Enlightened absolutism in Russia is characterized by such events in which the nobles and the state itself were interested, but which at the same time contributed to the development of a new capitalist order... An important feature of the policy of enlightened absolutism, which researchers point out, was the desire of the monarchs to weaken the severity of social contradictions in their countries by improving the political superstructure.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine undertook a number of trips around the country in the first years of her reign: in 1763 she traveled to Rostov and Yaroslavl, in 1764 she visited the Baltic provinces, in 1765 she rode along the Ladoga Canal, in 1767 along the Volga in a barge from Tver to Simbirsk, and then returned to Moscow by land. The Empress was greeted everywhere with indescribable enthusiasm. In Kazan, they were ready, according to V.0. Klyuchevsky, lay yourself down instead of a carpet under the Empress's feet. Cursory travel observations could instill in Catherine a lot of government considerations. She met cities along the way, "the situation is beautiful, and the structure is disgusting." The people in their culture were lower than the surrounding nature. “Here I am in Asia,” wrote Ekaterina to Voltaire from Kazan. This city especially struck her with its diversity of population. “This is a special kingdom,” she wrote, “there are so many different objects worthy of attention, but you can get ideas here for 10 years.” While the accumulated observations had not yet had time to form an integral reform plan, Catherine, in the words of Klyuchevsky, "was in a hurry to mend the most dramatic gaps in management."

Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine developed a certain idea of ​​what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state. "I wish, I only want good for the country where God has brought me," she wrote even before accession,

The glory of the country is my own glory. "Catherine I decided to give Russia a legislative code based on the principles of new philosophy and science discovered by the Age of Enlightenment. To this end, in 1767, Catherine I began to draw up her famous instruction -" Commission Order on the Drafting the new Code. "When compiling it, she, by her own admission," robbed "Montesquieu, who developed the idea of ​​separation of powers in the state, and his other followers. Her policy of enlightened absolutism assumed the rule of a" wise man on the throne. " - Voltaire, Diderot and others, was in correspondence with them.

She managed to mislead them, they considered her the benefactor of the whole nation, the patron of the arts. Voltaire called her "the northern star", and in a letter to a Russian correspondent he wrote: "I adore only three subjects: freedom, tolerance and your empress." Catherine I's attitude to the views of the enlighteners is evidenced by her recollection of her meetings with Diderot: “I talked with him for a long time, but more out of curiosity than with benefit. politics, finance and replace them with pipe dreams. " "Mandate" is a compilation based on several works of the educational direction of that period. The main ones are Montesquieu's books "On the Spirit of Laws" and the work of the Italian criminalist Beccaria (1738-1794) "On Crimes and Punishments".

Montesquieu's book Catherine called the prayer book of sovereigns with common sense. The "Order" consisted of 20 chapters, to which two more were then added. The chapters are divided into 655 articles, of which 294 were borrowed from Montesquieu. Catherine also made extensive use of Beccaria's treatise, directed against the remnants of the medieval criminal process with its torture, which introduced a new view of the sanity of crimes and the expediency of punishments. The "Order" was imbued with a humane and liberal spirit. He argued the need for autocracy in Russia in view of the vastness of the Empire and the diversity of its parts. The goal of autocratic rule is not "to take away their natural freedom from people, but to direct their actions towards obtaining the greatest of all good."

In the Empress's Instruction, quotations from the writings of the enlighteners were used to substantiate serfdom and strong autocratic power, although certain concessions were made to the developing bourgeois relations. The features of enlightened absolutism can be seen in the creation of courts separated from administrative institutions, the implementation of the elective principle in the replacement of certain positions, in the unclassified teaching proclaimed in 1786 when organizing provincial and district schools.

1762-1796 - The reign of Catherine II.

The reign of Catherine II is usually called the era of "enlightened absolutism" - this is a special political course associated with the use of the ideas of French, English and Italian thinkers - the ideologists of the Enlightenment (C. Montesquieu, Voltaire, C. Beccaria); the main goal of politics was the adaptation of the old absolutist regime to the new conditions, emerging bourgeois relations. "Enlightened absolutism" as a special stage of state and political development was associated with the search for new forms of relationships between the dominant social stratum and the state organization.

1762 - Palace coup, the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.

German princess Sophia Anhalt-Zerbst, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna, wife Peter III, with the support of the guard, overthrew her husband, who was unpopular in the political elite.

1764 - Issue of a decree on the secularization of church lands.

This replenished the treasury and allowed to stop the unrest of the monastery peasants. The clergy lost their property independence and ended up on the state support. The policy of Catherine in relation to the church consisted: firstly, the influence of the anti-clerical (secular, anti-church) positions of the ideologists of the Enlightenment; secondly, the continuation of the process of turning the clergy into a special detachment of bureaucracy, begun by Peter.

1767-1768 - The work of the Legislative Commission.

In Russia, the Cathedral Code of 1649 was still in force. It was required to create a new set of laws, taking away the actually valid provisions. The commission included representatives of all classes, except for serfs. Russia has not seen such a representative assembly for almost a century.

The commission did not live up to the empress's hopes: each estate defended its corporate privileges, which often contradicted each other. Realizing that the Legislative Commission could not fulfill the tasks assigned to it, Catherine dismissed it under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey in 1769. The commission was finally abolished in 1774.

1768-1774 - The first Russian-Turkish war.

A factor in the deterioration of relations with the Ottoman Empire was the growth of Russian influence in Poland, the introduction of Russian troops into the territory of Poland (Rzeczpospolita). In 1770, a battle took place on the Large River (a tributary of the Prut, the territory of Moldavia), where the Russian army under the command of Peter Rumyantsev put the Turkish troops and the Crimean cavalry to flight. The second famous battle in which Rumyantsev distinguished himself took place on the Cahul River. Here they managed to defeat the enemy, which was 5 times larger than the Russian forces. The actions of the Russian fleet were successful. The Baltic fleet under the command of Admiral Grigory Spiridov circled Europe and in the Mediterranean Sea attacked the Turkish fleet in the Chesme Bay, near the Chios Strait. The Turkish squadron was destroyed. According to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiysk peace treaty, Russia received a strip of the Black Sea coast between the mouths of the Dnieper and the Southern Bug, Kerch and Yenikale in the Crimea, Kuban and Kabarda; Crimea became independent from the Ottoman Empire; Moldavia and Wallachia came under Russian protection; Turkey paid an indemnity to Russia.

1772, 1793, 1795 - Russia's participation in the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The decline of the power of the Rzeczpospolita, torn by internal contradictions, during the 18th century predetermined the division of its territory by Russia, Austria and Prussia. As a result of the third, final partition, Austria took possession of Lesser Poland with Lublin; withdrew to Prussia most of Polish lands with Warsaw; Russia received Lithuania, Western Belarus, Volhynia (Ukrainian lands).

1773-1775 - The peasant war led by E. Pugachev.

A large-scale Cossack-peasant uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev, who declared himself Peter III, began in Yaik (Ural), and gained such a scale that historians call it a peasant war. The fierceness and mass character of the uprising showed the ruling circles that the situation in the country requires changes. The war resulted in new reforms, which led to the strengthening of the system against which the popular indignation was directed.

1775 - Regional (provincial) reform.

The number of provinces increased from 23 to 50, the provinces were liquidated, and the provinces were divided into counties. Each province was headed by a governor, and a group of 2-3 provinces (governorship) was headed by a governor or governor-general. The provincial government consisted of the Treasury Chamber, which was in charge of industry, revenues and expenses, and the Order of Public Charity, which was responsible for the maintenance of schools and hospitals (charitable institutions). An attempt was made to separate the judiciary from the administrative one. The judicial system was built on the principle of the estate: for each estate - its own elected court.

The provincial reform led to the liquidation of many colleges (except for the Foreign, Military, Admiralty), since their functions were transferred to the local provincial bodies. Thus, an attempt was made to decentralize power. The provincial reform led to an increase in the number of cities, since all centers of provinces and counties were declared them.

1783 - the annexation of the Crimea to Russia; the signing of the Georgievsky treatise on the protectorate of Russia over Eastern Georgia.

