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Unlike Novgorod, all other Russian lands of that time were feudal monarchies headed by princes, but everywhere they had their own characteristics.
In the extreme southwest Ancient Russia there were Galician and Volyn lands: Galician - in the Carpathian region, and Volyn - in its neighborhood along the banks of the Bug. Both Galicia and Volhynia, and sometimes only the Galician land, were often called Chervona (i.e., Red) Rus, after the city of Cherven in Galicia. Thanks to the exceptionally fertile chernozem soil, feudal landownership arose relatively early and flourished here. It is for Southwestern Russia that the powerful boyars, often opposing themselves to the princes, are especially characteristic and therefore powerful. Numerous forestry and fishing industries were developed here, and skilled artisans worked. Slate spindle whorls from the local city of Ovruch dispersed throughout the country. Salt deposits were also important for the region. Volyn land, with its center in Volodymyr Volynsky, began to separate itself before anyone else.
In the Galicia-Volyn principality, the prince was considered a sacred person, "the ruler, given by God", the owner of all the land and cities of the principality, and the head of the army. He had the right to give subordinates allotments for service, as well as to deprive them of lands and privileges for disobedience. Princely power was inherited by the eldest son. Vassal dependency between members princely family came from seniority, but was formal, since each princely possession had sufficient independence.
In public affairs, the prince relied on the boyars, the local aristocracy. They were divided into "old" and "young", who were also called "best", "great" or "deliberate". The great senior boyars made up the administrative elite and the “senior squad” of the prince. They owned "Batkovshchinas" or "Fatherhoods", ancient family lands, and new land allotments and cities granted by the prince. Their sons, "lads", or junior boyars, made up the "junior squad" of the prince and served at his court as close "yard servants".
The prince united in his hands the legislative, executive, judicial branches of power, and also had a monopoly on the right to conduct diplomatic relations. Trying to become an absolute "autocrat", the prince was constantly in conflict with the boyar entourage, which sought to maintain its independence and turn the monarch into its own political instrument. The strengthening of princely power was also hampered by the duumvirates of princes, the fragmentation of principalities and the intervention of neighboring states. Although the monarch had the right to make decisions on his own, he sometimes convened boyar "thoughts" to resolve the most important issues and problems.
The Galician boyars - "Galician men" - opposed the strengthening of the prince's power here. Despite the contradictions among themselves, the boyars showed solidarity in defending their power functions from the encroachment of the prince and the developing cities. Relying on their economic and military power, the boyars successfully resisted attempts to strengthen the power of the prince. In fact, the highest body of power here was the council of boyars, which included the most noble and powerful boyars, bishops and senior officials. The council could invite and dismiss princes, controlled the administration of the principality, without its consent, princely charters were not published. These meetings have become permanent since the XIV century, finally blocking the "autocracy" of the prince, which was one of the reasons for the decline of the Galicia-Volyn principality
The fight between the prince and the boyars was carried out with varying success, but as a rule, power in the principality was controlled by the boyars. If the princes turned out to be strong-willed natures and began to exterminate the boyar "sedition", then the boyars went to the betrayal of national interests and invited hordes of Polish and Hungarian conquerors to Volhynia and Galicia. Yaroslav Osmomysl, And Mstislav Udaloy, and Roman Mstislavovich, and Daniil Romanovich went through this. For many of them, this struggle ended in their death, organized precisely by the boyars, who did not want to strengthen princely power. In turn, when the top was on the side of the princes, they mercilessly exterminated the boyar families, relying on the support of the cities, languishing from the "fads" of the boyars.
The device of cities in XII - XIII centuries was the same as in other lands of Kievan Rus - with the advantage of the boyar-patrician elite, with a division into taxation units - hundreds and streets, with a city council - veche. During this period, the cities belonged directly to the princes or boyars.
Cities become an important component in the struggle for power, showing their will at the city council. main role in such a veche, the boyars also played, but they were opposed by the townspeople. The boyars nominated a speaker from their midst and urged them to support their decision. Without the support of the “popular multitude of people”, the owners of the city could not resist the princely power, but often the “black people” rebelled against the rulers of the council, rejected their power and suburbs (cities subordinate to the older city). Veche firmly and permanently strengthened in the western Russian lands, helping the prince to resist the fight against the nobility.
But not always the support of the cities could shake the Galician boyars. In 1210, one of the boyars, Volodislav Kormilichich, even became a prince for some time, which was a complete violation of all the customs that existed then in the Russian land. This is the only case of the reign of a boyar.
The strife led to the actual fragmentation of the Galicia-Volyn principality into a number of separate small destinies, constantly at war with each other. Polovtsian, Polish, Hungarian troops helped rivals, robbing, taking into slavery, and even killing local population. Intervened in Galicia-Volyn affairs and the princes of other lands of Russia. And yet, by 1238, Daniil managed to crack down on the boyar opposition (it was not for nothing that one of those close to him advised him: “Do not eat the bees, do not eat the honey.” He became one of the most powerful princes of Russia. Kyiv also obeyed his will. Daniil Romanovich defeated the combined forces of Hungary, Poland, the Galician boyars and the Chernigov principality, thereby completing the struggle to restore the unity of the principality. The boyars were weakened, many boyars were exterminated, and their lands passed to the Grand Duke. However, the Batu invasion, and then the Horde yoke, were violated economic and political development this land.
