Feudal fragmentation, features of the divided Russian principalities. Feudal fragmentation of Russia

The chronological beginning of the period of fragmentation is considered to be 1132, when, after the death of Mstislav, the son of Monomakh, according to the chronicle, "the Russian land was torn apart."

Fragmentation is a period of history in which there is a fragmentation of power and the collapse of the former statehood of Kievan Rus.
It must be said that the process of regulating intrastate relations in Kievan Rus did not occur without difficulties in relations between the central government and local self-government. But, despite this, the centralism of management quite coexisted with local characteristics and traditions, and, nevertheless, in the 1st half of the 12th century, the divisive tendency prevailed. What are the reasons for this?

- The order of succession of power established in Russia was not regulated. The entire princely family was considered the collective owner of the Russian land. The oldest prince in age occupied the grand-ducal throne, and the rest of the relatives received separate lands to manage, and the smaller the brother, the worse and poorer were his lands. With the death of the Grand Duke, the whole family began to move, moving from the worst table to the best. The order of possession of the grand duke's power was determined by seniority and passed from brother to brother. In the beginning, this scheme was simple and clear. But when the number of princes and branches of the ruling family multiplied, many peers appeared and it became difficult to recognize who was older than whom and who was related to whom. From this follows the double political fragmentation of Russia:

1. Dynastic.
2. Geographic.

Let's consider them in more detail:
As the princes multiplied, the individual lines of the princely family further diverged from each other, alienating one from the other. But then each of these branches, feuding with others because of the ownership queue, settled more and more densely on permanent possession in a certain area. Therefore, simultaneously with the disintegration of the princely family into local lines, the Russian land also fell apart into separate regions, lands. And with such a disunity of the ruling family, political ties between the regions were also broken.

- The second block of reasons that caused fragmentation in Russia is economic. In the conditions of the dominance of a closed subsistence economy, the producers had no interest in the development of commodity market relations. A weak interest in economic ties entailed the destruction of political ties.

On the other hand, the state of Kievan Rus arose under conditions of operation in the economy of subsistence farming, therefore, it is necessary to find additional factors that led to fragmentation. Among them are the following:

a) The state of Kievan Rus largely arose under the influence of the need for the security of various peoples and was held by the strength of the squad. But with the growth and strengthening of cities, more and more often there is a desire to isolate and rely on one's own strength. In cities, as in the centers of individual lands, uprisings begin and the power of the squad is no longer enough to maintain unity over such a large territory.

b) It is also closely connected with the process of settling of the warriors themselves on the ground. If in the 9th - 10th centuries the prince collected money and other dues from all lands, and the squad received maintenance from him, then later, as the warriors received land, the right to collect taxes and duties from these lands passed to them. Gradually, the income of the combatants-owners of the lands became independent of the mercy of the prince. And the weakening of economic dependence entailed the destruction of the political dependence of land owners - feudal lords from the prince. On the territory of his patrimony, the feudal lord himself collected taxes, ruled the court, as a result of which an independent state apparatus was formed in independent patrimonies: squad, courts, prisons. And therefore, the local feudal lords are not so devoted to the Kyiv prince and gradually separating tendencies take over. And finally, another circumstance that had a significant impact on the social order of Russia is its geographical position. Located on the very outskirts of the cultural-Christian world, it was in direct contact with the steppe and its inhabitants - nomadic tribes. The lack of stability and the constant threat of being attacked after many years of exhausting but ineffective struggle nevertheless forced Russia to move from its familiar places on the Dnieper. From the XII century, the desolation of the Dnieper Rus began, aggravated by the Tatar pogrom of 1229-1240. The outflow of the population from this territory goes in two opposite directions: one stream is directed to the West, deep into Galicia and Poland, which causes the strengthening and growth of the influence of the Galician principality, and the other stream of immigrants is directed to the northeast beyond the Ugra River, in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga , on the lands of the Rostov-Suzdal principality, which was to become the new center of the Russian principalities. This center had a very important feature: if the Dnieper region was first populated, and then princely power arose here, then the northeastern lands first became princely property, and then began to be settled. Therefore, people who came to these places could not claim inalienable economic rights, and the princes immediately received power here, which their brothers in Kyiv did not know.

A completely different situation developed in the Novgorod feudal republic. This land also had a number of features that have long been determined:

- remoteness from Kyiv excluded these lands from among those that caused princely strife. Therefore, Novgorod managed to free itself from the pressure of the prince and his squad;

- infertile soils forced Novgorodians to look for non-agricultural occupations, and this led to a special development of crafts and trade here.

As a result, Novgorod got the opportunity to develop its own special socio-political system, which was expressed in the limitation of the power of the prince by an agreement with the city and the existence of the highest authority - the veche. The real masters of the republic were the boyars and merchants, who were represented in the veche. Thus, we are faced with two completely different approaches to the organization of power, providing different opportunities for the future of a unified state.

For a number of reasons, which will be discussed below, not freedom-loving Novgorod, but Moscow became the center of the unification of Russian lands.
Historians give different numbers, speaking about the period of fragmentation: 12-15 principalities existed at that time on the territory of the once unified state. Naturally, under these conditions, Russia becomes very vulnerable to external danger, which did not take long to wait. The process of folding a new center of Russian principalities took place in the conditions of Russia's dependence on the Golden Horde.

How did dependence affect the nature of the Russian state itself, did this nature change? Oh sure. But it must be said that at first the Golden Horde only depleted the vitality of Russia and radically suppressed the possibility of disobedience. And over time, this situation led to serious changes in the nature of the state:

1. Fiscal affairs acquired the main importance - various extortions, therefore, the apparatus for collecting money acquired great importance.

2. This accustomed the Russians to the idea of ​​paying, and not collecting and cultivating their own economy.

3. As a result of all this, a type of statesman was formed, whose main tasks were:

- ensure timely receipt of money;
– and keep their subjects in line.

These features of despotism and immorality are clearly traced in the further history of Russia, because after liberation from dependence on the Horde, this apparatus began to work for the Moscow court, which began to rise and strengthen long before the fall of the Golden Horde yoke.

The question arises: “Why did Moscow become the new center of association?” It should be noted that Moscow did not have absolute advantages. For example, the possibilities of the Moscow and Tver principalities were approximately equal in terms of the security of their borders, the convenience of trade, routes, experience and state capabilities of the princes. The rise and victory of Moscow is due to the following reasons:

1. Its geographical (middle) position, which added to it both the population and the means.
2. The personal abilities of the first Moscow princes, who showed more flexibility compared to the irreconcilable princes of Tver.
3. Sympathy for Moscow of the higher clergy, who resolutely left the desolated Kyiv and linked their fate with the North-Eastern lands.
4. The political short-sightedness of the Golden Horde, which failed to see the main rival in time.
5. The weakening of other rivals in the struggle for the formation of the center of the association (Novgorod did not intervene in feuds, and Tver suffered from civil strife of local princes).
6. The attention shown to Moscow by the Russian boyars, who always tried to take the side of the strong and successful.
   The struggle between the principalities reached its apogee under Ivan Kalita (1325-1340). In 1327 he received a label for a great reign and the right to collect tribute for the Horde in all Russian lands. True, he achieved such great rights by suppressing a popular uprising in Tver against the Mongolian Baskaks. Having become the Grand Duke, Ivan Kalita imposed a double tribute on the country, which allowed the Principality of Moscow to get stronger so that already in 1380, Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich (in the future Donskoy) managed to openly fight the Horde, fighting with it on the Kulikovo field.

This battle was of great importance both politically and psychologically:

1. She further raised the importance of Moscow as a center of association.
2. Restored faith in the people.
3. It rallied the Russian people for further struggle.

Moscow princes used different ways to expand the boundaries of their possessions. Among them:

• buying up land from bankrupt farmers;
• armed takeover;
• diplomatic capture with the help of the Horde, when a label for the possession of cities was bought for gold, and their former owners survived from their destinies;
• a service agreement with a specific prince, when the specific princes, impoverished and exhausted by civil strife, themselves were looking for opportunities to get into the service of the Moscow prince;
• resettlement of the population from the Moscow possessions beyond the Volga. In this case, the lands developed by the settlers were considered to belong to the Moscow principality.

But the process of unification and liberation of the Russian lands was slowed down by the cruel inter-princely strife in the second quarter of the 15th century, which was called the feudal war. The reason was the dynastic conflict between the princes of the Moscow house. Lasting until 1453, this war had both positive and negative consequences.

On the one hand, burned villages, hundreds of people killed, increased dependence on the Horde - the expensive price of this strife, but on the other hand, it once again confirmed the need to unite the Russian lands, showing the danger of new strife.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia was coming to an end. How can you evaluate it? First, it should be noted that fragmentation is not a purely Russian phenomenon. France, Germany and other states passed through this period Western Europe.

And for Russia, this is not just a period of anarchic omnipotence of princes and boyars. The fragmentation of the early feudal state signals that, firstly, the old institutions of power can no longer ensure the external and internal security of the country; secondly, it speaks of such a development of the productive forces of individual regions, which allows them to exist independently and forces them to do so. Consequently, fragmentation is a necessary stage in the development of a feudal state, as a result of which the levels of economic, social, and political development of its regions are aligned, and their subsequent unification occurs at a higher level.

The folding of the state under Ivan III

The end of the feudal war meant the final victory of the unifying trend around the Moscow principality. This trend was consolidated, became irreversible during the reign of Ivan III.

First of all, this irreversibility followed from the successful annexation of various regions of Great Russia to the Moscow Principality. This process took place, for the most part, peacefully. The boyars in most cases transferred to the Moscow service, and the princes, becoming service princelings, or fled to neighboring Lithuania. Thus, the Yaroslavl principality, an extensive Perm region, Rostov Principality, etc. But it was not without battles. Thus, Moscow was resisted by the Novgorod feudal republic, an old rival of the new center of association - Tver. Overcoming this resistance further strengthened the authority of the Moscow princes. For example, the conquest of "Mr. Veliky Novgorod" is estimated by historians as the fall of the entire old specific Russia. The time for fragmentation is over. If in 1462 Ivan III inherited a principality from his father, the territory of which was 400 thousand square meters. kilometers, then by the beginning of the 16th century it was already a vast power, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bwhich had grown more than five times and exceeded 2 million square meters. km. K. Mark wrote: “Amazed Europe, at the beginning of Ivan’s reign, not even suspecting Muscovy, squeezed between Lithuania and the Tatars, was stunned by the sudden appearance of a huge empire on its eastern borders, and Sultan Bayazet himself, before whom she trembled, heard for the first time arrogant speeches from Muscovites.

The second thing that made the unifying trend around Moscow irreversible was the final liberation from the Tatar yoke. We have already mentioned how successfully the Moscow princes used diplomacy in relations with the Golden Horde, thereby gaining the opportunity to strengthen their principality and expand its borders. Ivan III, having strengthened his positions, began to behave as a sovereign independent of the Mongols, stopped paying tribute to them, as a result of which Khan Akhmat decided to punish Moscow and in 1480 went on a campaign against her. He made an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Casimir and gathered troops.