In 1777, as a result of the invasion of Russian troops into the Crimea, a Russian protege Shagin-Girey was elected to the khan's throne, but to consolidate the position in Crimea, Catherine sent Grigory Potemkin. After negotiations, the Crimean Khan abdicated the throne and handed Crimea over to Russia. For the diplomatic victory Potemkin received the title "Prince of Tauride" (Crimea - Taurida in antiquity). In 1783, Eastern Georgia declared its desire to go under the patronage of Russia, which was recorded by the Georgievsky treatise. The Georgian king Irakli II sought to secure the country from Muslim Turkey and Persia.

1785 - Publication of the Charter for the Nobility and the Charter for the cities.

Trying to implement the fundamental principle of the philosophy of the Enlightenment - the rule of law and law, Catherine takes steps to regulate the legal status of the estates. Nobles are granted freedom from corporal punishment, poll tax, and compulsory service; the right to unlimited ownership of estates, including land with its subsoil, the right to trade and industrial activities; deprivation of the nobility could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the approval of the head of state; the estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation; the powers of the estate institutions of the nobility were expanded. In essence, the nobility received self-government: noble assemblies headed by provincial and district leaders.

It is no coincidence that the reign of Catherine is often called the "golden age of the nobility." The letter of grant to the cities confirmed the exemption from the poll tax and recruitment duty granted to the rich merchants. Distinguished citizens and merchants of the first two guilds were exempted from corporal punishment. The urban population was divided into six categories that made up the "city society": merchants, bourgeois (small traders, artisans), clergy, noblemen and officials. The townspeople elected the mayor, members of the magistrate and vowels (deputies) of the general city duma.

1787-1791 - The second Russian-Turkish war.

Causes of the war: 1 - the desire to return the Crimea; 2 - the conclusion of the Russian-Austrian union. Russia and Austria planned to dismember Turkey and create a "Greek Empire" headed by a representative of the Romanov dynasty on the territories belonging to it with an Orthodox population. An outstanding victory was achieved by troops under the leadership of Suvorov at the river. Rymnik. The commander used the tactics of surprise, which helped to put the 80,000-strong Turkish army to flight. The land army's victories were picked up at sea. In 1790, the fleet under the command of F. Ushakov won the battle at Tendra Island, the Turks lost 4 ships of the line. In the summer of 1791 F.F. Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet at Cape Kaliakria. In December, the Yassy Peace Treaty was signed. He confirmed the transfer of Crimea to Russia and the Russian patronage of Georgia; Bessarabia, Moldavia, Wallachia had to be returned to Turkey, so as not to aggravate relations with the European powers, dissatisfied with the strengthening of Russian positions on the Danube.

1788 - The capture of the Turkish fortress Ochakov.

Fortress Ochakov was considered the key to the Black Sea.

1790 - The capture of the Turkish fortress of Izmail by troops under the leadership of A. Suvorov; publication of the book by A. Radishchev "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow".

The main event of the Russian-Turkish war was the capture of the Izmail fortress in December 1790. Suvorov organized an assault on the fortress, which was considered impregnable. According to legend, the commandant of Ishmael, in response to Suvorov's ultimatum, said: "It is more likely that the Danube will flow backwards than the walls of Ishmael will fall."

In the book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" Radishchev for the first time defined serfdom as a terrible and unconditional evil. The work of Radishchev went beyond the framework of educational ideology with its ideas about a peaceful, evolutionary path of development. Catherine II called Radishchev "a rebel, worse than Pugachev."

1796-1801 - The reign of Paul /.

Paul revised many of the reforms of Catherine II: he streamlined and tightened the noble service, in particular long-term vacations; canceled the release of the nobles from corporal punishment by court, liquidated the noble gatherings. The order of succession to the throne was changed: the throne was transferred through the male line to the eldest son of the reigning emperor or the next oldest brother, which led to the stabilization of the situation in this matter.

1797 - Manifesto of the three-day corvee.

The manifesto established a three-day corvee, and also forbade landowners to force peasants to work on weekends and holidays. With this manifesto, Paul I “put the first limitation on landlord power” (S.F. Platonov).

1798-1799 - Russia's participation in the anti-French coalitions, the Italian and Swiss campaigns of A. Suvorov.

Russia became a member of the anti-French alliance with England and Austria (1795), and then in 1798-1799 the anti-French coalition together with England, Austria, Turkey and Naples. The goal of the coalition was to expel the French from Northern Italy, conquered by General Bonaparte during a campaign in 1797. The Russian-Turkish squadron led by F. Ushakov expelled the French from the Ionian Islands as a result of the capture of the fortress of Corfu.

In the same year, the offensive of the Russian-Austrian army under the command of A. Suvorov began in Northern Italy (Italian campaign). Having defeated the French, the troops liberated Milan and Turin. Suvorov was preparing to enter France, but Austria insisted that Suvorov's troops be sent to Switzerland to join the Russian corps of A. Rimsky-Korsakov.

Russian soldiers made a unique crossing over the snow-capped Alps, took possession of the Saint-Gotthard Pass. But the corps of Rimsky-Korsakov and the Austrians were defeated by the French, and Suvorov with the army was surrounded, from which he barely escaped. Paul I recalled the Russian army to his homeland, as he regarded the behavior of the British and Austrians as a betrayal.

At the end of the 18th century. the process of development of Russian culture is entering a new stage of development. A national culture is being formed, the centuries-old process of accumulating knowledge enters the stage of the formation of sciences, the literary Russian language is taking shape, national literature appears, the number of printed publications, masterpieces of architecture are being built, painting and sculpture are developing.

The old ecclesiastical and estate schools ceased to satisfy the need for the quantity and quality of educated citizens. Since the 80s. the government begins to create general education institutions. In 1786, according to the Charter of public schools, main public schools with four classes were established in provincial cities, and in county towns - small public schools with two classes. The number of estate schools for the education of the nobility increased. An outstanding figure in the field of education was I.I. Betsky. In addition to public schools, he created a school at the Academy of Arts, a Commercial School, and a nursing department at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens.

The main center of scientific activity was the Academy of Sciences. For development higher education in Russia on January 12, 1755, Moscow University was opened with two gymnasiums, which became the center of Russian education. Unlike European universities, education in it was free for all classes (except for serfs). In 1773, the Mining School was opened in St. Petersburg. The creation of a network of higher educational institutions required the publication of new textbooks. The Academy of Sciences and Moscow University were involved in their development. An outstanding role in the development of Russian science was played by M.V. Lomonosov is a multi-talented scientist, poet, historian and naturalist.

A special development in the 18th century. got natural sciences. In the 20-50s. 18th c. The Academy of Sciences organized the Great Northern Expedition to explore the northeast of Asia, the Arctic Ocean and the northwest of America.

In 60-80 years. a comprehensive study of the north of the European part of Russia was carried out. The most important geographical discoveries were made by S.I. Chelyuskin, S.G. Mapygin, the Laptev brothers. V. Bering and A.I. Chirikov passed between Chukotka and Alaska, opening the strait between America and Asia.

In the second half of the 18th century. there is a rise in technical thought. I.I. Polzunov was the first to develop a project for a universal steam engine. I.P. Kulibin created a project of a single-arch bridge across the Neva, invented a searchlight, an elevator, and prostheses for the disabled.

The literature of this period is presented in three directions. Classicism represents the work of A.P. Sumarokova (tragedy "Dmitry the Pretender", comedy "Guardian"). In a romantic style, N.M. Karamzin (Poor Liza). The artistic and realistic direction is presented by D.I. Fonvizin (comedy "Brigadier" and "Minor").

In 1790 the book by A.N. Radishchev's "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", which contained a protest against serfdom.

The architecture was dominated by the Russian Baroque style, which was distinguished by special luxury. It was a fusion of European classicism and domestic architectural traditions.

The largest architects of this direction were V.V. Rastrelli in Petersburg and D.V. Ukhtomsky in Moscow. The style of classicism in St. Petersburg was represented by D. Quarenghi, N.A. Lvov and Ch. Cameron. In Moscow, V.I. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakov.

Russian painting is improving in traditional portraiture (works by F.S. Rokotov, D.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky). M. Shibanov laid the foundation for genre painting. The founders of landscape painting - S.F. Shchedrin and F. Ya. Alekseev. The first paintings in the historical genre were created by A.P. Losenko.