The Galicia-Volyn principality was formed on the territory of two adjacent ancient Russian regions - Galicia and Volhynia. At first, there were two separate principalities here - Galicia and Volyn, then they were merged into one. The Galician land occupied the southwestern corner of ancient Russia, covering the territory of modern Moldavia and Northern Bukovina. In the south, it reached the Black Sea and the Danube, in the west it bordered on Hungary, from which it was separated by the Carpathians, in the northwest - with Poland, in the north - with Volhynia and in the east - with the Kyiv principality. Volyn occupied the region of the Upper Pripyat and its right tributaries. Its neighbors were Poland, Lithuania, Turov-Pinsk Principality and Galicia.
Galician land was densely populated. Since ancient times, arable farming flourished here. Plentiful crops were grown on fat chernozems. There were many livestock. On the territory of Galicia were rich salt mines. Salt It was exported from here to the Russian principalities and neighboring foreign states. Volyn was also an ancient rich Slavic region.
In Galicia-Volyn Rus, handicrafts reached a high level of development. There were relatively many cities (about 80). The largest of them were Vladimir, Lutsk, Buzhsk, Cherven, Belz, Pinsk, Berestye - in Volyn and Galich, Przemysl, Zvenigorod, Terebovl, Kholm - in Galicia. The capitals of the lands - Galich and Vladimir - were among the largest ancient Russian urban centers. The growth of the craft and Agriculture contributed to the development domestic trade. At that time, Galicia-Volyn Rus carried on a brisk trade with other Russian principalities and foreign states, which was greatly facilitated by her vantage point on water and land trade routes. The Galicia-Volyn land traded with Byzantium, the Danubian countries, Crimea, Poland, Germany, the Czech Republic and other countries. Many foreign merchants lived in its cities - Germans, Surozh, Bulgarians, Jews, Armenians, as well as merchants from other Russian principalities.
In the Galician land, as the most developed part of ancient Russia, a large boyar land ownership was formed early. The power of the princes settled here quite late - at the end of the 11th century.
By the time the princes arrived here, the main lands had already been captured by local boyars. The Galician princes therefore failed to create any significant princely domain. This circumstance left a deep impression on the entire socio-political life of the Galicia-Volyn principality. 12th and 13th centuries the history of Galicia-Volyn Rus is filled with an almost incessant struggle between the princely power and the boyars. The rich and strong Galician boyars looked at the prince as their protege, called upon to protect their interests from the people and from external enemies. They had their own body - the boyar council, with the help of which they sought to keep the prince in their hands and direct his activities. The princely power relied on service feudal lords, whose center was mainly Volyn, and on the growing power of cities interested in limiting the feudal privileges of the landed nobility and destroying feudal barriers that hindered the development of crafts and trade.
Despite a fierce struggle, the Galician-Volyn princes were unable to break the boyars, although some of them managed to greatly increase the importance of princely power. Describing the power of the boyars, the chronicler writes that they "name themselves princes, but they themselves hold the whole land." In the struggle for power, the boyars did not disdain any means. They willingly gave themselves under the protection of the Polish and Hungarian feudal lords. Intertwined internal struggle with foreign wars is feature history of the Galicia-Volyn principality XII - XIII centuries.
The Galician land became isolated from Kyiv by the beginning of the 12th century. in the line of great-grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise - the Rostislavichs. Somewhat later, in the middle of the 12th century, Volhynia also became independent. From the middle of the XII century. both principalities are experiencing significant political upsurge. In the Galician land at that time, one of the prominent Western Russian princes, Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1153 - 1187), ruled. Yaroslav established his power at the mouth of the Danube, defeated the Kyiv prince and captured Kyiv (1154), where he planted his ally, the Smolensk prince Rostislav, established peaceful relations with Byzantium and allied with Hungary. Glory to the power of Yaroslav Osmomysl spread throughout Russia and beyond. Addressing him, the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign says: “Galichki Osmomysl Yaroslav! Sit high on your gold-plated table, propped up the Ugrian mountains with your iron shelves, blocked the queen's path, shutting the gates of the Danube.
Yaroslav's son Vladimir, as a result of a clash with the Galician boyars, fled to the Hungarian king. A certain prince, the great-great-grandson of Monomakh, Roman Mstislavovich, took advantage of his flight and in 1188 captured Galich, but not for long. He had to wage a stubborn struggle with the Galician boyars, who were supported by the Hungarian king. Only in 1199, Roman, with the support of the townspeople, managed to unite the Galician and Volyn principalities. He successfully fought against the Galician boyars, took away some of their land. Prince Roman in 1201 took possession of Kyiv. His title of "Grand Duke" was recognized in the Galician land, and in Novgorod, and in Byzantium. The newly created powerful principality attracted the attention of Pope Innocent III, who wanted to draw it into the orbit of his influence. An embassy was sent from Rome to Prince Roman with an offer of a royal title, but the pope's proposals were rejected by Roman.