Khan very well chose the moment of the invasion:

• in the northwest there was a war between the Russians and the Order;
• Casimir's position was hostile;
• a feudal rebellion began against Ivan III and his brother Andrei the Great on the basis of territorial disputes.

Ivan III hesitated for a long time, making a choice between an open struggle against the Mongols and the humiliating terms of surrender proposed by Akhmat. But by the fall of 1480. he managed to negotiate with his rebellious brother, in the recently annexed Novgorod it became calmer. In early October, the rivals converged on the banks of the river. Ugry. Without engaging in open battle, the troops stood against each other for more than two weeks, separated by a river. Casimir did not appear on the battlefield, Akhmat was waiting for him in vain. The snow that fell made the cavalry useless and the Tatars retreated. Khan Akhmat soon died in the Horde, and the yoke ended after this "standing on the Ugra".

And, finally, another moment that made the trend of gathering the state around Moscow irreversible was the formation of the political foundations of a centralized state:

• the system of specific reigning is being reduced; appanage princes did not have the right to mint their own coins, establish diplomatic relations with foreign states and rule the court on important matters.
• the highest deliberative state body - the Boyar Duma - together with the Grand Duke resolved issues of state life and palace economy. But the Duma of the 15th century did not have a decisive voice in solving the most important problems of the new state. The power of the king gradually became autocratic, intolerant of contradictions and disobedience.
• centralized policy bodies began to take shape: the Palace, which was in charge of the grand ducal lands, and the Treasury, the main financial repository, the state archive and the foreign policy department at the same time. In the 15th century, central government institutions of an all-Russian character began to emerge, which were in charge of individual branches of government on all lands of the state. They were called huts, and later - orders.
• administratively, the territory of the state was divided into counties, and they - into volosts and camps. General local administration was concentrated in the governors and volostels. They received territories “for feeding”, that is, they took legal fees and part of the taxes collected from this territory. Initially, requisitions were not limited to anything, but later “feeding” norms were established.
• and, finally, legally centralization was expressed in the appearance of the first all-Russian judicial code of 1497 - the code of laws of a single state.

So, as the Russian lands were united under the rule of the Muscovite state, the nature of power, its organization and ideology changed. In diplomatic correspondence Ivan III from 1485. called himself: "John, by the grace of God, sovereign of all Russia", and after the liberation from the dependence of the Golden Horde, the word "autocrat" was sometimes added to this title, first in the sense of the independence of the Grand Duke from any state, and then in the sense of his unlimitedness authorities. And his marriage in 1472. on the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologos, as it were, made the Moscow sovereigns the successors of Byzantine power and influence. The sovereign rights of the fallen Byzantine house, and with them the imperial symbols, together with Sophia, migrate to Moscow.

A new solemn ceremonial is being introduced at the court, magnificent terminology is in diplomatic papers.

All this confirms the opinion that the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich was the most important stage in the process of creating a unified Russian state. He managed to change the whole face of the state, turn it from a strong principality into a powerful centralized state.

All the fullness of political power nominally belonged to the Grand Duke. However, its practical implementation was hampered by the fact that the branched state apparatus had not yet taken shape. The speed with which the political unification took place led to the fact that specific remnants coexisted with nationwide principles and institutions, and the "sovereign of all Russia" was forced to put up with the fact that the princes, who involuntarily submitted to him, retained their power on the ground. This state of affairs was to be changed in the course of further development Moscow State.

Chosen Rada and Oprichnina - two ways of forming the Russian state

The reign of Ivan IV the Terrible is so clearly divided into two periods that this fact served as the basis for the formation of the concept of "two Ivans": at first Ivan was "kind and deliberate, glorified by God", and then completely changed. He kindled the "fire of ferocity" in Russia.

Therefore, it would be logical to consider these two periods of his reign separately, and then evaluate the results of his reign in terms of strengthening the centralized state.

The first period, which passed under the sign of the activities of the Chosen One, can be assessed as a period internal reforms and foreign policy success. It begins in the late 40s of the XV century. and ends in 1560. The elected council is the government that has developed around the young tsar and has taken over the leadership of the country from the Boyar Duma. It was the body that carried out the direct political power, formed a new command apparatus and led it. The activity of the Chosen One was extraordinarily fruitful: during the 10 years of her tenure in power, she carried out as many reforms as no other decade in the history of medieval Russia knew.

However, the prerequisites for these reforms were formed long before the start of the new government:

1. Some reforms (for example, changes in local self-government) started even earlier and needed to be completed.
2. Adoption since 1547 Ivan IV of the title of tsar, considered equal to the imperial one, is clearer than previously separated the sovereign from his subjects.
3. The situation that prevailed in the country during Ivan's early childhood also accelerated the reforms. The sharp struggle for power between the boyar groups disorganized the government apparatus, which was already weak. The arbitrariness of the governors, which was not restrained by anything, caused explosions of popular discontent: 1546. - the performance of the Novgorod archers, 1547 - unrest in Pskov, and, finally, a powerful uprising in Moscow. It was the popular movements that put the country's ruling circles before the need to act.

One of the first activities was the creation of central government bodies - orders (until the mid-60s they were called huts). We know that in the previous period two nationwide departments were already formed. Sovereign Palace and Sovereign Treasury. But they had undifferentiated functions, often doing the same things. Before other orders, a petition hut arose. Its task is to accept petitions addressed to the sovereign and conduct an investigation on them. Thus, it became the supreme control body. The embassy order - the department of foreign affairs, led the Russian foreign policy. The local order was engaged in the distribution of estates and estates among service people. The discharge order became a kind of headquarters for the armed forces:

• determined how many and from which districts servicemen should go to the regiments;
• appointed command staff.

The robbery order led the fight against robberies and dashing people. Zemsky order was in charge of order in Moscow.

The reforms also touched upon the principles of formation of the upper echelons of power. This was expressed in the limitation of locality.
Localism is a rule for the appointment of service people to certain positions, which takes into account their origin, and not personal merits. The descendants were supposed to be with each other in the same official relations bossing, equality, subordination, as the ancestors. By decree of 1550, young people, regardless of their nobility of origin, began their service from low positions, underwent a kind of internship before they took a more important position.

In 1555-56. the Code of Service was prepared and adopted, which established the exact order on the issue of how to serve all the feudal lords. If the estates or estates were large, then their owner was obliged to bring armed serfs with him. Those who brought more than expected, people received monetary compensation, and those who did not fulfill the norm paid a fine.

In 1550, a new Sudebnik was adopted, in which the transitions of peasants to new owners (St. George's Day) were limited to the payment of a significant amount of money ("elderly"). The dependence of the peasants on the feudal lord, whom he now had to call the "sovereign", increased. For the first time, punishments were introduced for governors and volostels for covetousness and arbitrariness.

The strengthening of the new state required a decisive replacement of the predatory apparatus of power in the localities. For this, an executive apparatus was created from officials elected locally by the subjects themselves. Elected in cities and townships, kissers (kissed the cross for loyalty to the king) and elders became the “chief people” of the state. Their activities were supposed to be in favor of the state and under its control, and their election and turnover became tools for managing the activities of new officials.

Previously, governors and volostels received territories for "feeding", that is, they took legal fees for themselves. And so the feeding was a reward system for past service, for participation in hostilities. Therefore, the feeding system was not effective: the governors and volostels knew that they had already “worked out” their income in the military field, and therefore they were careless about their official duties. Now feedings have been cancelled. However, centralization was just beginning. At the disposal of the state there was still neither a cadre of administrators, nor money to pay salaries for civil service. Therefore, locally elected elders and kissers had to govern "on a voluntary basis" - for free. This fact caused many difficulties in implementing the local government reform. And yet, the reforms of the Chosen One, although they had not yet completed the centralization of the state, went in this direction. They led to major military successes. In 1552, the Russians took the capital of the Kazan Khanate - Kazan. Following that, Astrakhan capitulated without a fight. The Livonian War was also successful at first.

Why was the activity of the Chosen One so unexpectedly interrupted in 1560?

At different times, different versions were expressed in the historical literature. Here are some of them:

• according to S.F. Platonov, the boyars became the main brake on the path of centralization, and in order to eliminate this obstacle, the oprichnina was introduced as a "noble revolution";
• this idea was further expanded during the reign of I.V. Stalin, who felt great sympathy for the personality of Ivan IV. Stalin used the terror of Grozny to justify his personal repressions. By his decree, at that time Ivan the Terrible was presented as an outstanding statesman and patriot, and the oprichnina as a progressive phenomenon in the history of the state;
• there is also a point of view that all these terrible events can be explained by the mental illness of the king, but it is impossible to scientifically discuss it, since there are no medical documents that would clarify this issue.

Therefore, we will choose the point of view that the main reason for the transition to the oprichnina is that the king and his advisers had different concepts of centralization. As we have seen, the Chosen Rada carried out structural reforms that cannot be too quick. It required a long and hard work to create a state apparatus. This pace of transformation did not suit Ivan the Terrible, so he relied on the oprichnina.

From the point of view of the formation of a single state, oprichnina is forced centralization without sufficient economic and social prerequisites. She creates a poorly designed apparatus state power, ensuring the implementation of government decisions, and the apparatus of repression.

The beginning of this policy was laid by the congress on December 3, 1564 of the tsar, his family and light from Moscow. Two letters were sent to the capital: one said that "the sovereign laid his anger on all bishops and abbots of monasteries, and disgrace - on all service people, from boyars to ordinary nobles ..." the second letter was addressed to the entire townspeople of Moscow, in it the king assured that "the king has no anger and disgrace against them."

The consequences of these events are:

• firstly, the king negotiated for himself the right to execute traitors at his own discretion;
• secondly, within the state, the oprichnina stood out (from the word "oprich" - except) - the sovereign's land lot. The rest of the land began to be called the zemshchina, nominally ruled by the Boyar Duma.

The lands of the boyars who were not included in the oprichnina, but lived on its territory, were confiscated, and the corresponding estates were given to them within the boundaries of the zemshchina. 6 thousand service people were taken to the oprichnina, who became the personal servants of the tsar, no longer accountable to anyone and unpunished. Having received a "legitimate" basis for terror (the right to execute traitors himself) and its weapon (oprichnina). Ivan the Terrible was not slow to get rid of real and potential opponents of the strengthening of royal power. The campaign against Novgorod in 1569, marked by mass executions and violence against the civilian population, the executions in Moscow in 1570 were not so much a struggle against the remnants of appanage as an attempt to strengthen Ivan IV's own position.

In the summer of 1571, the oprichnina troops proved their incapacity by not speaking out, contrary to the order of the tsar, against the raid of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray. As a result, the Tatars managed to burn Moscow and devastate a significant part of the Russian lands. Although the next year Devlet Giray was defeated by Russian troops, Ivan II canceled the oprichnina.