Wonderful creations are created by sculptors F.I. Shubin is a master of sculptural portrait and M.I. Kozlovsky, who became the founder of Russian classicism in sculpture.

Tatiana Ponka

Architecture... The leading direction in the architecture of the second half of the XVIII century. was classicism, which was characterized by an appeal to the images and forms of ancient architecture (order system with columns) as an ideal aesthetic standard.

A significant architectural event of the 60-80s. was the decoration of the embankments of the Neva. One of the sights of St. Petersburg was the Summer Garden. In 1771 - 1786. The summer garden from the side of the Neva embankment was fenced with a lattice, the author of which is Yu.M. Felten (1730-1801) and his assistant P. Egorov. The lattice of the Summer Garden is made in the style of classicism: the vertical dominates here: vertically standing peaks intersect rectangular frames, evenly distributed massive pylons support these frames, emphasizing with their rhythm the general feeling of stateliness and tranquility. In 1780-1789. designed by architect A.A. Kvasov built granite embankments and slopes and entrances to the river.

Like many contemporaries, Yu.M. Felten was involved in the alteration of the interiors of the Great Peterhof Palace (White Dining Room, Throne Hall). In honor of the glorious victory of the Russian fleet over the Turkish in the Chesma Bay in 1770, one of the halls of the Great Peterhof Palace was Yu.M. Felten converted into the Chesme Hall. The main decoration of the hall was 12 canvases, executed in 1771-1772. German painter F. Gackert, dedicated to the battles of the Russian fleet with the Turkish. In honor of the Chesme battle, Yu.M. Felten built the Chesme Palace (1774-1777) and the Chesme Church (1777-1780) on the road to Tsarskoe Selo 7 versts from St. Petersburg. Palace and church built in gothic style, create a single architectural ensemble.

The greatest master of Russian classicism was V.I.Bazhenov (1737 / 38―1799). He grew up in the Moscow Kremlin, where his father was a deacon of one of the churches, he studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University. After graduating from the Academy of Arts in 1760, V.I. Bazhenov went as a pensioner to France and Italy. Living abroad, he enjoyed such fame that he was elected professor of Rome, a member of the Florentine and Bologna academies. In 1762, upon his return to Russia, he received the title of academician. But in Russia the creative destiny of the architect was tragic.

During this period, Catherine conceived the construction of the Grand Kremlin Palace in the Kremlin, and V.I. Bazhenov was appointed its chief architect. V.I. Bazhenov meant the reconstruction of the entire Kremlin. It was, in fact, a project for a new center of Moscow. It included the royal palace, the Collegiums, the Arsenal, the Theater, a square, conceived like an ancient forum, with tribunes for public meetings. The Kremlin itself, thanks to the fact that Bazhenov decided to continue three streets with driveways to the palace grounds, was connected to the streets of Moscow. For 7 years V.I. Bazhenov develops projects, prepares for construction, but in 1775 Catherine ordered to curtail all work (officially - due to lack of funds, unofficially - due to the negative attitude of the public to the project).

Several months passed, and V.I. Bazhenov is entrusted with the creation of a palace and park complex of buildings in the village of Chernaya Gryaz (Tsaritsyno) near Moscow, where Catherine II decided to build her country residence. In ten years, all major works were completed. In June 1785, Catherine came to Moscow and inspected the Tsaritsyn buildings, then in January 1786 issued a decree: to break the palace and all the buildings, and V.I. Bazhenov to fire without salary and pension. "This is a prison, not a palace" - such is the conclusion of the empress. The legend connects the demolition of the palace with its external oppressive appearance. The construction of the new palace was commissioned by Catherine to M.F. Kazakov. But this palace was not completed either.

In 1784-1786. IN AND. Bazhenov built an estate for the wealthy landowner Pashkov, which is known as the house of P.E. Pashkov. The Pashkov House is located on the slope of a high hill, opposite the Kremlin, at the confluence of the Neglinka with the Moskva River and is an architectural masterpiece of the classicism era. The estate consisted of a dwelling house, arena, stables, service and outbuildings and a church. The building is distinguished by antique austerity and solemnity with a purely Moscow pattern.

Another talented Russian architect who worked in the style of classicism was M.F. Kazakov (1738―1812). Kazakov was not a pensioner and studied ancient and Renaissance monuments from drawings and models. A great school for him was the joint work with Bazhenov, who invited him, on the project of the Kremlin Palace. In 1776, Catherine commissioned M.F. Kazakov drawing up a project of a government building in the Kremlin - the Senate. The plot allocated for the Senate building was an uncomfortable oblong triangular shape, surrounded on all sides by old buildings. So the Senate building received a general triangular plan. The building has three floors and is made of bricks. The center of the composition was the inner courtyard, into which an archway crowned with a dome led. Having passed the archway, the person who entered found himself in front of a majestic rotunda, crowned with a mighty dome. It was in this light round building that the Senate was supposed to sit. The corners of the triangular building have been cut off. Due to this, the building is perceived not as a flat triangle, but as an integral massive volume.

M.F. Kazakov also owns the building of the Noble Assembly (1784―1787). A feature of this building was that in the center of the building the architect placed the Column Hall, and around it numerous drawing rooms and halls. The central space of the Column Hall, intended for solemn ceremonies, is highlighted by a Corinthian colonnade, and the state of festivity is enhanced by the sparkling of numerous chandeliers and illumination of the ceiling. After the revolution, the building was given to the trade unions and renamed the House of Unions. Since the funeral of V.I. Lenin, the Column Hall of the House of Unions was used as a funeral room for farewell to statesmen and famous people. Currently, the Hall of Columns hosts public gatherings and concerts.

The third largest architect of the second half of the 18th century I. Ye. Starov (1744-1808). He studied first at the gymnasium at Moscow University, then at the Academy of Arts. The most significant building of Starov is the Tauride Palace (1782―1789) - the huge city estate of G.A. Potemkin, who received the title of Tauride for the development of the Crimea. The basis of the composition of the palace is the hall ― gallery, which divides the entire complex of interiors into two parts. From the side of the main entrance, there is a row of rooms adjacent to the octagonal domed hall. A large winter garden opens on the opposite side. The exterior of the building is very modest, but it hides the dazzling luxury of the interiors.

The Italian Giacomo Quarenghi (1744―1817) has been working in St. Petersburg since 1780. His career in Russia was very successful. Architectural creations in Russia are a brilliant mix of Russian and Italian architectural traditions. His contribution to Russian architecture was that he, together with the Scotsman Charles Cameron, set the standards for the architecture of St. Petersburg at that time. Quarenghi's masterpiece was the building of the Academy of Sciences, built in 1783-1789. The main center is highlighted by an eight-column Ionic portico, the splendor of which is enhanced by a typical St. Petersburg porch with a staircase for two "shoots". In 1792-1796 Quarenghi builds the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, which became his next masterpiece. In the Alexander Palace, the main motive is the powerful colonnade of the Corinthian order. One of the remarkable buildings of Quarenghi was the building of the Smolny Institute (1806―1808), which has a clear rational planning in accordance with the requirements educational institution... Its plan is typical for Quarenghi: the center of the façade is decorated with a majestic eight-column portico, the front yard is bounded by the wings of the building and a fence.

At the end of the 70s, the architect Charles Cameron (1743―1812), a Scotsman by birth, came to Russia. Brought up on European classicism, he managed to feel all the originality of Russian architecture and love it. Cameron's talent manifested itself mainly in the exquisite palace and park suburban ensembles.

In 1777, the son of Catherine, Pavel Petrovich, was born a son - the future emperor Alexander I. The delighted empress presented Pavel Petrovich with 362 tithes of land along the Slavyanka River - the future Pavlovsk. In 1780, Ch. Cameron was engaged in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Pavlovsk. Outstanding architects, sculptors, painters took part in the construction of the park, palace and park structures, but the first period of formation of the park under the leadership of Cameron was very significant. Cameron laid the foundations for Europe's largest and best landscape park in the then fashionable English style- the park is emphatically natural, landscape. After careful measurements, he laid the main arteries of roads, alleys, paths, allocated places for groves and meadows. Picturesque and cozy corners here side by side with small light buildings that do not violate the harmony of the ensemble. The real pearl of Charles Cameron's creativity is the Pavlovsk Palace, which was built on a high hill. Following Russian traditions, the architect managed to "fit" architectural structures into a picturesque area, to unite man-made beauty with natural splendor. The Pavlovsk Palace is devoid of pretentiousness, its windows from a high hill calmly look at the not unhurriedly flowing river Slavyanka.