In 1201, Roman was killed in a battle with the Poles. After his death, two young sons remained - Daniel and Vasilko.
The Hungarian and Polish kings, taking advantage of the opportunity, made claims to Galich and Volhynia.
The widow of Roman with her children was forced to flee. Only after a long struggle did Daniel Romanovich establish himself in Galich by 1238, relying on the population of the cities. Both principalities were reunited. Daniil Romanovich (1238 - 1264) waged a fierce struggle against the boyars, who called on both Polish and Hungarian interventionists against the prince. Daniel even moved the capital to Hill, which became the center of the united Galicia-Volyn principality.
When Daniel annexed the Turov-Pinsk principality to his possessions, the lands of the Galicia-Volyn principality reached almost to Kyiv. In addition, Daniel fought with Lithuania and Poland. From the Lithuanian tribe of the Yotvingians, he took away significant land areas, and in the fight against Poland captured Lublin. The heyday of the Galicia-Volyn principality was dealt a blow by the invasion of Batu. Daniel could not fight the hordes of the Tatar-Mongols and was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Khan of the Golden Horde. However, he did not leave thoughts about the struggle and tried to organize crusade against the conquerors. To do this, he entered into an alliance with the pope. Daniel also hoped to get support from the Hungarian and Polish kings. However, after the Tatar-Mongols began to directly threaten an invasion, Daniel's "allies" did not help him. Pope Innocent IV stubbornly sought to spread his political and ecclesiastical influence in the Galicia-Volyn principality, but Daniel retained complete independence in relations with Rome.
After Daniel's death, the saddest pages in the history of the Galicia-Volyn principality began. Continuous strife between the princes led to the fact that in 1349 the Volyn principality was finally captured by Lithuania. Galician Principality fell under the rule of Poland, and Transcarpathian Rus became the prey of the Hungarian king.
The southwestern principalities of Russia - Vladimir-Volyn and Galicia - united the lands of the Dulebs, Tivertsy, Croats, Buzhans, became part of Kievan Rus at the end of the tenth century. under Vladimir Svyatoslavich. However, the politics of the great Kyiv princes regarding Volhynia and Galicia did not find support among the local land nobility, and already from the end of the 11th century. a struggle began for the isolation of these lands, although the Volyn land traditionally had close ties with Kyiv. Volyn until the middle of the XII century. did not have its own dynasty of princes. She, as a rule, was directly controlled from Kyiv, or at times Kiev proteges sat at the Vladimir table.
The formation of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 11th century. This process is associated with the activities of the founder of the Galician dynasty, Prince Rostislav Vladimirovich, grandson of Yaroslav the Wise.
The heyday of the Galician principality falls on the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153 - 1187), who gave a decisive rebuff to the Hungarians and Poles who pressed on him and waged a fierce struggle against the boyars. With the death of his son Vladimir Yaroslavich, the Rostislavich dynasty ceased to exist, and in 1199 the Vladimir-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich took possession of the Galician principality and united the Galician and Volyn lands into a single Galician-Volyn principality. Its center was Galich, then - Hill, and since 1272 - Lviv. The victorious campaigns of Roman's squads against Lithuania, Poland, Hungary and the Polovtsy created a high international prestige for him and the principality.
After the death of Roman (1205), the western lands of Russia again entered a period of unrest and princely-boyar civil strife. The struggle of the feudal groupings of the western lands of Russia reached its greatest acuteness under the young sons of Roman Mstislavich - Daniil and Vasilka.
The Galicia-Volyn principality broke up into destinies - Galicia, Zvenigorod and Vladimir. This made it possible for Hungary, where young Daniel was brought up at the court of King Andrew II, to constantly interfere in Galicia-Volyn affairs, and soon to occupy Western Russian lands. The boyar opposition was not so organized and mature as to turn the Galician land into a boyar republic, but it had enough strength to organize endless conspiracies and riots against the princes.
Shortly before the invasion of the hordes of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to overcome the opposition from the powerful Galician and Volyn boyars and in 1238 triumphantly entered Galich. In the struggle against the feudal opposition, the authorities relied on the squad, the city leaders and service feudal lords. The popular masses strongly supported Daniel's unifying policy. In 1239, the Galician-Volyn army captured Kyiv, but the success was short-lived.
Hoping to create an anti-Horde coalition on a European scale with the help of the pope, Daniil Romanovich agreed to accept the royal crown offered to him by Innocent IV. The coronation took place in 1253 during campaigns against the Lithuanian Yotvingians in the small town of Dorogichin near the western border of the principality. The Roman Curia turned their attention to Galicia and Volhynia, hoping to spread Catholicism in these lands. In 1264 Daniel Romanovich died in Kholm. After his death, the decline of the Galicia-Volyn principality began, which broke up into four destinies.
In the XIV century. Galicia was captured by Poland, and Volhynia by Lithuania. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Galician and Volyn lands became part of a single multinational Polish-Lithuanian state - the Commonwealth.