For a long time, the opinion was widespread in the literature: the oprichnina was a historically necessary matter, since Russia needed centralization in order to survive, and the boyars, it seems, were its opponents, and therefore they had to be destroyed. But the facts show that the boyars were not at all opposed to centralization, and Ivan the Terrible did not actually fight the boyars. For every boyar or nobleman subjected to repressions, there were at least 3-4 ordinary servants of the landowner, and for each of them - 10 people from the lower strata of the population.

What are the immediate and long-term results of the oprichnina?

Firstly, after it, a severe economic crisis broke out in the country - the villages and villages of the center and the North-West were deserted. Up to 90% of the land turned out to be uncultivated. These troubles were supplemented by the plague epidemic that broke out in 1570-71.

Second, these events negative influence on the country's foreign policy. The forces of Russia, exhausted by the long war and the oprichnina terror, were weakening and exhausted. As a result, according to the truce concluded in 1582, Grozny renounced all conquests in Moscow and Livonia. The war, which lasted a quarter of a century, was lost by Russia. Taking advantage of the weakening of Russia, the Swedes also went on the offensive, as a result of which Grozny lost even that piece of the Baltic coast that Novgorod the Great had owned in the old days.

Thus, it can be said that the oprichnina did little to strengthen the country. But this period of our history left a deep negative mark on the psychology of the people. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky “... the oprichnina, bringing out sedition, introduced anarchy, protecting the tsar, shook the very foundations of the state. Directed against imaginary sedition, it prepared the real one. So Time of Troubles- the crisis that brought the country to the brink of losing independence can be considered the most important, albeit a distant consequence of the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible. The unification of the country achieved through terror, which was not accompanied by the formation and strengthening of the legal foundations of the central government, did not move Russia forward along the path of a real strengthening of a single state. On the contrary, the future rulers of Russia were faced with the task of not only carrying out further centralization of the country, but first of all restoring the state order, violated by the permissiveness and unscrupulousness that had been established during the years of the existence of the oprichnina.

The period of fragmentation is a natural process of development of the medieval state, which such countries as the Holy Roman Empire and France experienced. In this article, we will consider the prerequisites for feudal fragmentation, the causes and consequences of the division of the powerful Kievan Rus into dozens of small principalities.

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Significance of feudalization

The collapse of Kievan Rus- this is a long process of fragmentation of the state, which occurred after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, and led to the creation of dozens of small state formations on the territory of a previously relatively centralized country.

The collapse of the ancient Russian state contributed to many political, social and cultural processes that at that time were taking place in Eastern Europe.

As for the period of fragmentation, many consider the word "disintegration" to be an exclusively negative phenomenon in the life of any state. In fact, during the Middle Ages, feudal fragmentation was a natural process of state development, which also had many positive effects.

Reasons for the division of the ancient Russian state

Historians agree that the fragmentation of Russian lands began after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. The great Kyiv prince did not leave one heir, but divided the lands of Russia between his sons.

The fragmentation was finally consolidated in 1097, when the so-called Lyubech congress took place. Prince Vladimir declared that civil strife over the possession of territories should be ended, and affirmed that only those lands that their fathers previously owned legally received the prince.

Among the many facts, historians believe that the following reasons for feudal fragmentation became the main ones:

• social;
• economic;
• political.

Social causes of feudal collapse

The collapse of the ancient Russian state was facilitated by the oppressed position of the peasants and other strata of society, such as serfs and mob. Their very presence hindered the development of the economy and society as a whole, and also caused discontent among the dependent strata.

Economic reasons for feudal fragmentation

Each prince wanted to develop his principality as much as possible and show his neighbor that his possessions were at a much higher level.

This competition led to the fact that each territorial unit turned into a full-fledged political and economic entity that did not depend on anyone - all trade could be conducted within one region.

Because of this also income level fell from trade abroad, and in fact before Russia received huge revenues from this to the treasury, which made it one of the richest states in Europe.

The high level of development of natural economy in each principality allowed them to exist as if completely independent state. These were self-sufficient organisms that did not need to unite into one in order to solve certain problems. economic problems. This was one of the most important factors that led to fragmentation.

Political reasons

What were political reasons for fragmentation ancient Russian territorial formation? Once Kyiv was the most powerful, rich and prosperous city in Eastern Europe. In the 12th century, its role in the political and economic arena greatly declined. This prompted many principalities to secede from Kyiv. Small counties and volosts were completely subordinate to the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Now they wanted complete independence.

Another political reason is the presence of governing bodies in each volost. The disunity of the Russian lands had practically no effect on political life of societies but, since each principality had a body that controlled all the processes taking place on its territory.

After the death of the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Mstislav the Great, a firm order in Russia was no longer maintained from the capital. The princes declared their land free, and the Kyiv lord could not do anything, since he simply did not have the means and strength to stop them.

These were main causes of fragmentation ancient Russian state. Of course, these are far from the only factors and prerequisites for feudal fragmentation, but it was these that played a key role in this historical process.

Important! Among the reasons for disunity, one can also single out the absence of an external threat in the period of the end of the 11th-beginning of the 13th century. The principalities were not afraid of the invasion and saw no reason to create one powerful army, ready to respond to the invasion of the adversary - this played a cruel joke on them in the future.

Pros and cons of feudal fragmentation in Russia

Like any process, the feudal fragmentation of the Russian lands had not only negative, but also positive consequences.

The disunity of the ancient Russian lands, contrary to many opinions, had a positive effect on the development of society in Eastern Europe.

Among the advantages, it should be noted the accelerated economic development Russia during this period. Each principality sought to create a powerful economy, and most succeeded. They became so independent in the economic sphere that they no longer needed to conduct foreign trade with others.

The economic development of Russia was not the only positive moment - the cultural life of society also received a significant impetus. However, the most important thing is that the total territory of Russia grew somewhat, as the principalities strengthened their power by conquering new lands.

And yet, political disunity had its negative consequences, which in the future led to the destruction of Kievan Rus.

Important! The main signs of a fragmented state are the lack of common management, which was very necessary at the time.

The fragmentation of Russia during the Mongol invasion undermined the defense capability of individual territories. Each of the princes did not consider the threat from the nomadic tribes serious, and planned to overcome the enemy alone. The fragmentation of actions led to a crushing defeat and fall of Kyiv.

In addition to the Golden Horde, the principalities were under attack by German Catholic orders. To a lesser extent, the integrity of the state was threatened by the Polovtsian tribes.

Unification attempts

The fragmentation of Russia during the invasion of the Mongols led to a decline in power Slavs in Eastern Europe. However, it was the threat from nomadic tribes that helped create powerful new centralized formations on the territory of the former Kievan Rus.

At the beginning of the XIII century, Prince Vsevolod Yurievich ruled the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Vsevolod won such a powerful authority that the predominant part of the previously scattered princes obeyed him.

However, really effective attempts at unification occurred with the advent of to the throne of Galich Roman Mstislavovich. He founded a strong dynasty, which began to rule the Galicia-Volyn principality.

During the reign of Danilo Galitsky, it reached its greatest flourishing. Danilo Galitsky was named king by the Pope himself. For 40 years he tried to preserve the independence of his state, waging war with the Golden Horde and with neighbors in the West.

Signs of fragmentation of Kievan Rus

Historians agree that in the event of the disunity of Russia, for her there were the following symptoms and causes are characteristic fragmentation of the ancient Russian state:

• the loss of the dominant role of Kyiv and the Kyiv prince (due to the loss of prestige of the capital of the principality, they came under self-government);
• fragmentation was legally fixed in 1097 at the congress of princes;
• the lack of a defensive army, which greatly undermined military power and made the country vulnerable to external threats;
• personal contradictions between most of the princes.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia: brief conclusions

In this article, we discussed such a topic as: "Feudal fragmentation in Russia", and now it's time to take stock. We learned that fragmentation is a natural process of development of the classical medieval state.

The process had not only negative, but also positive effects, which strengthened the economic structure of the principalities. It led to the rapid development of cities. Previously, only Kyiv developed, and the rest were only passive cities. And yet, one single drawback of such fragmentation led to the destruction of Russia. The country has lost its defensive ability. Without a common command, the troops of individual princes were destroyed by a single army of the Mongols.

led to disunity a number of reasons and factors including political, military, economic and social. Among the key ones were the presence of dependent estates, the absence of an external threat, and the economic and political independence of some principalities. An equally important role was played by the personal desire of the princes to stand out from the rest - they fortified their territories so much that most of them could exist independently of each other.

The official start date for the period of disunity considered to be 1091 when the Lubech Congress of Princes took place. A similar system of existence of Kievan Rus officially took shape on it. The beginning of this process was the death and testament of Yaroslav the Wise, who did not leave a single heir, but distributed the land to his three sons.

Reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus

Fragmentation of Kievan Rus, facts, consequences

1. Strengthening of individual principalities, the rulers of which no longer want to obey the Kyiv prince. Constant strife.

1. Unlike Medieval Europe, in Russia there was no generally recognized political center (capital). The throne of Kyiv quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the XIII century, Vladimir princes began to be called Great.

When the process of unification of Russian lands begins, these features will lead to a tense struggle between individual principalities for the status of the capital of a single state. In most other European countries, the question of choosing a capital was not raised (France - Paris, England - London, etc.).

First of all, this is the ancient land of the Krivichi and Vyatichi, located in the north-east of Russia. Due to the low fertility of the lands, the colonization of these areas began only at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, when people moved here from the south, fleeing the raids of nomads and the oppression of the boyars-patrimonials. Late colonization also led to a later charm (in the middle of the 12th century), therefore, in North-Eastern Russia, a strong boyar opposition did not have time to form by the beginning of fragmentation. In this region, the Vladimir-Suzdal (Rostov-Suzdal) state arose with a strong princely power.

1132 – 1157 gg. - the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky. Remaining a prince of the old school, he continued the struggle for the throne of the grand duke, clearly overestimating its importance. He managed to conquer Kyiv twice in 1153 and 1155. Poisoned Kyiv boyars. In connection with his name, Tula (1146) and Moscow ( 1147 G.)

1157 – 1174 gg. - the reign of the son of Yuri Andrei Bogolyubsky. He abandoned the struggle for the throne of Kyiv and waged active internecine wars. 1164 - campaign in Bulgaria. In honor of the victory and in memory of his son, he built the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Nerl ( 1165g

1176 – 1212 gg. - the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky's brother Vsevolod Yuryevich Big Nest. The common ancestor of almost all future princes - hence the nickname. Under him, the state reached its peak, but collapsed shortly after his death. It was under Vsevolod that the throne of Vladimir acquired the status of a grand prince (1212), later the metropolitan's headquarters was transferred to Vladimir. Known for his great prestige among his contemporaries. Author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" ( 1187

In completely different conditions was the southwestern, Galicia-Volyn Rus. The mild climate and fertile lands have always attracted a mass of agricultural population here. At the same time, this flourishing land was constantly subjected to raids by neighbors - Poles, Hungarians, nomadic steppe dwellers. In addition, due to early charm, a strong boyar opposition formed early here.