The last architect of the 18th century. V. Brenna (1747-1818) is rightfully considered the favorite architect of Pavel and Maria Feodorovna. After accession to the throne in 1796, Paul I removed C. Cameron from the post of chief architect of Pavlovsk and appointed V. Brenna in his place. From now on, Brenna is in charge of all buildings in Pavlovsk, participates in all significant buildings of Pavlovsk time.

Paul I entrusted Brenna with the management of the works in his second country residence - Gatchina. Brenna's Gatchina Palace has a modest, even ascetic Spartan appearance, but interior decoration majestic and luxurious. At the same time, work began in the Gatchina Park. On the shores of lakes and islands is located a large number of pavilions that look very simple on the outside, but their interiors are magnificent: the Venus Pavilion, the Birch House (outwardly reminiscent of a rasp of birch firewood), Porta Masca and the Farmer's Pavilion.

Paul I decided to build a palace in St. Petersburg to his liking - in the spirit of military aesthetics. The palace project was developed by V.I. Bazhenov, but in connection with his death, Paul I entrusted the construction of the palace to V. Brenne. Paul always wanted to live where he was born. In 1797, on the Fontanka, on the site of the Summer Palace of Elizabeth Petrovna (in which Pavel was born), the foundation stone of the palace took place in honor of the Archangel Michael - the patron saint of the heavenly army - Mikhailovsky Castle. The Mikhailovsky Castle became the best creation of Brenna, which he gave the appearance of a fortress. The exterior of the castle is a quadrangle surrounded by stone wall, ditches were dug on both sides around the palace. One could get to the palace through drawbridges; cannons were placed around the palace in different places. Originally exterior view The castle was replete with decorations: everywhere there were marble statues, vases, figures. The palace had an extensive garden and parade ground, where reviews and parades were held in any weather. But in his beloved castle, Pavel managed to live only 40 days. On the night of March 11-12, he was strangled. After the death of Paul I, everything that gave the palace the character of a fortress was destroyed. All statues were transferred to Winter Palace, the ditches are covered with earth. In 1819, the abandoned castle was transferred to the Main Engineering School, and its second name appeared - the Engineering Castle.

Sculpture... In the second half of the 18th century. the real flowering of Russian sculpture begins, which is associated, first of all, with the name of F.I.Shubin (1740―1805), compatriot M.V. Lomonosov. After graduating from the Academy with a large gold medal, Shubin leaves for a retirement trip, first to Paris (1767-1770), and then to Rome (1770-1772). Abroad in 1771, not from nature, Shubin created a bust of Catherine II, for which, upon returning to his homeland in 1774, he received the title of academician.

The first work of F.I. Shubin after his return - a bust of A.M. Golitsyn (1773, RM) is one of the master's most brilliant works. In the guise of an educated nobleman, one reads intelligence, imperiousness, arrogance, but at the same time condescension, and the habit of cautious "swimming" on the waves of changeable political fortune. In the image of the famous commander A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, the features of a strong and significant person(1778, State Art Museum, Minsk).

Over time, interest in Shubin fades away. Executed without embellishment, his portraits were less and less liked by customers. In 1792, Shubin created a bust of M.V. Lomonosov (State Russian Museum, Academy of Sciences). In the person of the great Russian scientist, there is neither stiffness, nor noble arrogance, nor excessive pride. A slightly mocking person, wise by everyday experience, who has lived a bright and difficult life, looks at us. Liveliness of mind, spirituality, nobility, at the same time - sadness, disappointment, even skepticism - these are the main qualities inherent in the great Russian scientist, whom F.I. Shubin knew very well.

A masterpiece of portrait art by F.I. Shubin is a bust of Paul I (1798, RM; 1800, Tretyakov Gallery). The sculptor managed to convey the entire complexity of the image: arrogance, coldness, morbidity, secrecy, but at the same time, the suffering of a person who, from childhood, experienced all the cruelty of a crowned mother. Paul I liked the work. But there were almost no orders. In 1801 the house of F.I. Shubin and a workshop with works. In 1805, the sculptor died in poverty, his death went unnoticed.

At the same time, the French sculptor E.-M. Falcone (1716-1791; in Russia - from 1766 to 1778). Falconet worked at the court of the French king Louis XV, then at the Paris Academy. In his works, Falcone followed the rococo fashion that prevailed at court. His work "Winter" (1771) became a true masterpiece. The image of a seated girl, personifying winter and covering the flowers at her feet with smoothly falling folds of her clothes, like a blanket of snow, is full of quiet sadness.

But Falcone always dreamed of creating a monumental work, he managed to realize this dream in Russia. On the advice of Diderot, Catherine instructed the sculptor to create an equestrian monument to Peter I. In 1766, Falcone arrived in St. Petersburg and began work. He portrayed Peter I riding on a rearing horse. The emperor's head is crowned with a laurel wreath - a symbol of his glory and victories. The tsar's hand pointing to the Neva, the Academy of Sciences and the Peter and Paul Fortress symbolically denotes the main goals of his reign: education, trade and military power. The sculpture rises on a pedestal in the form of a granite rock weighing 275 tons. At the suggestion of Falcone, a laconic inscription is engraved on the pedestal: "Catherine the Great to Peter the Great". The opening of the monument took place in 1782, when Falcone was no longer in Russia. Four years before the opening of the monument at E.-M. Falcone, disagreements arose with the empress, and the sculptor left Russia.

In the work of the remarkable Russian sculptor M.I. Kozlovsky (1753 ―1802) combines the features of Baroque and Classicism. He was also a pensioner in Rome, Paris. In the mid-90s, upon returning to his homeland, the most fruitful period in the work of Kozlovsky begins. The main theme of his works is from antiquity. From his works, young gods, cupids, and beautiful shepherdesses came to Russian sculpture. Such are his "Shepherd with a Hare" (1789, Pavlovsk Palace Museum), "Sleeping Cupid" (1792, State Russian Museum), "Cupid with an Arrow" (1797, Tretyakov Gallery). In the statue "Vigilance of Alexander the Great" (second half of the 80s, State Russian Museum), the sculptor captured one of the episodes of the upbringing of will by the future commander. The most significant and largest work of the artist was the monument to the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov (1799-1801, Petersburg). The monument has no direct portrait resemblance. It is rather a generalized image of a warrior, a hero, in a military suit of which elements of the weapons of an ancient Roman and a medieval knight are combined. Energy, courage, nobility emanate from the entire appearance of the commander, from his proud turn of the head, the graceful gesture with which he raises the sword. Another outstanding work of M.I. Kozlovsky became the statue "Samson tearing apart the lion's mouth" - the central one in the Grand Cascade of Peterhof fountains (1800-1802). The statue was dedicated to Russia's victory over Sweden in the Great Northern War. Samson personified Russia, and the lion personified defeated Sweden. The powerful figure of Samson is presented by the artist in a complex spread, in tense movement.

During the Great Patriotic War the monument was stolen by the Nazis. In 1947 the sculptor V.L. Simonov recreated it on the basis of the surviving photographic documents.

Painting... In the second half of the 18th century. the historical genre appears in Russian painting. Its appearance is associated with the name of A.P. Losenko. He graduated from the Academy of Arts, then as a pensioner was sent to Paris. A.P. Losenko owns the first work from Russian history - "Vladimir and Rogneda". In it, the artist chose the moment when the Novgorod prince Vladimir "asks for forgiveness" from Rogneda, the daughter of the Polotsk prince, to whose land he went with fire and sword, killed her father and brothers, and forcibly took her to his wife. Rogneda suffers theatrically, raising his eyes; Vladimir is also theatrical. But the very appeal to Russian history was very characteristic of the era of high national upsurge in the second half of the 18th century.

The historical theme in painting was developed by G.I. Ugryumov (1764-1823). The main theme of his works was the struggle of the Russian people: with the nomads ("Test of the Strength of Yan Usmar", 1796-1797, State Russian Museum); with the German knights ("Solemn entry into Pskov of Alexander Nevsky after the victory he won over the German knights", 1793, RM); for the security of their borders ("The Capture of Kazan", 1797-1799, State Russian Museum), etc.