Social system. A feature of the social structure of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that a large group of boyars was created there, in whose hands almost all land holdings were concentrated. However, the process of formation of large feudal landownership did not proceed in the same way everywhere. In Galicia, its growth outpaced the formation of a princely domain. In Volhynia, on the contrary, along with the boyar landownership, domain landownership received significant development. This is explained by the fact that it was in Galicia, earlier than in Volyn, that the economic and political prerequisites for a more rapid growth of large-scale feudal landownership matured. The princely domain began to take shape when the predominant part of the communal lands was seized by the boyars and the range of free lands for princely possessions was limited. In addition, the Galician princes, in an effort to enlist the support of local feudal lords, gave them part of their lands and thereby reduced the princely domain.
The most important role among the feudal lords of the Galicia-Volyn principality was played by the Galician boyars - "Galician men". They owned large estates and dependent peasants. In the sources of the XII century. the ancestors of the Galician boyars act as "princely husbands". The strength of this boyars, who expanded the boundaries of their possessions and carried on large-scale trade, constantly increased. Inside the boyars there was a constant struggle for land, for power. Already in the XII century. "Galician men" oppose any attempts to limit their rights in favor of princely power and growing cities.
Another group consisted of service feudal lords, whose sources of land holdings were princely grants, boyar lands confiscated and redistributed by princes, as well as unauthorized seizures of communal lands. In the vast majority of cases, they owned the land conditionally while they served, that is, for service and under the condition of service. Serving feudal lords supplied the prince with an army consisting of feudally dependent peasants. Galician princes relied on them in the fight against the boyars.
The ruling class of the Galicia-Volyn principality also included a large church nobility in the person of archbishops, bishops, abbots of monasteries and others, who also owned vast lands and peasants. Churches and monasteries acquired land holdings through grants and donations from princes. Often they, like princes and boyars, seized communal lands, and turned the peasants into monastic or church feudal-dependent people.
The bulk of the rural population in the Galicia-Volyn principality were peasants. Both free and dependent peasants were called smerds. The prevailing form of peasant land ownership was communal, later called "dvorishche". Gradually, the community broke up into individual yards.
The process of formation of large land holdings and the formation of a class of feudal lords was accompanied by an increase in the feudal dependence of the peasants and the emergence of feudal rent. Labor rent in the XI - XII centuries. gradually replaced by rent products. The size of feudal duties was established by the feudal lords at their own discretion.
The brutal exploitation of the peasants intensified the class struggle, which often took the form popular uprisings against the feudal lords. Such a mass action of the peasants was, for example, an uprising in 1159 under Yaroslav Osmomysl.
Kholopstvo in the Galicia-Volyn principality survived, but the number of serfs decreased, many of them were planted on the ground and merged with the peasants.
There were more than 80 cities in the Galicia-Volyn principality, including the largest ones - Berestye (later Brest), Vladimir, Galich, Lvov, Lutsk, Przemysl, Kholm, and others. The largest group of the urban population were artisans.
The cities housed jewelry, pottery, blacksmithing and glass-making workshops. They worked both for the customer and for the market, internal or external. Salt trade brought large incomes. Being a major commercial and industrial center. Galich quickly also acquired the importance of a cultural center. The well-known Galicia-Volyn chronicle and other written monuments of the 12th - 13th centuries were created in it.
Political system. A feature of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that for a long time it was not divided into destinies. After the death of Daniil Romanovich, it broke up into the Galician and Volyn lands, and then each of these lands began to split up in turn. Another peculiarity was that power was essentially in the hands of the big boyars.
Since the Galician-Volyn princes did not have a broad economic and social base, their power was fragile. She was inherited. The place of the deceased father was occupied by the eldest of the sons, whom the rest of his brothers were supposed to "honor in their father's place." A widow-mother enjoyed significant political influence with her sons. Despite the system of vassalage on which relations between members of the princely house were built, each princely possession was politically largely independent.
Although the princes expressed the interests of the feudal lords as a whole, nevertheless they could not concentrate the fullness of state power in their hands. The Galician boyars played a major role in the political life of the country. It even disposed of the princely table - it invited and dismissed the princes. The history of the Galicia-Volyn principality is full of examples when the princes, who lost the support of the boyars, were forced to leave their principalities. Characteristic are also the forms of struggle between the boyars and objectionable princes. Against them they invited the Hungarians and Poles, put to death objectionable princes (this is how the Igorevich princes were hanged in 1208), removed them from Galicia (in 1226). There is such a case when the boyar Volodislav Kormilchich, who did not belong to the dynasty, proclaimed himself a prince in 1231. Often, representatives of the spiritual nobility were also at the head of the boyar rebellions directed against the prince. In such a situation, the main support of the princes was the middle and small feudal lords, as well as the city leaders.
Galicia-Volyn princes had certain administrative, military, judicial and legislative powers. In particular, they appointed officials in cities and volosts, endowing them with land holdings under the condition of service, formally they were commanders-in-chief of all armed forces. But each boyar had his own military militia, and since the regiments of the Galician boyars often outnumbered the princely ones, in case of disagreement, the boyars could argue with the prince, using military force. The supreme judicial power of the princes, in case of disagreement with the boyars, passed to the boyar elite. Finally, the princes issued charters concerning various issues of government, but they were often not recognized by the boyars.