Originally Galician and Volyn principality existed as independent states. In an effort to stop the boyar strife, the rulers of these lands, especially Yaroslav Osmomysl Galitsky, more than once tried to unite them. This problem has only been solved in 1199 Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich. After his death in 1205, the boyars seized power in the principality, for a long time turning it into a series of small, hostile destinies. Only in 1238 was the son and heir of Roman Daniel ( Daniel Galitsky

To the north of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was the vast Novgorod land. The climate and soils here were even less suitable for agriculture than in the northeast. But the ancient center of these lands - Novgorod - was located at the beginning of one of the most important trade routes of that time - "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (ie from Scandinavia to Byzantium). The ancient trade route went like this: from the Baltic - to the Neva, then - to Lake Ladoga, then - along the Volkhov River (through Novgorod), - to Ilmen Lake, from there - to the Lovat River, then - by drag, to the Dnieper, and from there - to the Black Sea. The proximity of the trade route turned Novgorod into one of the most important shopping centers Medieval Europe.

. The date of the beginning of the republican period of its history is considered to be 1136 g. - the uprising of the Novgorodians against the grandson of Monomakh Vsevolod Mstislavich. The main role in this state was played by a layer of Novgorod boyars. Unlike the boyars in other lands, the Novgorod ones were not related to the squad, but were descendants of the tribal nobility of the Ilmen Slavs.

posadnik thousandth masters archimandrite- the head of the black clergy. The prince was called to Novgorod. The functions of the prince were limited: the city needed him as a commander of a squad and a formal recipient of tribute from the Novgorod lands. Any attempt by the prince to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod inevitably ended in his exile.

Old Russian culture was the result of a complex synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic spiritual traditions. Slavic culture has its roots in the ancient pagan era. Paganism - a complex of primitive beliefs and rituals - had its own history. At first, the Slavs, obviously, animated various elements, worshiped the spirits of forests, water sources, the sun, thunderstorms, etc. Gradually, Rod, an agricultural deity, the god of fertility in general, and goddesses of fertility closely related to him, women in childbirth, acquired great importance. With the formation of state relations, the cult of Perun, the princely retinue god of war, came to the fore (originally revered as the god of thunder and rain). Veles, the god of cattle breeding, and Svarog, the god of the sun and light, were also revered.

In the X-XI centuries. develops epic epic

annals: in addition to weather records about the most important events, the annals included poetic legends and traditions: about the calling of the Varangians, the campaign of Prince Oleg against Constantinople, etc. The most significant monument is the "Tale of Bygone Years" compiled around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. As Russia fragmented, chronicle writing lost its all-Russian character, breaking up into Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn chronicles, etc.

"A Word on Law and Grace"(1049) the future Metropolitan Hilarion. In 1073, by order of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, the first Izbornik was compiled - a collection of texts of religious and secular content, intended for reading. Lives of saints played a big role in ancient literature; Princes Boris and Gleb, the sons of Vladimir, who were killed by their half-brother Svyatopolk, were especially revered in Russia. Their lives were written by Nestor, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years. A brilliant example of secular literature was Vladimir Monomakh's "Instruction" (late 11th - early 12th century) - a story about his life as a wise statesman who fought for the unity of Russia. The idea of ​​uniting the forces of Russia to fight the Steppe permeates "The Word of Igor's Campaign". (1187 G.). Interesting "Prayer"

miniatures

plinth- A type of brick. From Byzantium as a model was borrowed cross-domed type of temple (four vaults, grouped in the center of the temple, gave a cruciform structure in plan), but in Russia it received a peculiar development. So, the most grandiose architectural monument of Kievan Rus - the 13-domed St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (1037) had a pronounced stepped-pyramidal composition, which, like many-domed, was unusual for Byzantine churches. Based on a somewhat simplified model of Kyiv Sofia Sofia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk (XI century). Gradually, Russian architecture receives an increasing variety of forms. In Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries. many churches are being created - Boris and Gleb in Detinets, Spas-Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, etc., which, despite their small size and maximum simplicity of decoration, have amazing beauty and majesty. In the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, a peculiar type of architecture is emerging, distinguished by the elegance of proportions and the elegance of decor, in particular white stone carvings: the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession Holy Mother of God on the Nerl.

mosaic and fresco. In Kyiv's Sophia, mosaics covered the dome (Christ the Pantocrator) and the altar (Our Lady of Oranta); the rest of the temple was covered with frescoes - scenes from the life of Christ, saints, images of preachers, as well as secular subjects: group portraits of Yaroslav the Wise with his family, episodes of court life. Of the later examples of monumental painting, the most famous are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa and the Cathedral of St. Demetrius. Original Russian works of icon painting are known only from the 12th century. the Novgorod school (the Savior Not Made by Hands, the Assumption, the Angel of Golden Hair) gained great fame at that time.

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historical portraits

Rurik - Varangian king, leader of the Rus tribe, Prince of Novgorod (862-879), supporters of the Norman theory call him the founder of the state of Russia. Perhaps it is Rorik the Danish, mentioned in the Western chronicles in connection with raids on European cities.

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The period of specific fragmentation in Russia: causes and consequences.

Following the heyday under Yaroslav the Wise, the gradual decline of the Old Russian state begins. The era of fragmentation in Russia is traditionally dated from the middle of the 12th to the middle of the 16th century, when the Moscow centralized state had already formed.

The main reason for the fragmentation was the intricate succession to the throne ( ladder right- the order of succession to the throne in medieval Russia, when power is transferred to the senior representative of the dynasty). The inconvenience of the ladder system was that the princes constantly had to hit the road, along with his yard and squad. Such a system led to the fact that all the princes began to constantly fight for the grand prince's throne, they wanted to ensure at least some stability for themselves.

As a result, already in the XII century, another system appeared - Specific- a system of transfer of power, in which the prince, during his lifetime, divided his state into several possessions, each of which went to a certain son. The unity of the city began to decrease, at first it was divided into 9 principalities, then this number increased until it reached several.

tens. The process of disintegration of Kievan Rus began as early as 1054, when the Grand Duke died Yaroslav the Wise. (978 - 1054). In 1132, the Kyiv prince Mstislav Vladimirovich the Great (1076-1132), whose authority was recognized by everyone, died.

His successor Yaropolk did not have diplomatic qualities, nor any specific talents for ruling, and therefore power began to pass from hand to hand.

For a hundred years after the death of Mstislav, more than 30 princes were replaced on the Kiev throne. Exactly 1132. officially considered the date of the beginning of feudal fragmentation. The main problem was that few people were interested in maintaining Mr.'s political unity.

It was more profitable for each prince to get his inheritance and build cities there and develop the economy. In addition, economic development also did not depend on the unity of individual principalities, because. they did not trade with each other.

The main reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Russia:

1. Confusing system of succession.

2. The existence of a large number of large cities, each of which had its own political interests and could influence the princes who ruled this city.

3. Lack of economic unity in the Russian lands.

But in the era of feudal

irritating There are both positive and negative. sides - Feud. irritating significantly influenced Russia culturally, as they got the opportunity develop individual small towns away from Kyiv.

There are also many new cities, some of the cat. subsequently become the centers of large principalities (Tver, Moscow). The territories became much more manageable, as the specific princes reacted to the events much faster, due to the relatively small territory of the principality.

But the lack of political unity affected the fall of the country's defense and already in the XIII century.

Russia faced numerous Tatar-Mongol hordes. To resist them in the absence of political. units Russia failed successfully.

5.

Forms of dependence and influence on the development of the Russian principalities of the domination of the Golden Horde.

In the XII-XIII centuries, the Unified Old Russian state broke up into several principalities, which weakened it in the face of external dangers. Meanwhile, in the east, in the steppes north of China, a new powerful state of the Mongols was being formed, it was headed by Khan Timuchin (Genghis Khan).

In 1223

on the river Kalka, a battle took place between the Mongols and detachments of Russians and Polovtsians, as a result of which Russian army and 3 princes Mstislav were defeated. However, having won a victory on the Kalka, the Mongols did not continue their campaign north to Kyiv, but turned east against the Volga Bulgaria.

In the meantime, the Mongol state was divided into several uluses, the western ulus went to the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu Khan, it was he who would gather an army for a march to the west.

In 1235 this campaign will begin. The first city to take the blow of the Tatar-Mongolian army was the city of Ryazan, the city was burned down. Further, the Mongol-Tatars begin to move towards the territories of the possessions of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

March 4, 1237 on the river. City- Yuri Vsevolodovich died. Then Rostov, Suzdal, Moscow, Kolomna fell.

1238 - a series of raids on the Chernigov principality. 1239- a large army under the leadership of Batu is moving south, in 1240 g Batu's troops took and plundered Kyiv. Russia was defeated, many cities were destroyed, trade and craft froze. A number of crafts simply disappeared; thousands of icons and books were destroyed in fires. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted.

Ruined by the Mongols, the Russian lands were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde.

Control over Russian lands was exercised Basque governors- leaders of the punitive detachments of the Mongol-Tatars.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a census in order to facilitate the collection of tribute. In total there were 14 types of tribute in favor of the Tatars ("Tsar's tribute" = 1300 kg of silver per year).

State positions were distributed in the Horde. Russian princes and the metropolitan were approved by special khan's letters-labels.

Golden Horde yoke:

Formal independence of the Russian principalities from the Horde

Relations of vassalage (a system of relations of personal dependence of some feudal lords on others)

Reigning under the label of the Horde (powers)

Managing methods of terror

Participation of Russian princes in the military campaigns of the Mongols

Reasons for the defeat of Russia:

Fragmentation and strife of Russian princes

Numerical superiority of nomads

Mobility of the Mongolian army (cavalry)

The consequences of the defeat of Russia:

Decline of cities

The decline of many crafts and trade (foreign and domestic)

The decline of culture (Russian lands fell under the rule of the Horde, which increased the isolation of Russia from Western Europe)

Change in the social composition of the squads and their relationship with the prince.

Vigilantes are no longer comrades-in-arms, but subjects of princes → The death of most princes and professional warriors, vigilantes; strengthening of princely power

Formation of the Russian centralized state.

The role of Ivan III.

Fight for overthrow Tatar-Mongol yoke in the XIV - XV centuries. was the main national goal Russian people. At the same time, the rod political life this period becomes the unification process of Russian lands and the formation of a centralized state. The main territory of the Russian state, which took shape in the 15th century, was Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod-Pskov, Smolensk, Muromo-Ryazan lands and part of the Chernigov principality.

territorial core formation of the Russian people and the Russian state becomes Vladimir-Suzdal land, in which gradually rises Moscow, turning into the center of the political unification of the Russian lands.

The first mention of Moscow (1147) is contained in the annals, which tells about the meeting of Yuri Dolgoruky with the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav.

Reasons for the rise of Moscow:

1.

Favorable geographical position.

According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Moscow was in “Russian Mesopotamia” - i.e. in the interfluve of the Volga and Oka.