The greatest success was painting in the second half of the 18th century. achieves in the portrait genre. To the most remarkable phenomena of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. belongs to the work of the painter F.S. Rokotov (1735/36―1808). He came from serfs, but received freedom from his landowner. He learned the art of painting at the works of P. Rotary. The young artist was lucky, his patron was the first president of the Academy of Arts I.I. Shuvalov. On the recommendation of I.I. Shuvalova F.S. Rokotov in 1757 received an order for a mosaic portrait of Elizaveta Petrovna (from the original by L. Tokke) for Moscow University. The portrait was such a success that F.S. Rokotov receives an order for portraits of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich (1761), Emperor Peter III (1762). When Catherine II ascended the throne, F.S. Rokotov was already a well-known artist. In 1763, the artist painted the Empress in full height, in profile, in a beautiful setting. Rokotov painted another half-length portrait of the Empress. The empress liked him very much, she believed that he was "one of the most similar." Catherine presented the portrait to the Academy of Sciences, where it is located to this day. Following the reigning persons, the portraits of F.S. Rokotov wished to have the Orlovs, Shuvalovs. Sometimes he created whole galleries of portraits of representatives of the same family in its various generations: Baryatinsky, Golitsyns, Rumyantsevs, Vorontsovs. Rokotov does not seek to emphasize the external merits of his models, the main thing for him is the inner world of a person. Among the artist's works, the portrait of Maikov (1765) stands out. In the guise of a major government official, behind languid effeminacy, discernment, an ironic mind are guessed. The color of the portrait, built on a combination of green and red, creates the impression of a full-blooded, vitality of the image.

In 1765 the artist moved to Moscow. Moscow is distinguished by greater freedom of creativity than official St. Petersburg. In Moscow, a special, "rokotovskaya" style of painting is taking shape. The artist creates a whole gallery of beautiful female images, among which the most remarkable is the portrait of A.P. Stuiskaya (1772, Tretyakov Gallery). A slender figure in a light gray-silver dress, highly fluffed up powdered hair, a long curl falling on the chest, a refined oval of the face with dark almond-shaped eyes - everything conveys the mystery and poetry of the image of a young woman. The exquisite coloring of the portrait - greenish-swamp and golden-brown, faded pink and pearl-gray - enhances the impression of mystery. In the XX century. the poet N. Zabolotsky dedicated remarkable poems to this portrait:

Her eyes are like two mists

Half smile, half cry,

Her eyes are like two deceptions

Shrouded in the mist of failure.

The successful embodiment of the image of A. Struyskaya in the portrait served as the basis for the legend, according to which the artist was not indifferent to the model. In fact, the name of the chosen one S.F. Rokotov is well known, and A.P. Struyskaya was happily married to her husband and was an ordinary landowner.

Another great artist of the 18th century was D.G. Levitsky (1735―1822) - the creator of both the ceremonial portrait and the great master of the chamber portrait. He was born in Ukraine, but from the turn of the 50s and 60s Levitsky's life in St. Petersburg begins, forever from now on connected with this city and the Academy of Arts, in which he has been leading a portrait class for many years.

In his models, he sought to emphasize the originality, the most bright features... One of the artist's most famous works is the ceremonial portrait of P.A. Demidov (1773, Tretyakov Gallery). The representative of a well-known family of miners, P.A. Demidov was a fabulous rich man, a strange eccentric. The ceremonial portrait, original in design, depicts Demidov standing in a relaxed pose against the background of the colonnade and draperies. He stands in a deserted ceremonial hall, like a home, in a nightcap and a scarlet dressing gown, gesturing to his amusements - a watering can and a pot of flowers, of which he was a lover. In his dress, in his posture - a challenge to the times and society. Everything is mixed in this person - kindness, originality, the desire to be realized in science. Levitsky was able to combine the features of extravagance with elements of a ceremonial portrait: columns, drapery, a landscape overlooking the Orphanage in Moscow, for the maintenance of which Demidov donated huge sums.

In the early 1770s. Levitsky performs seven portraits of pupils of the Smolny Institute for noble maidens - "Smolyanka" (all in the State Russian Museum), famous for their musicality. These portraits became the highest achievement of the artist. The skill of the artist was manifested in them with particular completeness. E.N. Khovanskaya, E.N. Khrushchova, E.I. Nelidova are depicted in theatrical costumes during their presentation of an elegant pastoral. In the portraits of G.I. Alymova and E.I. Molchanova, one of the heroines is playing the harp, the other is shown sitting next to a scientific device with a book in her hand. Placed side by side, these portraits personified the benefits of "sciences and arts" for a reasonable, thinking person.

The culminating point of the master's mature work was his famous allelogical portrait of Catherine II, the legislator in the Temple of Justice, repeated by the artist in several versions. This work occupies a special place in Russian art. It embodied the high notions of the era about civicism and patriotism, about an ideal ruler - an enlightened monarch who tirelessly cares about the welfare of his subjects. Levitsky himself described his work in the following way: "The middle of the picture represents the interior of the temple of the goddess of justice, before which, in the form of the Legislator, ei, burning poppy flowers on the altar, sacrifices his precious peace for general peace."

In 1787 Levitsky left teaching and left the Academy of Arts. One of the reasons for this was the artist's enthusiasm for mystical trends, which were fairly widespread in Russia at the end of the 18th century. and his entry to the Masonic lodge. Not without the influence of new ideas in society around 1792, a portrait of Levitsky's friend and his mentor in Freemasonry N.I. Novikov (State Tretyakov Gallery). The amazing liveliness and expressiveness of Novikov's gesture and gaze, not characteristic of the heroes of Levitsky's portraits, a fragment of the landscape in the background - all this betrays the artist's attempt to master a new, more modern pictorial language inherent in other artistic systems.

Another remarkable artist of this time was V.L. Borovikovsky (1757―1825). He was born in Ukraine, in Mirgorod, studied icon painting with his father. In 1788 V.L. Borovikovsky was brought to St. Petersburg. He studied hard, honing taste and skill, and soon became a recognized master. In the 90s, he creates portraits in which the features of a new direction in art - sentimentalism - are fully expressed. All "sentimental" portraits of Borovikovsky are images of people in a chamber setting, in simple outfits with an apple or a flower in hand. The best of them is the portrait of M.I. Lopukhina. It is often called the highest achievement of Senmentalism in Russian painting. A young girl looks from the portrait. Her posture is relaxed, a simple dress loosely fits the waist, a fresh face is full of charm and charm. In the portrait, everything is in agreement, in harmony with each other: a shady corner of the park, cornflowers among ears of ripe rye, wilting roses, a languid, slightly mocking look of a girl. In the portrait of Lopukhina, the artist was able to show genuine beauty - spiritual and lyrical, inherent in Russian women. The features of sentimentalism appeared in V.L. Borovikovsky even in the image of the empress. Now this is not a representative portrait of the "legislator" with all the imperial regalia, but an image of an ordinary woman in a dressing gown and a cap walking in Tsarskoye Selo Park together with her beloved dog.

At the end of the 18th century. a new genre appears in Russian painting - landscape. A new landscape class was opened at the Academy of Arts, and S.F.Shchedrin became the first professor of the landscape class. He became the ancestor of the Russian landscape. It was Shchedrin who was the first to work out the compositional scheme of the landscape, which became exemplary for a long time. And on it S.F. Shchedrin has taught more than one generation of artists. The heyday of Shchedrin's creativity fell on the 1790s. Among his works, the most famous series of views of Pavlovsky, Gatchinsky and Peterhof parks, views of Kamenny Island. Shchedrin captured specific types of architectural structures, but the main role gave not to them, but the surrounding nature, with which man and his creations find themselves in a harmonious fusion.

F. Alekseev (1753 / 54-1824) laid the foundation for the landscape of the city. Among his works of the 1790s. especially famous are "View of the Peter and Paul Fortress and the Palace Embankment" (1793) and "View of the Palace Embankment from the Peter and Paul Fortress" (1794). Alekseev creates a sublime and at the same time living image of a large, majestic, individual in its beauty city, in which a person feels happy and free.