The boyars exercised their power with the help of the council of the boyars. It consisted of the largest landowners, bishops and persons holding the highest government positions. The structure, the rights, the competence of council have not been defined. The boyar council was convened, as a rule, at the initiative of the boyars themselves. The prince did not have the right to convene a council at will, could not issue a single state act without his consent. He zealously guarded the interests of the boyars, intervening even in the family affairs of the prince. This body, not being formally the highest authority, actually controlled the principality. Since the council included the boyars, who held the largest administrative positions, the entire state apparatus of government was actually subordinate to it.
The Galician-Volyn princes from time to time, under emergency circumstances, convened a veche in order to strengthen their power, but it did not have much influence. It could be attended by small merchants and artisans, but the top of the feudal class played a decisive role.
Galicia-Volyn princes took part in all-Russian feudal congresses. Occasionally, congresses of feudal lords were convened, concerning only the Galicia-Volyn principality. So, in the first half of the XII century. a congress of feudal lords was held in the city of Sharts to resolve the issue of civil strife over volosts between the sons of the Przemysl prince Volodar, Rostislav and Vladimirk.
In the Galicia-Volyn principality, earlier than in other Russian lands, a palace and patrimonial administration arose. In the system of this administration, the court, or butler, played a significant role. He was in charge of basically all matters relating to the court of the prince, he was entrusted with the command of individual regiments, during military operations he guarded the life of the prince.
Among the palace ranks are mentioned a printer, a stolnik, a bowler, a falconer, a hunter, a stableman, etc. The printer was in charge of the prince's office, was the keeper of the prince's treasury, which at the same time was also the prince's archive. In his hands was the prince's seal. The stolnik was in charge of the prince's table, served him during meals, and was responsible for the quality of the table. Chashnich was in charge of side forests, cellars and everything related to supplying the prince's table with drinks. The falconer was in charge of bird hunting. The hunter was in charge of hunting the beast. The main function of the equerry was to serve the prince's cavalry. Numerous princely keykeepers acted under the control of these officials. The positions of butler, printer, steward, groom and others gradually turned into palace ranks.
The territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality was originally divided into thousands and hundreds. As the thousand and sotsky with their administrative apparatus gradually became part of the palace and patrimonial apparatus of the prince, the positions of voivodes and volostels arose instead of them. Accordingly, the territory of the principality was divided into voivodeships and volosts. Elders were elected in the communities, who were in charge of administrative and petty court cases.
Posadniks were appointed and sent directly to the cities by the prince. They possessed not only administrative and military power, but also performed judicial functions and collected tributes and duties from the population.
Right. The legal system of the Galicia-Volyn principality differed little from the legal systems that existed in other Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation. Norms Russian Pravda, only slightly modified, continued to operate here.
The Galician-Volyn princes issued, of course, their own acts. Among them, a valuable source characterizing the economic relations of the Galician principality with Czech, Hungarian and other merchants is the charter of Prince Ivan Rostislavich Berladnik of 1134. It established a number of benefits for foreign merchants. Around 1287, the Manuscript of Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich was published, concerning the norms of inheritance law in the Vladimir-Volyn principality. It refers to the transfer by Prince Vladimir of the right to exploit the feudally dependent population to the heirs. At the same time, it provides materials for studying the management of villages and cities. Around 1289, the Statutory Charter of the Volyn prince Mstislav Daniilovich was published, characterizing the duties that fell on the shoulders of the feudally dependent population of Southwestern Russia.
The southwestern principalities of Russia - Vladimir-Volyn and Galicia - uniting the lands of the Dulebs, Tivertsy, Croats, Buzhans, became part of Kievan Rus at the end of the 10th century. under Vladimir Svyatoslavich. However, the policy of the great Kyiv princes regarding Volhynia and Galicia did not find support among the local landed nobility, and already from the end of the 11th century. a struggle began for the isolation of these lands, although the Volyn land traditionally had close ties with Kyiv. Volyn until the middle of the XII century. did not have its own dynasty of princes. She, as a rule, was directly controlled from Kyiv, or at times Kyiv proteges sat at the Vladimir table.
The formation of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 11th century. This process is associated with the activities of the founder of the Galician dynasty, Prince Rostislav Vladimirovich, grandson of Yaroslav the Wise.
The heyday of the Galician principality falls on the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187), who gave a decisive rebuff to the Hungarians and Poles who pressed on him and waged a fierce struggle against the boyars. With the death of his son Vladimir Yaroslavich, the Rostislavich dynasty ceased to exist, and in 1199 the Vladimir-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich took possession of the Galician principality and united the Galician and Volynian lands into a single Galician-Volynian principality. Its center was Galich, then - Hill, and since 1272 - Lviv. The victorious campaigns of the squads of Roman in Lithuania, Poland
shu, Hungary and the Polovtsy created a high international prestige for him and the principality.
After the death of Roman (1205), the western lands of Russia again entered a period of unrest and princely-boyar civil strife. The struggle of the feudal groupings of the western lands of Russia reached its greatest acuteness under the young sons of Roman Mstislavich - Daniil and Vasilka.