This geographical position guaranteed her security: from the northwest of Lithuania, it was covered by the Principality of Tver, and from the east and southeast of the Golden Horde - by other Russian lands, which contributed to the influx of residents and an increase in population density. Being at the junction of trade routes, Moscow becomes the center of economic ties.

2.

Church support

The Russian Church was the bearer of the Orthodox ideology, which played an important role in the unification of Russia. Moscow in 1326, under Ivan Kalita, became the seat of the metropolitan, i.e. turns into an ecclesiastical capital.

3. Active policy of Moscow princes

The main rival of the Moscow principality in the struggle for leadership was Tver Principality, the strongest in Russia. Therefore, the outcome of the confrontation largely depended on the smart and flexible policy of the representatives of the Moscow dynasty.

The ancestor of this dynasty is the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky Daniel (1276 - 1303).

Under him, the rapid growth of the Moscow principality began. In three years, his principality has almost doubled in size, becoming one of the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Russia.

In 1303, the reign passed to the eldest son of Daniil Yuri, who for a long time fought against Prince Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tver.

Prince Yuri Danilovich, thanks to his flexible policy with the Golden Horde, achieved significant political success: he enlisted the support of Khan Uzbek by marrying his sister Konchaka (Agafya), received a label for a great reign in 1319. But already in 1325, Yuri was killed by the son of the Prince of Tver , and the label passed into the hands of the Tver princes.

In the reign Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325 - 1340) The Moscow principality was finally strengthened as the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Russia.

Ivan Danilovich was a smart, consistent, albeit cruel politician. In his relations with the Horde, he continued the line of external observance of vassal obedience to the khans, the regular payment of tribute, begun by Alexander Nevsky, in order not to give them reasons for new invasions of Russia, which almost completely stopped during his reign.

From the second half of the XIV century. the second stage of the unification process begins, the main content of which was the defeat by Moscow in the 60s and 70s. its main political rivals and the transition from asserting Moscow's political supremacy in Russia.

By the time of the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich (1359 - 1389) The Golden Horde entered a period of weakening and protracted strife between the feudal nobility. Relations between the Horde and the Russian principalities became more and more tense.

At the end of the 70s. Mamai came to power in the Horde, who, having stopped the disintegration of the Horde, began preparations for a campaign against Russia. The struggle to overthrow the yoke and ensure security from external aggression became essential condition completion of the state-political unification of Russia begun by Moscow.

the Battle of Kulikovo took place - one of the largest battles of the Middle Ages, which decided the fate of states and peoples. Thanks to the Battle of Kulikovo, reduced amount of tribute. In the Horde, the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands was finally recognized.

For personal bravery in battle and military merits Dmitry got a nickname Donskoy.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy handed over the great reign of Vladimir to his son Basil I (1389 - 1425), no longer asking for the right to a label in the Horde.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

At the end of the fourteenth century

in the Moscow principality, several specific possessions were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. After the death of Vasily I in 1425, his sons Vasily II and Yuri (the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy) began the struggle for the grand prince's throne, and after the death of Yuri, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. It was a real medieval struggle for the throne, when blinding, poisoning, conspiracies and deceptions were used (blinded by opponents, Vasily II was nicknamed the Dark One).

In fact, it was the largest clash between supporters and opponents of centralization. The completion of the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state falls on the years of government

Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Basil III(1505 - 1533).

For 150 years before Ivan III, there was a gathering of Russian lands and the concentration of power in the hands of the Moscow princes.

Under Ivan III, the Grand Duke rises above the rest of the princes not only in the amount of power and possessions, but also in the amount of power. Not by chance a new title "sovereign" appears. The double-headed eagle becomes the symbol of the state when in 1472 Ivan III marries the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleolog. Ivan III, after the annexation of Tver, received the honorary title "By God's grace of the sovereign of All Russia, Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and other lands.

✔Since 1485

Prince of Moscow began to be called the Sovereign of All Russia.

Ivan III faces new challenges - the formalization of legal relations in the expanded Muscovy and the return of lands occupied by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland during the period of the Horde yoke.

The princes in the annexed lands became the boyars of the Moscow sovereign.

These principalities were now called uyezds and were ruled by governors from Moscow. Localism is the right to occupy a particular position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their merits to the Grand Duke of Moscow.

A centralized administration began to take shape.

Boyar Duma consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichi (boyars and okolnichi - the two highest ranks in the state). The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on "the affairs of the land." In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the state, Ivan III in 1497

Sudebnik was compiled.

The right of peasants to move from one landowner to another a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26) with the payment of the elderly.

In 1480 the Tatar-Mongol yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on river Ugra.

Formation of the Russian centralized state

At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries.

became part of the Russian state Chernigov-Seversky lands. In 1510 was included in the state and Pskov land. In 1514 the Russian ancient city became part of the Moscow Grand Duchy Smolensk. And finally in In 1521, the Ryazan principality also ceased to exist. It was during this period that the unification of the Russian lands was basically completed.

A huge power was formed - one of the largest states in Europe. Within the framework of this state, the Russian people were united. This is a natural process of historical development.

From the end of the XV century.

Feudal fragmentation

the term "Russia" began to be used.

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The beginning of feudal fragmentation in Russia

The separation of the Russian principalities, which began in the second half of the 11th century, ended after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich. From the second third of the XII century. Russia entered the stage of feudal fragmentation. Its climax came in the 12th-13th centuries. In the fourteenth century, with the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the political decentralization of Russia gradually weakened and by the second half of the fifteenth century.

The history of homeland. Authors: Yuferova S.V., Trigub G.Ya., editor: Ilyin A.A.

finally outlives itself.

“And the whole Russian Land was irritated,” the Tale of Bygone Years reports under the entry of 1132. “The human eyelids shrunk” and “the life of Dazhbog's grandson perished,” exclaims the author of “The Tale of Igor's Campaign.”

“The death of the Russian Land” is called by contemporaries the “non-loneliness” of Russian princes.

Feudal fragmentation was not feudal anarchy.

Statehood in Russia did not stop, it changed its forms. The painfulness of this turning point reflected the literary consciousness of the era. Russia actually turned into a confederation of principalities, the political head of which was first the great Kievan, and later the great Vladimir princes. The purpose of internecine struggle has also changed. Now she pursued not the seizure of power throughout the country, but the expansion of the borders of her own principality at the expense of her neighbors.

The prince-earner, seeking to grab a piece of foreign land, and with luck - to take the all-Russian table, is a typical figure of his time. It is not for nothing that a saying has developed in the princely environment: "the place does not go to the head, but the head to the place." And yet, the contractual principle in interprincely relations, although violated, formed the basis political system Russia in the era of fragmentation.

Separation of principalities in the territory Kyiv state happened everywhere.

It was a nationwide process. It cannot be considered as a consequence of the desolation of the Dnieper region, which began later and was caused by the action of special conditions. The fragmentation of Kievan Rus was due to the formation of stable local associations of the military service nobility, who were fed by income from state taxes. It was also caused by the growth of patrimonial property: princely, boyar, church and monastic land holdings.

The process of gradual settling of the squad to the ground forced the prince to be less mobile, developed in him the desire to strengthen his possessions, and not move to new tables. The political decentralization of Russia was due to the flourishing of cities and the economic rise of individual lands.

In the cities by that time, small-scale handicraft production had already taken shape and local trade had arisen. The orientation of more or less significant feudal estates to regional markets made them extremely independent. political formations, and the larger they were, the more self-sufficient.

Thus, the political reasons for the decentralization of the Kievan state were rooted in the conditions of its socio-economic development.

Large independent principalities, formed during the political fragmentation of Kievan Rus, began to be called lands.

The principalities that were part of them were called volosts. Thus, the structure of the Kievan state was reproduced at the regional level. In the lands, the processes of economic isolation and political fragmentation were repeated with the same regularity as on the all-Russian scale.

Each land gradually turned into a system of small semi-independent principalities with its own ruling dynasty, its senior and junior lines, with a main capital and secondary residences. The number of principalities was not stable. In the course of family divisions, new ones were formed. Only in rare cases did neighboring principalities unite. The rule was the reduction of principalities, not without reason there was a saying: "seven princes have one warrior."

There were 12 large lands assigned to the branches of the Rurik clan: Kyiv, Pereyaslav, Chernigov-Seversk, Galicia and Volyn (united into Galicia-Volyn), Smolensk, Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk, Rostov-Suzdal (later - Vladimir-Suzdal), Murom, Ryazan, Novgorod and the Pskov land separated from it.

The strongest and most stable formations were Novgorod land, Rostov-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities. Until the invasion of Batu, Kyiv continued to be considered the all-Russian table. But the prince of Kyiv was not always the oldest, not only in the family, but even in his branch. The nominal nature of the all-Russian rule caused the need for a special title to reinforce political supremacy. So the title was revived Grand Duke, ceased to be used in Russia from the 11th century.

The consistent use of the title is associated with the name of Vsevolod the Big Nest.

In the era of fragmentation, Russian lands became subjects of international relations.

They independently entered into alliances with foreign states. The practice of military alliances between principalities and foreigners was widespread. In the struggle for the Kyiv table (40-70s.

XII century) and the Principality of Galicia (first half of the XIII century) involved Hungarians, Poles and Polovtsy. In the middle of the XII century. Polovtsian raids became frequent again, but starting from the 90s of the 12th century. their intensity began to subside due to the transition of the Polovtsy to settled life. However, until they were completely defeated by the Mongol-Tatars, they continued to participate in the internecine wars of the Russian princes, without committing, however, independent actions. Russian-Byzantine relations developed mainly along the line of the church, since in 1204

The Byzantine Empire temporarily ceased to exist after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders.

The Russian lands also faced the aggression of the Crusaders in the first half of the 13th century.

The Baltic States became the prey of the German Order of the Sword, whose expansion was accompanied by the distribution of land to German feudal lords and the forced conversion of the population to Catholicism. The Russian colonization of this region was fundamentally different from the actions of the Crusaders. Russian princes were content with receiving tribute. The unification of the sword-bearers with the Teutonic Order in 1237 set before the peoples of this region the task of confronting the order's aggression, which was most successfully solved by Lithuania, Novgorod and Pskov.

The military successes of the Russian city-republics were determined by the nature of their political system. They were not deeply entangled in princely strife, since they had the right to invite princes from Russian lands at their discretion. The most talented militarily were valued: the Novgorodians - Mstislav the Brave, his son Mstislav the Udaly, Alexander Nevsky, the Pskovites - the Lithuanian prince Dovmont.

Other Russian lands became hostages of the political "non-loneliness" of their princes, whom the new powerful enemy, the Mongol-Tatars, defeated one by one, first on the Kalka River, and later during the Batu invasion of Russia.

Among the new forms of feudal relations were landownership, the institution of pawning and palace patrimonies, feudal immunities in the form of charters. The dominant form of landed property remained patrimonial, which was formed, as in the Kyiv period, due to the seizure of communal lands by boyars and princes (the process of beating), the expropriation of the free agricultural population and its subsequent enslavement.