In 1800, Emperor Paul I instructed Alekseev to paint views of Moscow. The artist became interested in old Russian architecture. He stayed in Moscow for over a year and brought from there a number of paintings and many watercolors with views of Moscow streets, monasteries, suburbs, but mainly - various images of the Kremlin. These views are highly reliable.

Working in Moscow enriched the artist's world and allowed him to take a fresh look at the life of the capital when he returned there. In his Petersburg landscapes, the genre is enhanced. Quays, avenues, barges, sailboats are filled with people. One of the best works of this period is "View of the English Embankment from the Vasilievsky Island" (1810s, State Russian Museum). It contains a measure, a harmonious relationship between the landscape itself and architecture. The painting of this picture completed the folding of the so-called urban landscape.

Engraving... In the second half of the century, wonderful master engravers work. The "true genius of engraving" was E. P. Chemesov. The artist lived for only 27 years; about 12 works remain of him. Chemesov worked mainly in the portrait genre. The engraved portrait developed very actively at the end of the century. In addition to Chemesov, one can name G.I. Skorodumov, known for dotted engraving, which created special opportunities for "picturesque" interpretation (I. Selivanov. Portrait of Grand Duke Alexandra Pavlovna from the original by V.P. Borovikovsky, mezzotinto; GI Skorodumov. Self-portrait, pen drawing).

Arts and crafts... In the second half of the 18th century, the Gzhel ceramics reached a high artistic level - products of ceramic crafts in the Moscow region, the center of which was the former Gzhel volost. At the beginning of the 17th century. the peasants of the Gzhel villages began to make bricks, monochromatic light-colored glazed dishes, and toys from local clay. At the end of the 17th century. the peasants have mastered the manufacture of "ant", ie. covered with greenish or brown glaze. It became known about the Gzhel clays in Moscow, and in 1663 Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich ordered to start researching the Gzhel clays. A special commission was sent to Gzhel, which included Afanasy Grebenshchikov, the owner of a ceramic factory in Moscow, and D.I. Vinogradov. Vinogradov stayed in Gzhel for 8 meyats. By mixing Orenburg clay with Gzhel (black earth) clay, he got a real clean, white porcelain (porcelain). At the same time, Gzhel craftsmen worked at A. Grebenshchikov's factories in Moscow. They quickly mastered the production of majolica, and began to make ferments, jugs, mugs, cups, plates, decorated with ornamental and subject painting, executed in green, yellow, blue and violet-brown colors on a white field. Since the end of the 18th century. in Gzhel there is a transition from majolica to semi-faience. The painting of products is also changing - from multicolored, typical for majolica, to one-color blue (cobalt) painting. Gzhel dishes were widespread throughout Russia, Central Asia, and the Middle East. During the heyday of the Gzhel industry, there were 30 factories for the production of dishes. Among the famous manufacturers were the Barmin brothers, Khrapunov-novy, Fomin, Tadin, Rachkin, Guslins, Gusyatnikovs, etc.

But the most successful were the brothers Terenty and Anisim Kuznetsov. Their factory was founded at the beginning of the 19th century. in the village of Novo-Kharitonovo. From them, the dynasty continued the family business until the revolution, buying more and more plants and factories. In the second half of the XIX century. there is a gradual disappearance of the Gzhel craft with hand molding and painting, only large factories remain. From the beginning of 1920, separate pottery workshops and artels appeared. The true revival of Gzhel production begins in 1945. One-color blue underglaze (cobalt) painting was adopted.

In 1766, in the village of Verbilki near Dmitrov, near Moscow, the Russianized Englishman Frans Gardner founded the best private porcelain factory. He asserted his prestige as the first among private porcelain manufactures by creating in 1778―1785, commissioned by Catherine II, four magnificent order services, distinguished by the purity and rigor of the decor. The plant also produced Italian opera figurines. The beginning of the 19th century signified new stage in the development of Gardner's porcelain. The plant's artists abandoned direct imitation of European designs and tried to find their own style. Gardner's cups with portraits of heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812 gained immense popularity. In 1820, the production of genre figurines began, depicting folk types according to drawings by K. Zelentsova from the magazine "Magic Lantern". They were peasants and women, busy with their usual peasant work, peasant children, urban working people - shoemakers, janitors, peddlers and peddlers. Figures of peoples inhabiting Russia were made ethnographically accurately. Gardner's statuettes have become a visible illustration of the history of Russia. F.Ya. Gardner found his own style of products, in which Empire forms were combined with genre of motives and color saturation decor in general. Since 1891 the plant belonged to M.S. Kuznetsov. After the October Revolution, the factory became known as the Dmitrov Porcelain Factory, and since 1993 - Porcelain Verbilok.

Fedoskino miniature... At the end of the 18th century. in the village of Fedoskino near Moscow, a kind of Russian lacquer miniature painting with oil paints on papier-mâché took shape. Fedoskino miniature arose thanks to one bad habit that was widespread in the 18th century. In those ancient times, it was very fashionable to sniff tobacco, and everyone did it: nobility, commoners, men, women. Tobacco was stored in snuff boxes made of gold, silver, tortoiseshell, porcelain and other materials. And so in Europe they began to make snuff boxes from pressed cardboard soaked in vegetable oil and dried at temperatures up to 100 ° C. This material became known as papier-mâché (chewed paper). The snuffboxes were covered with black primer and black varnish; classical subjects were used in the painting. Such snuff boxes were very popular in Russia, therefore, in 1796 in the village of Danilkovo, 30 km from Moscow, the merchant P.I. Korobov began the production of round snuff boxes, which were decorated with engravings glued to their lids. The engravings were covered with transparent varnish. Since 1819 the factory was owned by P.V. Korobov's son-in-law. Lukutin. Together with his son A.P. Lukutin, he expanded production, organized the training of Russian craftsmen, with him the production was transferred to the village of Fedoskino. The Fedoskino masters of snuff boxes, beads, caskets and other items began to decorate with pictorial miniatures made with oil paints in a classical painting manner. Views of the Moscow Kremlin and other architectural monuments, scenes from folk life... Riding triplets, festivities or peasant dances, tea drinking over a samovar were especially popular. Thanks to the creativity of Russian masters, Lukuta varnishes acquired originality and national flavor, both in plots and in technology. Fedoskino miniature is executed with oil paints in three to four layers - painting is done in succession (general sketch of the composition), prescription or re-painting (more detailed elaboration), glazing (modeling of the image with transparent paints) and glare (completion of the work with light paints, transmitting glare on objects). The original Fedoskino technique is "through writing": a reflective material is applied to the surface before painting - metal powder, leaf or mother-of-pearl. Shining through transparent layers of glaze paints, these liners add depth to the image, an amazing glow effect. In addition to snuff boxes, the factory produced boxes, eyeglass cases, pin cases, family album covers, tea caddies, Easter eggs, trays and much more. The products of the Fedoskino miniaturists were very popular not only in Russia, but also abroad.

Thus, in the second half of the 18th century, in the age of "Reason and Enlightenment", a unique, in many ways unique artistic culture was created in Russia. This culture was alien to national narrow-mindedness and isolation. She absorbed with amazing ease and creatively reworked everything of value that was created by the labor of artists from other countries. New types and genres of art, new artistic directions, bright creative names were born.

The policy of Catherine II (1762-1796) was called "enlightened absolutism." European politicians of that period viewed Catherine II as an enlightened head of state and nation who took care of his subjects on the basis of the laws he established.

In the concept of Catherine II, the autocracy was not questioned. It was it that was supposed to become the main instrument of gradual reform in all spheres of life. Russian society... And the whole system of state institutions, according to Catherine II, is only a mechanism for realizing the supreme will of the enlightened autocrat.

One of the first undertakings of Catherine II was the reform of the Senate.

On December 15, 1763, a decree appeared, according to which its powers and structure were changed. The Senate was deprived of legislative powers, retaining only the functions of control and the highest judicial body.

Structurally, the Senate was divided into 6 departments with strictly defined competences, which made it possible to increase the efficiency of the work of this central body of state power.

The main historical document, which sets out the political doctrine of Catherine II, was the "Order of the Commission on the compilation of a draft of a new Code", written by the empress herself in 1764-1766. and represented the talented revision of the works of Sh.L. Montesquieu and other philosophers and legal scholars. It discusses a lot about the nature of the laws that must comply historical features people. And the Russian people, according to Catherine II, belonged to the European community.