The Galicia-Volyn principality broke up into destinies - Galicia, Zvenigorod and Vladimir. This made it possible for Hungary, where young Daniel was brought up at the court of King Andrew II, to constantly interfere in Galicia-Volyn affairs, and soon to occupy Western Russian lands. The boyar opposition was not so organized and mature as to turn the Galician land into a boyar republic, but it had enough strength to organize endless conspiracies and riots against the princes.
Shortly before the invasion of the hordes of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to overcome the opposition from the powerful Galician and Volyn boyars and in 1238 triumphantly entered Galich. In the struggle against the feudal opposition, the authorities relied on the squad, the city leaders and service feudal lords. The popular masses strongly supported Daniel's unifying policy. In 1239, the Galician-Volyn army captured Kyiv, but the success was short-lived.
Hoping to create an anti-Horde coalition on a European scale with the help of the pope, Daniil Romanovich agreed to accept the royal crown offered to him by Innocent IV. The coronation took place in 1253 during campaigns against the Lithuanian Yotvingians in the small town of Dorogichin near the western border of the principality. The Roman Curia turned their attention to Galicia and Volhynia, hoping to spread Catholicism in these lands. In 1264 Daniel Romanovich died in Kholm. After his death, the decline of the Galicia-Volyn principality began, which broke up into four destinies.
In the XIV century. Galicia was captured by Poland, and Volhynia by Lithuania. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Galician and Volyn lands became part of a single multinational Polish-Lithuanian state - the Commonwealth.
Social system. A feature of the social structure of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that a large group of boyars was created there, in whose hands almost all land holdings were concentrated. However, the process of formation of large feudal landownership did not proceed in the same way everywhere. In Galicia, its growth outpaced the formation of a princely domain. In Volhynia, on the contrary, along with the boyar landownership, domain landownership received significant development. This is explained by the fact that it is in Galicia
earlier than in Volhynia, the economic and political prerequisites for a more rapid growth of large-scale feudal landownership matured. The princely domain began to take shape when the predominant part of the communal lands was seized by the boyars and the range of free lands for princely possessions was limited. In addition, the Galician princes, in an effort to enlist the support of local feudal lords, gave them part of their lands and thereby reduced the princely domain.
The most important role among the feudal lords of the Galicia-Volyn principality was played by the Galician boyars - "Galician men". They owned large estates and dependent peasants. In the sources of the XII century. the ancestors of the Galician boyars act as "princely husbands". The strength of this boyars, who expanded the boundaries of their possessions and carried on large-scale trade, constantly increased. Inside the boyars there was a constant struggle for land, for power. Already in the XII century. "Galician men" oppose any attempts to limit their rights in favor of princely power and growing cities.
Another group consisted of service feudal lords, whose sources of land holdings were princely grants, boyar lands confiscated and redistributed by princes, as well as unauthorized seizures of communal lands. In the vast majority of cases, they owned the land conditionally while they served, that is, for service and under the condition of service. Serving feudal lords supplied the prince with an army consisting of feudally dependent peasants. Galician princes relied on them in the fight against the boyars.
The ruling class of the Galicia-Volyn principality also included a large church nobility in the person of archbishops, bishops, abbots of monasteries and others, who also owned vast lands and peasants. Churches and monasteries acquired land holdings through grants and donations from princes. Often they, like princes and boyars, seized communal lands, and turned the peasants into monastic or church feudal-dependent people.
The bulk of the rural population in the Galicia-Volyn principality were peasants. Both free and dependent peasants were called smerds. The prevailing form of peasant land ownership was communal, later called "dvorishche". Gradually, the community broke up into individual yards.
The process of formation of large land holdings and the formation of a class of feudal lords was accompanied by an increase in the feudal dependence of the peasants and the emergence of feudal rent. Labor rent in the XI - XII centuries. gradually replaced by rent products. The size of feudal duties was established by the feudal lords at their own discretion.
The brutal exploitation of the peasants intensified the class struggle, which often took the form of popular uprisings against the feudal lords. Such a mass action of the peasants was, for example, an uprising in 1159 under Yaroslav Osmomysl.
Kholopstvo in the Galicia-Volyn principality survived, but the number of serfs decreased, many of them were planted on the ground and merged with the peasants.
There were more than 80 cities in the Galicia-Volyn principality, including the largest ones - Berestye (later Brest), Vladimir, Galich, Lvov, Lutsk, Przemysl, Kholm, and others. The largest group of the urban population were artisans.
The cities housed jewelry, pottery, blacksmithing and glass-making workshops. They worked both for the customer and for the market, internal or external. Salt trade brought large incomes. Being a major commercial and industrial center. Galich quickly also acquired the importance of a cultural center. The well-known Galicia-Volyn chronicle and other written monuments of the 12th - 13th centuries were created in it.
Political system. A feature of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that for a long time it was not divided into destinies. After the death of Daniil Romanovich, it broke up into the Gaditskaya and Volyn lands, and then each of these lands began to split up in turn. Another peculiarity was that power was essentially in the hands of the big boyars.