Despite the fact that the estates of spiritual and secular feudal lords in the XII-XIII centuries.

became stronger and more independent, the first estates appeared. Princes, boyars and monasteries most often invited people to military service, i.е. large estates. These, as a rule, were younger princely or boyar children, as well as ruined feudal lords. They made up the court of a prince or boyar, therefore they began to be called nobles, and their plots were called estates (hence the word "landowner" will subsequently come from).

However, the landowner could not arbitrarily dispose of the land, although he acquired the rights of the feudal lord over the population living on this land.

The immunities of feudal lords, which were formalized in Russia as letters of commendation, were closely connected with the institution of pawning. The privileges of the boyars, granted to them by the princes, helped to attract rural residents to the patrimonial lands.

Benefits repelled such feudal farms from the arbitrariness of the volosts-feeders, princely tiuns and other administrative persons of the principalities. The nature of the acquisition of the patrimony determined their name: princely, ancestral, purchased, granted.

Palace agriculture, like patrimonial agriculture, expanded through purchases, seizure, transfer by will, donation, exchange, etc.

The palace economy was under the jurisdiction of the butlers, who were in charge of the lands and people, and the palace routes: falconers, stables, stewards, bedding, etc.

Section 2. Feudal fragmentation in Russia

Causes of feudal fragmentation in Russia:

1. The dominance of subsistence farming and, as a result, weak economic ties between the regions of the state.
2. Strengthening of individual principalities, the rulers of which no longer want to obey the Kyiv prince.

   Constant strife.

3. The strengthening of feudal estates and the growth of boyar separatism.
4. The strengthening of trading cities that did not want to pay tribute to a single ruler.
5. The absence of strong external enemies, which would require a united army led by a single ruler to fight.
6. The motley ethnic composition of Kievan Rus.

The meaning of feudal fragmentation:

1. Conditions have been created for the original socio-economic and political development of certain regions of the country.
2. There is a flourishing of cities, confirming the name given to Russia in Western Europe - Gardarika - the country of cities.
3. The formation of the three great East Slavic peoples begins - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Old Russian language has existed since the 13th century.
4. The defense capability of the Russian lands sharply weakened.
5. There is an increase in princely strife.

Features of feudal fragmentation:

1. Unlike Medieval Europe, there was no generally recognized political center (capital) in Russia.

   The throne of Kyiv quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the XIII century, Vladimir princes began to be called Great.

2. The rulers in all the lands of Russia belonged to the same dynasty.

When the process of unification of Russian lands begins, these features will lead to a tense struggle between individual principalities for the status of the capital of a single state.

In most other European countries, the question of choosing a capital was not raised (France - Paris, England - London, etc.).

During the period of feudal fragmentation, against the backdrop of numerous, constantly shrinking destinies, several lands acquired a very special significance.

First of all, this is the ancient land of the Krivichi and Vyatichi, located in the north-east of Russia. Due to the low fertility of the lands, the colonization of these areas began only at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, when people moved here from the south, fleeing the raids of nomads and the oppression of the boyars-patrimonials.

Late colonization also led to a later charm (in the middle of the 12th century), therefore, in North-Eastern Russia, a strong boyar opposition did not have time to form by the beginning of fragmentation. In this region, the Vladimir-Suzdal (Rostov-Suzdal) state arose with a strong princely power.

1132 – 1157 gg.

- the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky. Remaining a prince of the old school, he continued the struggle for the throne of the grand duke, clearly overestimating its importance. He managed to conquer Kyiv twice in 1153 and 1155. Poisoned by Kievan boyars. In connection with his name, Tula (1146) and Moscow ( 1147 G.)

1157 – 1174 gg.

- the reign of the son of Yuri Andrei Bogolyubsky. He abandoned the struggle for the throne of Kyiv and waged active internecine wars. 1164 - campaign in Bulgaria. In honor of the victory and in memory of his son, he built the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Nerl ( 1165g.). In 1169, he took Kyiv, but he did not rule there, but subjected him to demonstrative ruin. Moved the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir. He was distinguished by suspicion and cruelty, for which he was killed by servants.

From 1174 to 1176 - the reign of Mikhail Yurievich.

1176 – 1212 gg.

- the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky's brother Vsevolod Yuryevich Big Nest.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia - causes and consequences

The common ancestor of almost all future princes - hence the nickname. Under him, the state reached its peak, but collapsed shortly after his death. It was under Vsevolod that the throne of Vladimir acquired the status of a grand prince (1212), later the metropolitan's headquarters was transferred to Vladimir. Known for his great prestige among his contemporaries. Author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" ( 1187 d.) wrote about Vsevolod that his squad could "scoop out the Don with helmets, and splash the Volga with oars."

In completely different conditions was the southwestern, Galicia-Volyn Rus.

The mild climate and fertile lands have always attracted a mass of agricultural population here. At the same time, this flourishing land was constantly subjected to raids by neighbors - Poles, Hungarians, nomadic steppe dwellers. In addition, due to early charm, a strong boyar opposition formed early here.

Initially, the Galician and Volyn principalities existed as independent states.

In an effort to stop the boyar strife, the rulers of these lands, especially Yaroslav Osmomysl Galitsky, more than once tried to unite them. This problem has only been solved in 1199 Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich. After his death in 1205

boyars seized power in the principality, for a long time turning it into a series of small, hostile destinies. Only in 1238 was the son and heir of Roman Daniel ( Daniel Galitsky) returned power and became one of the most powerful Russian princes - Daniel became the only prince in Russia to whom the Pope sent the royal crown.

To the north of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was the vast Novgorod land.

The climate and soils here were even less suitable for agriculture than in the northeast. But the ancient center of these lands - Novgorod - was located at the beginning of one of the most important trade routes of that time - "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (i.e.

from Scandinavia to Byzantium). The ancient trade route went like this: from the Baltic - to the Neva, then - to Lake Ladoga, then - along the Volkhov River (through Novgorod), - to Ilmen Lake, from there - to the Lovat River, then - by drag, to the Dnieper, and from there - to the Black Sea. The proximity of the trade route turned Novgorod into one of the most important trading centers of Medieval Europe.

Successful trade and the absence of strong external enemies (and, therefore, the absence of the need for their own princely dynasty) led to the formation of a special state system in Novgorod - feudal (aristocratic) republic.

The date of the beginning of the republican period of its history is considered to be 1136 g. - the uprising of the Novgorodians against the grandson of Monomakh Vsevolod Mstislavich.

The main role in this state was played by a layer of Novgorod boyars. Unlike the boyars in other lands, the Novgorod ones were not related to the squad, but were descendants of the tribal nobility of the Ilmen Slavs.

The supreme body of power in Novgorod was the veche - an assembly of the richest boyars (“three hundred golden belts”), which resolved the most important issues and elected senior officials: posadnik who judged and ruled Novgorod, thousandth, who headed the tax system and the militia; masters y - bishop (later - archbishop) - who led the white clergy, was in charge of the treasury and foreign policy, as well as archimandrite- the head of the black clergy.

The prince was called to Novgorod. The functions of the prince were limited: the city needed him as a commander of a squad and a formal recipient of tribute from the Novgorod lands. Any attempt by the prince to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod inevitably ended in his exile.

Culture of the Old Russian state (IX - 3O-s of the XII century)

Old Russian culture was the result of a complex synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic spiritual traditions. Slavic culture has its roots in the ancient pagan era.

Paganism - a complex of primitive beliefs and rituals - had its own history. At first, the Slavs, obviously, animated various elements, worshiped the spirits of forests, water sources, the sun, thunderstorms, etc. Gradually, Rod, an agricultural deity, the god of fertility in general, and goddesses of fertility closely related to him, women in childbirth, acquired great importance.

With the formation of state relations, the cult of Perun, the princely retinue god of war, came to the fore (originally revered as the god of thunder and rain).

Veles, the god of cattle breeding, and Svarog, the god of the sun and light, were also revered.

In the X-XI centuries. develops epic epic associated with the formation of the Kievan state, protecting it from enemies. In the tenth century writing penetrates into Russia - the Cyrillic alphabet, created by the Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius.

played an important role in Russian literature annals: in addition to weather records about the most important events, the annals included poetic legends and traditions: about the calling of the Varangians, the campaign of Prince Oleg against Constantinople, etc.

The most significant monument is the "Tale of Bygone Years" compiled around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor.

As Russia fragmented, chronicle writing lost its all-Russian character, breaking up into Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn chronicles, etc.

The adoption of Christianity gave a powerful impetus to the development of culture. The 11th century is the time of the birth of ancient Russian literature. The oldest work known to us "A Word on Law and Grace"(1049) the future Metropolitan Hilarion. In 1073, by order of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, the first Izbornik was compiled - a collection of texts of religious and secular content, intended for reading.

Lives of saints played a big role in ancient literature; Princes Boris and Gleb, the sons of Vladimir, who were killed by their half-brother Svyatopolk, were especially revered in Russia. Their lives were written by Nestor, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years. A brilliant example of secular literature was Vladimir Monomakh's "Instruction" (late 11th - early 12th century) - a story about his life as a wise statesman who fought for the unity of Russia.

The idea of ​​uniting the forces of Russia to fight the Steppe permeates "The Word of Igor's Campaign". (1187 G.). Interesting "Prayer" Daniil Zatochnik (beginning of the 12th century), an impoverished petty feudal lord who complains to the prince about boyar arbitrariness and asks him for mercy.

Whatever genre a literary work belongs to, its text is always supplied with colorful miniatures- illustrations in handwritten books.

In Kievan Rus, jewelry technologies reach their peak:

• Filigree (finift) - finishing the product with a pattern of twisted wire, wire lace.
• Grain - the finest pattern is formed by soldering thousands of tiny balls.
• Niello - creating a pattern on jewelry by etching.
• Enamel (cloisonne enamel) - obtaining a pattern by applying a glassy mass to the metal.
• Engraving is a carved image on metal.

With the adoption of Christianity, stone, primarily church, architecture was developed. Used as the main building material plinth- A type of brick.

From Byzantium as a model was borrowed cross-domed type of temple (four vaults, grouped in the center of the temple, gave a cruciform structure in plan), but in Russia it received a peculiar development. So, the most grandiose architectural monument of Kievan Rus - the 13-domed St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (1037) had a pronounced stepped-pyramidal composition, which, like many-domed, was unusual for Byzantine churches. According to a somewhat simplified model of Kyiv Sophia, St. Sophia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk (XI century).

Gradually, Russian architecture receives an increasing variety of forms. In Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries. many churches are being created - Boris and Gleb in Detinets, Spas-Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, etc., which, despite their small size and maximum simplicity of decoration, have amazing beauty and majesty.

In the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, a peculiar type of architecture was taking shape, distinguished by the elegance of proportions and the elegance of decor, in particular, white stone carvings: the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the Nerl.

During the heyday of Kievan Rus, the first place belonged to monumental painting - mosaic and fresco.

In Kyiv's Sophia, mosaics covered the dome (Christ the Pantocrator) and the altar (Our Lady of Oranta); the rest of the temple was covered with frescoes - scenes from the life of Christ, saints, images of preachers, as well as secular subjects: group portraits of Yaroslav the Wise with his family, episodes of court life.