The Instruction said that the vast extent of the territories of Russia requires only an autocratic form of government, any other can lead the country to ruin. It was noted that the goal of autocracy is the benefit of all subjects. The monarch rules in accordance with the laws established by him. All citizens are equal before the law.

The order was intended for a commission convened from all over the country to develop a draft of a new Code, which began to meet in Moscow in July 1767.The Commission consisted of 572 deputies elected on a territorial basis from nobles, townspeople, Cossacks, state peasants, non-Russian peoples of the Volga region and Siberia.

But it soon became clear that the deputies of the Legislative Commission were poorly prepared for legislative work. The main thing that caused the commission's failure was the contradictions between representatives of different social, regional and national groups, which could not be overcome in the course of the work. In December 1768, the Empress issued a decree on the dissolution of the Legislative Commission under the pretext of the outbreak of another war with Turkey. As a result, Catherine II independently took up lawmaking and continued to govern the state with the help of personal decrees and manifestos, replacing in this sense the whole Legislative Commission.

Another important transformative element of the policy of Catherine II was the secularization reform. In February 1764, a decree of the empress followed, according to which the monastery lands, together with the population, were withdrawn from the church and subordinated to the College of Economy. Now the peasants, according to their legal status, became state and paid taxes no longer to the church, but to the state. They got rid of the monastic corvee. The land plots of the peasants increased, it became easier for them to engage in handicrafts and trade. As a result of this reform, the spiritual power was finally transferred to the content of the secular power, and the clergy turned into civil servants.

Catherine II eliminated the remaining elements of the liberties and privileges of the national territories that became part of Russia. The governing bodies and the administrative-territorial division of the Novgorod land, Smolensk, Livonia (the Baltic possessions of Russia) were unified and brought into line with Russian laws. In 1764, the hetmanate in Ukraine was liquidated and was appointed as governor-general P.A. Rumyantsev. Remnants of the autonomy and the former Cossack freemen were eliminated. In 1783, a decree of Catherine II followed, banning the transfer of Ukrainian peasants from one landowner to another, which finally consolidated the serf system here.

In 1791, the Empress established the Pale of Settlement for the Jewish population, which limited the rights of Jews to settle in certain territories.

New to national policy the state was an invitation to Russia of German colonists, mostly ordinary peasants. In the mid-1760s. more than 30 thousand immigrants began to develop the territories of the Lower Volga region, the Urals, and subsequently the Crimea and the North Caucasus.

In the general structure of Catherine's reforms, the reform of the local government system occupies an extremely important place.

As a result of the provincial reform (1775), local government acquired a clearer and more organized structure. The number of provinces increased to 50. The province was a territory with a population of 300-400 thousand people, which was divided into counties, each with a population of 20-30 thousand people. In the county towns, power belonged to the appointed mayor. Administrative and judicial functions were separated. Special provincial chambers of criminal and civil courts were created. Some positions have become elective.

The provincial reform strengthened the local government, the center of administrative activity was moved here, which made it possible to gradually abolish some of the collegia.

In 1782, a police reform was carried out, according to which police and church moral control were established over the population.

The government reform was completed by the adoption of two most important documents - Letters of Grant to the Nobility and Cities (1785), which became the fundamental legal acts in the sphere of the empress's estate policy.

The letter of grant to the nobility legally secured for him all the rights and privileges as the main class of society. In the case of the service, the right to choose or refuse service was confirmed, special rights were retained in matters of land tenure, court, taxation, corporal punishment. The criteria for admission to the nobility were strictly defined, the compilation of genealogical books put all the nobles in their places. The corporatism of the nobles was strengthened by the legal registration of the noble assemblies and the election of provincial and district leaders. Only one issue concerning the right and ownership of serf souls was not covered in the Charter. The Empress, as it were, left this problem open.

The letters of gratitude to the cities were aimed at the formation of a "third estate" in Russia. A new body of city self-government was created - the city council, headed by the mayor. It elected and could be elected city residents, divided into six categories depending on property and social differences. Thus, in Russian cities an elective and representative institution of power appeared. The diploma provided urban inhabitants (bourgeois) with a structure of rights and privileges similar to that of the nobility. The bourgeoisie was defined as a special class, and this title, like the nobility, was hereditary. The right of ownership of the property and its inheritance, the right to engage in industrial and commercial activities were guaranteed. The merchants of the first and second guilds, as the most significant part of the townspeople, were exempted from corporal punishment, as well as from the poll tax and recruitment. In return, they paid a tax of 1% on the capital and contributed 360 rubles per recruit.

In 1786, an educational reform was carried out: a system of educational institutions was created.

Catherine II spoke out against the extremes of serfdom, condemning them in her works. But objectively, during her reign, there was an increase in serf oppression in the country (the final spread of serfdom in Ukraine, the tightening of Elizabeth's decree in 1765 on the right of landowners to exile serfs without trial to Siberia for settlement and hard labor, the prohibition of peasants to file complaints against nobles), which was one of the main reasons for the intensification of popular demonstrations, which resulted in the largest in the eighteenth century. Cossack-peasant war.

During the reign of Catherine II, social contradictions intensified in the country, caused by the strengthening of serfdom against various categories of peasants and the expansion of the privileges of the nobility. Quite often, popular protests broke out under anti-serfdom slogans, the flight from the landowners of the peasants driven to despair took on a massive character.

The southern regions of the state became the center of social discontent. The movement began among the Cossacks. It was headed by Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev. Serfs, working people, as well as foreigners from the Volga region (Bashkirs, Tatars, Mari, Udmurts, etc.) become under his banner.

In the territories under the control of the Pugachevites, government bodies were created in the manner of a Cossack circle (community) with elected atamans, headmen and other officials.

The war had three main stages:

Stage I (September 1773 - March 1774): an unsuccessful 6-month siege of Orenburg by E. Pugachev and defeat by government troops near the Tatishchev Fortress.

Stage II (April-July 1774): the movement of Pugachev's troops from the city of Orenburg through the Urals and the Kama region to Kazan; battle for Kazan (12-17 July 1774). The capture of the city by the rebels, and then defeat by the troops of Colonel I.M. Michelson.

Stage III (July 1774 - January 1775): On July 31, 1774, E. Pugachev issued a decree on the release of peasants from serfdom and taxes; E. Pugachev's movement from Kazan to the south; unsuccessful siege by E. Pugachev of Tsaritsyn; August 25, 1774 - the decisive defeat of the rebels at the Salnikov plant; E. Pugachev's army ceased to exist; September 18, 1774 - capture of E. Pugachev by the Cossack elite and his handover to the tsarist authorities; January 10, 1775 E.I. Pugachev and his closest associates were executed in Moscow.

Peasant war in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was the largest protest of the masses against serfdom and was, in essence, a kind of civil. All this testified to the crisis of the feudal-serf system in the country.

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia's foreign policy was focused on solving problems in two main directions: southern and western.

In the southern direction, there was a sharp struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire for the Northern Black Sea region and ensuring the security of the southern borders. This led to two Russian-Turkish wars.

Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 The reason for the war was Russia's interference in the affairs of Poland, which displeased Turkey. September 25, 1768 Turkey declared war on Russia.

The hostilities began in the winter of 1769, when the Crimean Khan, an ally of Turkey, invaded Ukraine, but his attack was repelled by Russian troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev.

Military operations were conducted on the territory of Moldova, Wallachia and at sea. The decisive year in the war was 1770, in which the brilliant victories of the Russian army were won.

The fleet under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridov and Count A.G. Orlova rounded Europe, entered the Mediterranean Sea and in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor on June 24-26, 1770, completely destroyed the Turkish squadron.

On land, a number of victories were won by the Russian army led by P.A. Rumyantsev. In the summer of 1770, he won victories on the tributaries of the Prut - the Larga and Cahul rivers, which made it possible for Russia to reach the Danube.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov took the Crimea. In 1772-1773 an armistice was concluded between the belligerents and peace negotiations began. However, they ended in nothing. The war has resumed. The Russians crossed the Danube, in this campaign brilliant victories in the summer of 1774 were won by the corps of A.V. Suvorov. Turkey started talking about making peace. On July 10, 1774, at the headquarters of the Russian command, in the town of Kuchuk-Kainarzhi, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia received the Black Sea lands between the Dnieper and the Bug; the right to build a Russian navy in the Black Sea; indemnity from Turkey in the amount of 4.5 million rubles; recognition of the independence of the Crimean Khanate from the Ottoman Empire.

Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791 The confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire continued. The Turkish Sultan Selim III began to demand the return of Crimea, the recognition of Georgia as a vassal and the inspection of Russian merchant ships passing through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. On August 13, 1787, having received a refusal, he declared war on Russia, which acted in an alliance with Austria.

Military operations began with repelling an attack by Turkish troops on the Kinburn fortress (not far from Ochakov). The general leadership of the Russian army was carried out by the head of the Military Collegium, Prince G.A. Potemkin. In December 1788, after a long siege, Russian troops took the Turkish fortress of Ochakov. In 1789 A.V. Suvorov, with smaller forces, twice achieved victory in the battles at Fokshany and on the Rymnik River. For this victory he received the title of count and became known as Count Suvorov-Rymniksky. In December 1790, the troops under his command managed to achieve the capture of the fortress of Izmail - the citadel of Ottoman rule on the Danube, which was the main victory in the war.

In 1791, the Turks lost the Anapa fortress in the Caucasus, and then lost a sea battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in the Black Sea to the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral F.F. Ushakov. All this forced Turkey to conclude a peace treaty, which was signed in the city of Yassy in December 1791. This treaty confirmed the annexation of Crimea and the protectorate over Eastern Georgia to Russia; the receipt by Russia of lands between the Dniester and the southern Bug; withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldavia, Wallachia and Bessarabia.

The implementation of the policy in the western direction consisted in strengthening the position of Russia in Europe and was associated with participation in the partitions of Poland, as well as with the opposition of France, in which in 1789-1794. a bourgeois revolution took place and whose revolutionary influence the European monarchical states, and above all the Russian Empire, feared.

Prussia was the initiator of the partition of the weakened Poland. Its king Frederick II proposed to Catherine II to divide the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between her neighbors, especially since Austria had already begun the partition, since her troops were located directly on the territory of this state. As a result, the Petersburg Convention of July 25, 1772 was concluded, which sanctioned the first partition of Poland. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Russia took possession of central Belarus with the cities of Minsk, Slutsk, Pinsk and Right-Bank Ukraine, including Zhitomir and Kamenets-Podolsk. This triggered an uprising of Polish patriots in 1794 under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko. It was brutally suppressed by Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. The third and last division of the Rzecz Pospolita took place in 1795. The lands of Courland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus were transferred to Russia. As a result, Russia captured more than half of all Polish lands. Poland lost its statehood for more than a hundred years.

As a result of the partitions of Poland, Russia acquired vast territories, moved the state border far to the west to the center of the continent, which significantly increased its influence in Europe. The reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples with Russia saved them from the religious oppression of Catholicism and created opportunities for the further development of peoples within the framework of the East Slavic socio-cultural community.

And finally, at the end of the 18th century. the main task of Russia's foreign policy was the struggle against revolutionary France. Catherine II, after the execution of King Louis XVI, tore apart diplomatic and trade relations with France, actively helped the counter-revolutionaries and, together with Britain, tried to exert economic pressure on France. Only the Polish national liberation uprising of 1794 prevented Russia from openly organizing an intervention.

Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century was active and expansionist, which made it possible to include new lands in the state and strengthen its position in Europe.

Paul's views were influenced by many factors and underwent a certain evolution during his life. The heir to the throne grew up as a romantic youth and believed in the ideals of enlightened absolutism until he saw many inconsistencies in the policies of Catherine II in comparison with the proclaimed ideals. Gradually, a critical attitude to the deeds of his mother grew in him. Other factors were soon added to this: the alienation between Paul and Catherine II, who was not going to share power with him and even thought about depriving her son of the throne and handing him over to her beloved grandson Alexander. All this led to a change in his views and character. He becomes nervous, hot-tempered, suspicious and oppressive.

With the accession of Paul I to the throne, a reorientation of domestic politics and, above all, the system of government began.

Centralization based on administrative and bureaucratic methods began to play a predominant role in this area. Paul I replaced the noble elective positions with appointed bureaucratic officials and strengthened the controlling functions of the prosecutor's office. He restored a number of government departments dealing with economics: berg-, manufactory-, chamber-, commerce-collegiums.

Introduced new system succession to the throne. On April 7, 1797, he issued a decree on the succession Russian throne, in accordance with which the decree of Peter I of 1722 on the appointment of his heir as the current emperor was canceled. Now a principle was introduced (in force until 1917), which provided for the transfer of the throne by inheritance in accordance with the birthright through the male line.

The system of local government underwent a serious change: city dumas were closed, the chambers of the civil and criminal courts were again merged into one, and some judicial instances were abolished.

The administrative-territorial division of the country and the principles of managing the national outskirts were revised. 50 provinces were transformed into 41 provinces and regions of the Don Cossacks, in the Ukraine and in the Baltic provinces, traditional governing bodies were re-introduced.

The tendency in Pavlov's policy towards centralization included such extreme manifestations as the desire for complete unification and regulation in the life of society. Special decrees were prescribed to wear certain styles of clothing, it was forbidden to wear round hats, shoes with ribbons instead of buckles, etc. Censorship is increasing. In 1797-1799. 639 editions were banned. The publication of books in Russia was sharply reduced, and a ban was introduced on their import from abroad.

Paul I paid special attention to the army, having decided to reform it in the Prussian manner. He entered the army new form, completely copying the Prussian, put things in order in drill, new regulations were developed, discipline was tightened.

The estate policy was also based on principles different from those of Catherine's. For Paul I, class freedom was unacceptable, which was enjoyed by the nobles thanks to the reforms of Catherine II. He obliged the nobles to serve, allowed them to be subjected to corporal punishment, abolished the provincial noble assemblies, and the uyezd ones lost many of their powers. Restrictions were introduced in the transition of nobles from military service to civilian service: to choose civilian service instead of military one required the permission of the Senate, approved by the king. The nobles were imposed a levy on the maintenance of the provincial administration.

There is a certain amount of historical facts that can be interpreted as the monarch's concern for the people, for example: a manifesto appeared about a three-day corvee per week; for the first time in the history of the country, serfs were ordered to swear allegiance to Paul I, who ascended the throne, together with the free; some recruitment kits were canceled (in 1796 and 1800); arrears were withdrawn from peasants and petty bourgeois by capitation taxes; the sale of serfs without land was prohibited; peasant complaints were resolved. But other historical facts are also known. At the beginning of his reign, peasants' unrest broke out in a number of provinces, which were brutally suppressed. The peasants were prescribed uncomplaining obedience to the landlords.

The reign of Paul was characterized by the massive distribution of state peasants to private individuals as a reward.

No archival historical documents have survived, testifying to Paul's ardent desire to abolish serfdom.

In general, the internal policy of Paul I was controversial and was aimed at leveling Catherine's reforms, which, in principle, could not be done, since the period of Paul I's tenure in power was short-lived.

Paul I's foreign policy was inconsistent. At the beginning of his reign, he declared neutrality towards revolutionary France and refused to send a Russian corps there to conduct military operations. However, after the capture of the island of Malta by Napoleon in 1798, Paul I decided to participate in the struggle against France as part of a coalition with England, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. But in 1800 he went to a rapprochement with France, while becoming an enemy of England, since her troops captured the island of Malta “road” for the Russian autocrat.

Violating international rules Paul ordered the seizure of all English merchant ships.

In December 1800, Paul I sent 40 Don Cossack regiments (22,500 men) without fodder, without the necessary maps, without knowledge of the terrain, to conquer British India, dooming them to death.

The unpredictable contradictory policy of Paul I, the uncertainty of the highest dignitaries and entourage for their future led to the emergence of a hidden opposition and the formation of a political conspiracy. The heir to the throne, Alexander, was also informed of the conspiracy. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the conspirators entered the residence of Paul I - the Mikhailovsky Castle - and killed the emperor.

On March 12, 1801, a manifesto was promulgated on the death of Paul I and the accession to the throne of Alexander I.