Since the Galician-Volyn princes did not have a broad economic and social base, their power was fragile. She was inherited. The place of the deceased father was occupied by the eldest of the sons, whom the rest of his brothers were supposed to "honor in their father's place." A widow-mother enjoyed significant political influence with her sons. Despite the system of vassalage on which relations between members of the princely house were built, each princely possession was politically largely independent.
Although the princes expressed the interests of the feudal lords as a whole, nevertheless they could not concentrate in their hands all the fullness state power. The Galician boyars played a major role in political life countries. It even disposed of the princely table - it invited and dismissed the princes. The history of the Galicia-Volyn principality is full of examples when the princes, who lost the support of the boyars, were forced to leave their principalities. Characteristic are also the forms of struggle between the boyars and objectionable princes. Against them, they invited the Hungarians and Poles, put to death objectionable princes (this is how the Igorevich princes were hanged in 1208), removed them from Galicia
(in 1226). There is such a case when the boyar Volodislav Kormilchich, who did not belong to the dynasty, proclaimed himself a prince in 1231. Often, representatives of the spiritual nobility were also at the head of the boyar rebellions directed against the prince. In such a situation, the main support of the princes was the middle and small feudal lords, as well as the city leaders.
Galicia-Volyn princes had certain administrative, military, judicial and legislative powers. In particular, they appointed officials in cities and volosts, endowing them with land holdings under the condition of service, formally they were commanders-in-chief of all armed forces. But each boyar had his own military militia, and since the regiments of the Galician boyars often outnumbered the prince's, in case of disagreement, the boyars could argue with the prince, using military force. The supreme judicial power of the princes, in case of disagreement with the boyars, passed to the boyar elite. Finally, the princes issued charters concerning various issues of government, but they were often not recognized by the boyars.
The boyars exercised their power with the help of the council of the boyars. It consisted of the largest landowners, bishops and persons holding the highest public office. The structure, the rights, the competence of council have not been defined. The boyar council was convened, as a rule, at the initiative of the boyars themselves. The prince did not have the right to convene a council at will, could not issue a single state act without his consent. He zealously guarded the interests of the boyars, intervening even in the family affairs of the prince. This body, not being formally the highest authority, actually controlled the principality. Since the council included the boyars, who held the largest administrative positions, the entire state apparatus of government was actually subordinate to it.
The Galician-Volyn princes from time to time, under emergency circumstances, convened a veche in order to strengthen their power, but it did not have much influence. It could be attended by small merchants and artisans, but the top of the feudal class played a decisive role.
Galicia-Volyn princes took part in all-Russian feudal congresses. Occasionally, congresses of feudal lords were convened, concerning only the Galicia-Volyn principality. So, in the first half of the XII century. a congress of feudal lords was held in the city of Sharts to resolve the issue of civil strife over volosts between the sons of the Przemysl prince Volodar, Rostislav and Vladimirk.
In the Galicia-Volyn principality, earlier than in other Russian lands, a palace and patrimonial administration arose. In the system of this
management played a significant role court, or butler. He was in charge of basically all matters relating to the court of the prince, he was entrusted with the command of individual regiments, during military operations he guarded the life of the prince.
Among the palace ranks are mentioned a printer, a stolnik, a bowler, a falconer, a hunter, a stableman, etc. The printer was in charge of the prince's office, was the keeper of the prince's treasury, which at the same time was also the prince's archive. In his hands was the prince's seal. The stolnik was in charge of the prince's table, served him during meals, and was responsible for the quality of the table. Chashnich was in charge of side forests, cellars and everything related to supplying the prince's table with drinks. The falconer was in charge of bird hunting. The hunter was in charge of hunting the beast. The main function of the equerry was to serve the prince's cavalry. Numerous princely keykeepers acted under the control of these officials. The positions of butler, printer, steward, groom and others gradually turned into palace ranks.
The territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality was originally divided into thousands and hundreds. As the thousand and sotsky with their administrative apparatus gradually became part of the palace and patrimonial apparatus of the prince, the positions of voivodes and volostels arose instead of them. Accordingly, the territory of the principality was divided into voivodeships and volosts. Elders were elected in the communities, who were in charge of administrative and petty court cases.
Posadniks were appointed and sent directly to the cities by the prince. They possessed not only administrative and military power, but also performed judicial functions and collected tributes and duties from the population.
Right. The legal system of the Galicia-Volyn principality differed little from the legal systems that existed in other Russian lands of the period feudal fragmentation. The norms of Russian Truth, only slightly modified, continued to operate here as well.
The Galician-Volyn princes issued, of course, their own acts. Among them, a valuable source characterizing the economic relations of the Galician principality with Czech, Hungarian and other merchants is the charter of Prince Ivan Rostislavich Berladnik of 1134. It established a number of benefits for foreign merchants. Around 1287, the Manuscript of Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich was published, concerning the norms of inheritance law in the Vladimir-Volyn principality. It refers to the transfer by Prince Vladimir of the right to exploit the feudally dependent population to the heirs. At the same time, it provides materials for studying the management of villages and cities.
Around 1289, the Statutory Charter of the Volyu prince Mstislav Daniilovich was issued, characterizing the duties that fell on the shoulders of the feudally dependent population of South-Western Russia.