Of the later examples of monumental painting, the most famous are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa and the Cathedral of St. Demetrius. Original Russian works of icon painting are known only from the 12th century. the Novgorod school (the Savior Not Made by Hands, the Assumption, the Angel of Golden Hair) gained great fame at that time.

The Christianization of Russia gradually led to the decline of sculpture, whose works were associated with pagan idols.

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Lecture on the topic

"The main stages of the political fragmentation of the ancient Russian state".

Stage I 1054-1097

- after death Yaroslav the Wise when the separation of individual principalities began. During this period, there is a struggle for the throne of Kyiv between the sons of Yaroslav - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod. As a result of this struggle, Vsevolod came to power ( 1078 - 1093) - "the house of Vsevolod" ruled all of Russia. Having taken possession of Kyiv, Vsevolod gave to his son Vladimir Monomakh the city of Chernihiv, contrary to the son of Svyatoslav Oleg which caused new strife between the now grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise.

After the death of Vsevolod in 1093, he became the prince of Kyiv Svyatopolk(son of Izyaslav), as the eldest in the family. However, he enjoyed great prestige. Vladimir Monomakh- flexible, strong-willed, resorting either to force or to negotiations, managed to restore unity Ancient Russia.

After the death of Svyatopolk in 1113, the people of Kiev demanded that he be appointed to the throne of Kyiv. Grand Prince of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh became already at the age of 60 and the years of his reign 1113-112 fall on the second stage of feudal fragmentation.

II stage 1097-1132- in 1097 in the town Lyubech, in the family castle of Monomakh, a congress of princes gathered.

Main question –association to fight against the Polovtsy(as a result - trips to the steppe in 1103, 1109, 1111 - “ Crusades"). Russia's campaign 1111 g. reached the city of Sharukan near the Don, the so-called heart of the Polovtsian land. At the Lubech Congress, a call was made for peace and an end to internecine strife from the lips of Vladimir Monomakh- "Yes, everyone rules his patrimony." It turned out to be prophetic, since in fact it marked the beginning of a change in the political structure of Russia.

The country divided into 3 princely estates:

• Estate of the Izyaslavichs - Svyatopolk
• The patrimony of the Svyatoslavichs - Oleg (Olgovichi, Olegovichi)
• The patrimony of the Vsevolodovichi - Vladimir Monomakh (monomashichi)

Thus,Lyubech congress Princes approved an agreement on securing the princely thrones on the ground for separate branches of the Rurik dynasty, and from that moment the real process of the collapse of Kievan Rus begins.

In 1125, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, his son came to power Mstislav the Great (1125 - 1132), who continued the policy of his father and was also loved by the people.

Stage III 1132- after death Mstislav the Great the period began when "the whole Russian land is irritated." A period of strife began between the three branches of the Rurikovich family - the Yaroslavichs, which led to the final fragmentation of the state into separate lands.

Total on the territory of Russia in the XII century. there were 15 lands that continued to be crushed further. Among all the newly formed lands during this period, three stood out:

Ø Vladimiro - Suzdal land(strong princely power)

Ø Novgorod Republic(the power of the prince, limited by the veche)

Ø Galicia - Volyn land(power was shared by the prince and the boyars).

Thus,became a reality territorial and political fragmentation, new in comparison with the ancient Russian state, a form of state-political organization based on the transfer of ownership of any territory by inheritance from father to son.

The legal substantiation of the new principle of inheritance was fixed by the congress of princes in the city of Lyubech in 1097. The new principle of the organization of power turned the Russian land from the possession of the Rurik family into a set of independent "fatherlands", hereditary possessions of individual branches of the princely house.

The nature of the new state formations.

§ Despite the fragmentation of Russian lands, integrity Russia was preserved to a certain extent: First of all united by a common faith, language, the operation of common laws (Large Truth), Secondly the idea of ​​unity, which was especially manifested in times of strife and other disasters, did not disappear in the people's minds.

§ A dual self-consciousness was formed, in which Russian people considered their Fatherland and the Russian land as a whole, and at the same time the lot where they lived - the Ryazan volost, Polotsk, Smolensk, Pskov, etc.

§ The desire of specific princes to strengthen regional centers and secure certain volosts for themselves and their descendants was accompanied by a struggle for tables that were not the property of any branch - this was the struggle for the Kyiv throne.

Kyiv, as the all-Russian capital, became the object of a kind of collective ownership. Despite the fact that the power of the Kyiv prince was nominal, the possession of Kyiv gave certain political and moral advantages. Therefore, in the XII century. a fierce struggle unfolded for the capital of the ancient Russian state.

1169- Kyiv was subjected to a terrible defeat by the united Kanyazis, under the leadership of Andrei Bogolyubsky (son of Yuri Dolgoruky).

Before 1199 – duumvirate system in Kyiv - a system of co-government of representatives of 2 different dynasties: the Monomakhoviches and the Olegovichs.

With 1199

by 1205 in Kyiv "power of Roman"(Roman is the son of Mstislav the Great). Under Roman, the rise of Kyiv was the last, after him the Kyiv land collapsed.

Thus, the struggle for the Kyiv throne led to the devastation of the Kyiv land and the loss of its former significance.

Feudal fragmentation

After some time, the table of the Grand Duke of Kyiv lost its appeal for local princes, who focused on expanding and developing their own possessions - estates.

In the XIV century. Kyiv land was absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Findings.

v Fragmentation was regular a stage of political development in the Middle Ages, characteristic not only for Russia, but also for other states.

v State-political fragmentation weakened military potential of Russia, but also contributed to the improvement control systems, created favorable conditions for the development of economy and culture in regional centers.

v Fragmentation intensified princely strife, which led to the weakening of the Russian lands and became one of the factors of the national catastrophe caused by the Horde invasion.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia was a naturalresult of the economic and political development of earlyfeudal society.

The formation of a large land in the Old Russian stateownership - estates - under the dominance of naturaleconomy inevitably made them completely independent production complexes, economic ties toof which were limited to the nearest district. Existingtrade and craft needs could be satisfiedin rapidly developing local economic and politicalical centers - cities. The rise of the productive forcesplaces caused an increase in the number of cities and urban population, including in those cities that had not previously played a rolemilitary economic role.

The early feudal society of the times of Kievan Rus wereinherent social contradictions between faiths ham and bottoms. Emerging feudal land class owners sought to establish various forms economic and legal dependence of the agricultural population. But in XI-XIII centuries existing class antagonisms were mostly local in nature, to resolve the forces of local authorities were quite enough, and they did not demandpublic intervention. These terms of the casewhether large landowners - boyars-patrimonials almost halfeconomically and socially independent from the center real power. The local boyars did not see the need to share their income with the great Kyiv prince and actively supported the rulers of individual principalities in the struggle for economic and political independence.

Outwardly, the collapse of Kievan Rus looked like a division of the territory of Kievan Rus between various members of an overgrown princely family. According to the established tradition, local thrones were occupied, as a rule, only by the descendants of the house of Rurik.

The process of advancing feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this point of view, one can speak of the historical progressivity of this stage of Russian history, within which the further development of the economy and culture took place. The collapse of the former united state also had a number of negative consequences, the main of which was the increased vulnerability of Russian lands to external danger, especially in the face of the possible emergence of a strong enemy.

Signs of the political fragmentation of Kievan Rus appeared, as mentioned above, soon after the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054. The struggle between the descendants of Yaroslav, who enjoyed the support of the local boyars, led to the emergence of a system of isolated princely possessions, recognized as Lubech Congress of Princes in 1097 (inheritance according to the rule "everyone keeps his fatherland").

For some time, under the princes Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav the Great, Kyiv rose again as an all-Russian center. These princes were able to repulse the increased danger of the invasion of the Polovtsy nomads. After the death of Mstislav, instead of a single power, about a dozen independent lands arose: Galicia, Polotsk, Chernigov, Rostov-Suzdal, Novgorod, Smolensk, etc. The process of economic isolation and political fragmentation was repeated within these lands, almost each of them, in turn, turned into system of small and semi-independent feudal principalities. The feudal fragmentation of Russia existed until the end XV century, when most of the territory of the former Kievan state became part of the Muscovite state.

2. The largest lands of Russia in the era of feudal fragmentation

The largest lands of the era of feudal fragmentation, which played a leading role in the fate of Russia, were the Vladimir-Suzdal (Rostov-Suzdal) and Galicia-Volyn principalities of the Novgorod feudal republic.

Vladimir-Suzdal land

Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. the most ancientthe inhabitants of this wooded region wereVyan and Finno-Ugric tribes, some of which were subsequently assimilated by the Slavs. Favorable impact on the economic growth this Zalessky land was rendered by the intensified from XI in. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Russia under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Russia was agriculture, which was carried out on the fertile outcrops of black soil among the forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade associated with the Volga route played a significant role in the life of the region. The most ancient cities of the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Mur, from the middle XII in. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.

The beginning of the establishment of the independence of the Rostov-Suzdal land took place during the reign of one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, who made Suzdal his capital. Pursuing an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on the local boyars, urban and church circles. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, a number of new cities were founded, including Moscow for the first time under 1147.

Owning the Rostov-Suzdal land, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to seize the Kyiv throne in his hands. At the end of his life, he managed to capture Kyiv, but the support local population he did not use.

The eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) was born and raised in the north and considered his native lands to be his main support. Having received control from Yuri Dolgoruky in the city of Vyshgorod (near Kyiv), during the life of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and went to Rostov with his entourage. According to legend, together with him, a painting by an unknown Byzantine master came to the Rostov-Suzdal land. XII in. the icon of the Mother of God, which later became one of the most revered icons of Russia ("Our Lady of Vladimir").

Having established himself on the throne after the death of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital from Rostov to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. He spared no expense to strengthen and decorate his capital. In an effort to keep Kyiv under his control, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he pursued an energetic policy to strengthen the strong princely power. A cruel and power-hungry politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the "junior squad"

(service people), the urban population, especially the new capital of Vladimir, and partly to church circles. Steep and often autocratic actions of the prince caused discontent in the circle of large landowners-boyars. As a result of a conspiracy of the nobility and representatives of the prince's inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yurievich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir).

After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, as a result of civil strife, his younger brother, Vsevolod Yuryevich, finally secured the status of the main princely capital for Vladimir-on-Klyazma, on the throne. The reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) was the period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Under the control of Vsevolod Yurievich was Novgorod the Great, in constant dependence on Vladimir prince turned out to be Muromo-Ryazan land. Vsevolod the Big Nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands and at the end XII - early XIII centuries was the most powerful Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a struggle for power broke out between his numerous sons, which was an expression of the development of the process of feudal fragmentation already within the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself.

Galicia-Volyn principality

The territory of the Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians to Polissya, capturing the course of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. natural conditions principalities favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - salt mining and mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trade with other countries, in which the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky were of great importance.

An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, in a constant struggle with which the princely government tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land were constantly influenced by the policies of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups applied for help or in order to find asylum.

The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half XII in. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the turmoil that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Leading a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subdue other lands of Southern Russia.

After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volhynia among themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich. After the conquest of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars, Daniil Romanovich became a vassal of the Golden Horde. However, the Galician prince, who possessed great diplomatic talents, skillfully used the contradictions between the Mongolian state and Western European countries.

The Golden Horde was interested in preserving the Principality of Galicia as a barrier from the West. In turn, the Vatican hoped, with the assistance of Daniel Romanovich, to subjugate the Russian Church and for this promised support in the fight against the Golden Horde and even the royal title. In 1253 (according to other sources in 1255) Daniil Romanovich was crowned, but he did not accept Catholicism and did not receive real support from Rome to fight the Tatars.

After the death of Daniel Romanovich, his successors could not resist the collapse of the Galicia-Volyn principality. towards the middle XIV in. Volhynia was captured by Lithuania, and the Galician land - by Poland.

Novgorod land

Novgorod land from the very beginning of the history of Russia played a special role in it.role. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was the profit from the sale of craft products - beekeeping, hunting for fur and sea animals.

Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the composition of the population Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. AT XI-XII centuries Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held in their hands the exit to the Baltic Sea, from the beginning XIII in. Novgorod border in the West went along the line of Lake Peipus and Pskov. Of great importance for Novgorod was the annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest industries brought enormous wealth.

Novgorod's trade relations with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, became stronger from the middle XII in. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Cloth, weapons, metals, etc. were imported to Russia.

But despite the size of the territory of the Novgorod land, it was distinguished by a low level of population density, a relatively small number of cities compared to other Russian lands. All cities, except for the "younger brother" Pskov (separated from 1268), were noticeably inferior in terms of population and importance to the main city of the Russian medieval North - Lord Veliky Novgorod.

The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political isolation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. The princes in Novgorod were left exclusively with official functions. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of land in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the possessions determined for the service was strictly fixed. From the middle XII in. the Novgorod prince was formally considered the Grand Duke of Vladimir, but until the middle XV in. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod.

The supreme governing body of Novgorod was veche, real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of the Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of their control over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages.

From the environment and under the control of the boyars, elections were carried out posadnik(heads of the city government) and thousandth(head of the militia). Under boyar influence, the post of head of the church was replaced - archbishop. The archbishop was in charge of the treasury of the republic, external relations of Novgorod, the right of court, etc. The city was divided into 3 (later 5) parts - "ends", whose trade and craft representatives, along with the boyars, took a significant part in the management of the Novgorod land.

The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, as a rule, these movements did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully

used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.

The historical isolation of Novgorod from other Russian lands had important political implications. Novgorod was reluctant to participate in all-Russian affairs, in particular, the payment of tribute to the Mongols. The richest and largest land of the Russian Middle Ages, Novgorod, could not become a potential center for the unification of Russian lands. The boyar nobility ruling in the republic sought to protect the "old times", to prevent any changes in the existing ratio political forces within the New City society.

Strengthening from the beginning XV in. tendencies in Novgorod oligarchy, those. the usurpation of power exclusively by the boyars played a fatal role in the fate of the republic. In the context of increased from the middle XV in. Moscow’s offensive against Novgorod independence, a significant part of Novgorod society, including the agricultural and trading elite that did not belong to the boyars, either went over to the side of Moscow, or took a position of passive non-intervention.

3. Culture

The era of feudal fragmentation was a time of further development ancient Russian culture. The common traditions and principles that had developed during the existence of a single state continued to be preserved and developed. Along with this, in various lands and principalities, there was a process of formation of local art schools in literature, architecture and painting.

The most important cultural center of Russia XII - early XIII centuries became Vladimir-Suzdal land. The rulers of this land spared no effort and money for the construction of religious and secular structures. The white-stone churches of Vladimir - Assumption and Dmitrievsky, the Church of the Intercession-on-Nerl, the magnificent cathedrals of Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky became models for other Russian lands.

In the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the architects set themselves the goal of creating majestic, monumental structures expressing the idea of ​​the power of princely power. Other tasks faced the masters in the Novgorod land. The Novgorod elite, whose money was used to build churches in this part of Russia, preferred churches and chapels that were more modest in appearance. In contrast to the strict simplicity of the external walls of the Novgorod churches, the interior of the church was covered with multicolored frescoes.

Craft reached a high level of development during this period of Russian history. The excellent quality products of Russian gunsmiths, chain mail makers, glass blowers, and weavers are widely known. An outstanding phenomenon of the skill of Russian medieval jewelers was products made in the style of the famous Kyiv cloisonné enamel.

The most famous literary monument of Russia XII in. rightly considered the famous "Lay of Igor's Campaign", whose content is imbued with the consciousness of the need for the unity of the Russian land, the cessation of fratricidal strife and civil strife. Mention should also be made of "The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik" - an essay on moral and ethical topics, created in the 20-30s. XIII in. in the Suzdal land. An important genre of literature continued to be chronicle writing.

The era of feudal fragmentation was a time of further economic and cultural development of the Russian lands. Back to top XIII century, according to historians, we can talk about the folding in Eastern Europe as an important ethno-cultural whole of the ancient Russian people. However, the Russian land was not reliably protected from strong outside interference. If the Russian principalities more or less successfully resisted the Polovtsian nomads in the South and the crusaders in the West, then they were completely unprepared to repulse those rushing from the east into XIII in. troops of Genghis Khan and his heirs.

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Feudal fragmentation in Russia. Characteristics of the main centers.

Among the causes of feudal fragmentation in general, one can single out:1) internal political; 2) foreign policy; 3) economic.

Historians indicate the time of transition to fragmentation by a conditional date - 1132, year of death of the great Kyiv prince Mstislav Vladimirovich. Although researchers who support a formal approach to history, thereby allow a number of inaccuracies when analyzing feudal fragmentation, taking into account the personality of one or another Grand Duke.

In the XI-XII centuries. in Russia, several dozen independent states (lands, principalities, volosts) arise, about a dozen of them are large. Until the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the process of their further fragmentation did not weaken.

At the same time, feudal fragmentation in Russia was not an out of the ordinary process; all countries of Western Europe and Asia passed through it.

Feudal fragmentationcall the inevitable state, the stage of the world historical process, which has local specifics.

Economic reasons feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus: 1) the dominance of natural economy; 2) economic independence of the estates of the princes; 3) isolation of individual economic units; 4) the strengthening and growth of Russian cities, the improvement of the technology of manufacturing goods.

In times of feudal fragmentation, representatives of princely families made every conceivable effort so that their patrimony would become more developed than the possessions of an enemy relative.

Political reasons feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus:1) the growth of boyar land ownership and the strengthening of the power of feudal lords in their estates; 2) territorial conflicts of representatives from the Rurik family.

It must also be taken into account thatthe throne of Kyiv was losing the position of its former leader status, there was a decrease in its political significance. The center of gravity shifted gradually to the princely destinies. If at one time the princes sought to seize the throne of the grand duke, then in times of feudal fragmentation, everyone began to think about strengthening, strengthening their own patrimony. As a result Kiev reign becomes an honorable, although nothing really giving, meaningless occupation.

Over time, the princely family grew, the destinies were subject to fragmentation, which led to the actual weakening of Kievan Rus. Moreover, if in the middle of the XII century. there were 15 specific principalities, then at the beginning of the XIII century. there were already about 50 of them.

Foreign policy reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus:1) comparative calm on the borders of the Kyiv principality; 2) the resolution of conflicts took place by diplomatic methods, and not by force.

Important authorities in the fragmented feudal lands were prince , as well as intensified in the XII century. veche (national assembly of the city). In particular, in Novgorod the veche played the role of supreme power, which turned it into a special medieval republic.

The absence of an external danger that could rally the princes allowed them to deal with the internal problems of the destinies, as well as wage internecine fratricidal wars.

Even taking into account the high degree of conflict, on the territory of Kievan Rus, the population did not cease to consider itself a single entity. The feeling of unity was maintained thanks to the common spiritual roots, culture and great influence of the Orthodox Church.

The common faith helped the Russians to act together in times of severe trials during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

RUSSIAN LANDS IN THE 12th–14th centuries

In the middle of the XII century. the ancient Russian state is a formless formation without a single center. It broke up into several independent principalities, which became known as lands, volosts (smaller principalities that formed inside the lands).

Over time, three centers stand out:

1) North-Eastern Russia (Vladimir-Suzdal land);

2) Southwestern Russia (Galicia-Volyn principality);

3) North-Western Russia (Novgorod Republic).

Relations between these centers resembled in the XII-XIV centuries. interstate rather than intrastate. At the same time, military clashes with the participation of allies (for example, a nomadic tribe - the Polovtsy) became frequent.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

In times of feudal fragmentation, the formation of the Russian state continued to a greater extent on the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality than in all other lands. From the rest of the ancient Russian state, North-Eastern Russia was separated by dense, impenetrable forests. For this reason, during the early feudal monarchy, people fled here to ensure their safety. Farming here was possible only in some areas, so gardening, beekeeping, and hunting developed.

Principality owneddescendants of Yuri Dolgoruky, who was the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh.With the name of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod big nest connect the political and economic rise of North-Eastern Russia. This principality included the old Russian cities: Rostov, Suzdal, Murom. The descendants of Yuri Dolgoruky faced the problem of the boyar freemen, his son Andrei Bogolyubsky fell victim to a conspiracy. But the brother of Prince Andrei, Vsevolod the Big Nest, with the help of diplomacy, corrected the situation in his favor.

North-Eastern Russia differed in social structure from South-Western in that the princely power here was much stronger.

Galicia-Volyn principality

In the extreme southwest of Ancient Russia, the Galicia-Volyn principality was located, which bordered on Poland and the Czech Republic. Here was a fertile agricultural land, which more than once became the cause of civil strife. This land reached its highest political influence under Prince Daniel Romanovich (1221-1264). This ruler used a variety of diplomatic tricks in order to maintain the independence of his fiefdom from the Mongol-Tatars, even resorted to the help of the Polish king. But, ultimately, he had to recognize vassal dependence on them. The strife led to the almost complete fragmentation of the principality into small destinies. The Horde yoke interrupted the economic and political development of this land.

Novgorod Republic

North-Western Russia - this region did not have a warm climate. severe climatic conditions On the contrary, they made it impossible to engage in agriculture here. As a result, crafts and trade in furs, wax, and honey were greatly developed. Novgorodians were also engaged in gardening and fishing. In the markets of Novgorod there were many merchants from different countries, you could hear different speeches and see representatives of world religions. North-Western Russia was also distinguished by a special political structure: Novgorod was a feudal republic. The city was ruled by a posadnik, who was assisted by a military leader, a thousand. The religious affairs of the republic were in charge of the archbishop.

During the war, the prince was invited from among the most powerful secular rulers. Often it was a prince from the Vladimir land, who, under the Mongol-Tatar conquerors, had a label for a great reign.