During the period of fragmentation in Russia, the development of the early feudal state continued. Relatively centralized Ancient Russia breaks up into a mass of large, medium, small and smallest states. By their own political forms even small feudal estates are trying to copy the Kievan state.
During this period, there appears fundamentally new form government - republic. The Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics are widely known. Less well known is Vyatka, which was originally a colony of Novgorod, and then, like Pskov, became an independent state.
All the considered feudal powers are united in principle by a single legal system, which is based on an epoch-making legal act - Russkaya Pravda. Not a single principality creates a new law capable of at least to some extent replacing the Russian Truth. Only its new editions are being formed. Only in the feudal republics (and this is no coincidence) new major legislative acts are being created.
Feudal fragmentation in Russia, as in other regions of the country, was an inevitable stage in the development of the state. But this inevitability has cost our people dearly. In the XIII century. Mongol-Tatar hordes attacked Russia.
"See: N. Kostomarov. Northern Russian People's Rules in the Times of the Specific Veche Way (History of Novgorod, Pskov and Vyatka). T. 1. SPb., 1886.
Chapter 6. Mongol-Tatar states on the territory of our country (XIII-XV centuries)
During the period of specific fragmentation in the south-west, independent Galician and Volyn principalities were formed. Volyn with the main city Vladimir Volynsky was located on the right bank of the Western Bug, and reached the Southern Bug along the Pripyat River. The territory got its name from the local tribe, the Volynians, who, along with the Buzhans and Dulebs, inhabited these lands. Since ancient times, Volyn was subordinate to the Kyiv princes, but in the XII century an independent princely branch was formed here: Izyaslav Mstislavich, grandson famous Vladimir Monomakh, settled in Volhynia and it was from here that he tried to conquer capital Kyiv. His son Mstislav Izyaslavich, whose descendants founded their fatherland here, did the same. The most powerful Volyn prince was Roman Mstislavich, who annexed the Principality of Galicia to his possessions.
The main feature of its geographical location was that its territory was heterogeneous in terms of natural and climatic conditions. The mountainous part of the Galician land adjoined the Carpathians, the flat part - to the Western Bug (the famous "Cherven cities" were located here, which got their name from the city of Cherven). By the decision of the Lyubech Congress of 1097, they went to the great-grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise, Vasilko and Volodar. Thus, an independent Galician principality was formed. The son of the latter Vladimir in the 40s of the XII century made the city of Galich the capital, expanded the boundaries of his fatherland and began to attract people from other areas here, which contributed to the development of the new principality. The unification of the Galician principality under strong princely power was continued by his son Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152–1187). Under him, the settlement of the region continued not only with newcomers from Russia, but also from the countries Western Europe. After his death, unrest began in the principality, which ended with the capture of the Galician principality by Roman Mstislavich in 1199. Thus, a new state formation was formed in southwestern Russia.
The features of the Galicia-Volyn principality were as follows: strong princely power, which, however, was limited by the boyar aristocracy, the natural nature of the economy, high level cultural development. Features The history of this land largely depended on the intervention of neighboring states - Hungary, Poland, in addition, local rulers had to fight against the Polovtsians, Tatars, Lithuania, the Teutonic Order. This foreign policy factor weakened the already fragile administration and management, and the ongoing boyar unrest weakened the young principality. However, the Volyn prince Daniel Romanovich, the son of the famous Roman Mstislavich, managed to unite the Galician and Volyn principalities under his rule again. In the struggle for the unification of the southwestern lands, he had to face not only strong internal opposition in the person of the Galician boyars, but also external opponents - Hungary and Poland, as well as other specific Russian princes who claimed his patrimonial possessions. Daniil Romanovich, along with other princes, took part in the battle on the Kalka River in 1223, was wounded, but escaped and managed to hide in his lands. A few years later, he managed to capture Galich, and in 1240 the prince captured Kyiv. The ruler waged a stubborn struggle against the big landowning boyars, relying on urban population and serve to know. He founded new cities such as Holm, Lvov, Ugrovesk. The prince negotiated with the West about an alliance against the Horde and, counting on outside help, accepted the royal title from the Pope in 1253.
In the XIII century, the main features of the political and socio-economic development of the Galicia-Volyn principality were determined. The prince had full power, but he had to constantly fight against the opposition of the aristocracy, relying on cities and troops. Most of the population was made up of smerds - simple community members - peasants who cultivated the land and paid the boyars and the prince in kind. The economy of the Galicia-Volyn principality also had a natural character. This territory was located on the black earth, which favored the development of agriculture. Farmers grew mainly crops such as oats and rye; The main branches of animal husbandry were horse breeding, pig breeding and sheep breeding. However, due to the distance from the sea, the level of trade development was low. The Galicia-Volyn principality had land borders: in the east with the principalities of Kyiv and Polotsk, in the south and west - with Byzantium, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland; in the north - with the Teutonic Order and Lithuania. An original culture took shape in the principality, a feature of which was the borrowing of traditions not only from Ancient Russia, but also from neighboring countries. In Galicia, a chronicle and the Galician Gospel were created; the Metropolitan Cathedral was located here,
