What was sold in Russia. Messages

a) fish, salt, fur, leather, honey, linen canvas;

b) incense and spices, beads, wine;

c) weapons, horses, precious stones, fabrics.

3. Indicate the main types of economic activities of Slavs:

a) gardening and winemaking;

b) farming cattle breeding;

in). Hunting and gathering.

4. In IX century. Eastern Slavs were:

a) pagans;

b) Christians;

c) Muslims.

What is theory of the origin of the Russian state?

a) Varana;

b) Norman;

c) Indo-European.

In which year, Kiev became the center of a single Old Russian state?

What was the name of the collection of free people - members of the community in the Eastern Slavs?

8. One of the reasons russian-Byzantine War 941 - 944. Was:

a) the failure of Dani Byzantia;

b) the ban of Russian prince to trade in Byzantium;

c) Cancellation of benefits for Russian merchants.

Name the Slavic tribe that did not want to pay Kiev Dan and constantly rebelled against Prince Igor.

a) Polyana;

b) Doodle;

c) Curvichi.

What year is the princess Olga adopted baptism?

Why are Svyatoslav called "Alexander Macedonian" Eastern Europe?

a) due to the permanent conflict with Byzantium;

b) due to its hiking and attached lands;

c) due to unusual diplomacy Svyatoslav.

In an effort to protect the southern borders of Russia from the constant raids of Pechenegs, Vladimir took?

a) construction of outposts with a light alert system;

b) the creation of border triggers;

c) Construction of RVs around Russian cities.

What are one of the reasons why Vladimir chose Christianity to unite Russian lands?

a) did not oblige anything;

b) Cleaned the soul, to give an opportunity to revive and update the person, hope; For a happy life in eternity.

What is a virgin?

a) redemption given by the bridesmaid family;

b) a court duel;

c) the judicial duty for murder or injury caused by man.

What an event of the XI century shows the growth of international authority of Russia.

a) the payment of the conjugation of Byzantium;

b) the conquest of Russian Constantinople;

c) Marriage of the Byzantine Princess and Son Yaroslav.

Name the first monk of the Pechersk Monastery?

a) Illarion;

b) Anthony;

c) Feodosius.

17. Princely domain is:

a) land owned by Duzhnniki Prince;

b) the complex of land inhabited by people belonging directly to the head of state;

c) church lands.

What are the tasks of the city during the formation of the state, the development of Russia?

a) the place of collecting troops to reflect the enemy;

b) trade and craft centers;

c) agricultural union centers.

19. Tin - this is:

a) the tenth of the princely income in favor of the Church;

b) the name of church lands;

c) a monetary unit in Russia.

What decision was taken by princes on the Lubachest Congress in 1097?

a) all Russian principalities should be united into a single state with the center in Kiev;

b) the lands of their fathers are kept behind each prince;

c) Strong princes can take possession of other principalities.

What event happened in 1111?

a) the uprising of the peasants;

b) Crusade against polovtsy;

c) Russian-Byzantine war.

22. By the middle of the XII century, Rus split on:

a) 10 principalities;

b) 12 principalities;

c) 15 principalities.

1. Who owns the following characteristic: "Without possessing physical strength, being chrome, he was a bold warrior and fearlessly led the army into battle. Born in the pagan environment, he became a true Christian. He showed himself a man exclusively versatile. Store in history as a major town planner. In honor of the victories over the enemies, he built a "golden gate".

2. List the main categories of the population of the "Military Democracy" period. Place them in descending order of wealth and power.

3. Determine the com, wrote a Greek historian: "The justice was captured in the minds, and not in the laws ... they do the way of life the same, have the same morals, love freedom and do not carry slavery ... Excellent Wars ... The greatest art is that that they know how to hide in rivers under water. "

4. Determine the com, we are talking: "Rural estates and city courtyards of secular and spiritual nobility were full of these people who performed many work on the house and in the field. But nevertheless they differed from slaves in the ancient world. They had some rights. Their murder punished by law. "

5. Who is the following appeal? "Prince! There is no to you in that sin: after all, after all, by giving an oath, ruin the earth Russian and the blood of Christian shed indifferently? "

6. Determine about the com, we are talking: "During the collection of Dani in 945, violence was created in 945 the warriors. Having gathered a tribute, the prince sent the bulk of the squad and the banner "the ravis, and himself, remaining with his" small friend, decided to wander around the Trees of Drevlyan lands in search of mining. Trees, headed with his prince, was rebuilt and killed a squad. The offender himself was captured and executed with the death of death: he was tied to two prone trees, and then they were released. "

7. Whose feature? "From the first steps of his reign, she showed herself as a decisive, power, far-sighted and harsh government. She revenged the trees for the death of her husband. And installed for local population Dani and place payroll standards where tribute should have begun. Dying, Princess, did not make it clear on her grave of the pagan TRIZNU, but to bury in the Christian custom. "

8. Who belongs to the following words: "It's not anyone to sit in Kiev, I want to live in Pereyaslavka on the Danube - there is the middle of the earth of my earth, all the benefits flock there: from the Greek land - gold, tops (precious stones), wines, various fruits from the Czech Republic , from Hungary - silver and horses, and from Russia - fur and wax, honey and slaves. "

Standard responses

Test 1 option

1-A; 2-b; 3-in; 4-A; 5 B; 6-in; 7-b; 8-A; 9-b; 10-in; 11-in; 12-A; 13-in; 14-b; 15-in; 16-in; 17-in; 18th; 19-b; 20-b; 21-in; 22-b.

On questions

Vladimir Monomakh.

All - dependent, non-free people.

Yaroslav Wise.

Yaroslav wise.

Agreement between Byzantia and Rusy in 911.

All of them are urban aristocracy.

Standard responses

Test 2 option

1-b; 2-A; 3-b; 4-A; 5 B; 6-A; 7-in; 8-in; 9-b; 10-A; 11-b; 12-A; 13-b; 14-in; 15-in; 16th; 17-b; 19-A; 20-b; 21-b; 22-century

On questions

Yaroslav Wise.

Prince - Druzhina - Guys - Chelyant - servants - slaves - slaves.

About the ancient Slavs.

Vladimir Monomakh.

Prince Igor.

Princess Olga.

In those distant times, when market relations were random in nature, and the cross-bred exchange, discovering its positive parties, quickly developed, the subjects of the exchange were the products of local economy, crafts, and all other monopoly products that were not produced elsewhere.

Waiting for the coming of their trading partners, the merchants built a settlement - three-, quadrangular sites, the parties of which were about 200-300 steps, fenced with stones and moats. In the settlements there were products, and in the case of an attack, they were hidden from enemies.

Later, the device of exchange points near the castle or military parking was most convenient, since these parkingians were simultaneously and commodity warehouses. This was the whole tribute from the surroundings, to then share in the goods of foreign origin. In x in. Kiev and Novgorod were such a military-shopping parking lots. In Kiev, there was a tribute to collected with South, and in Novgorod - with Northern Russia.

The market was broken around the military camps, which was not a permanent bargaining, but rather a periodic fair dedicated to certain times of the year, but especially by the time the princes went to the "File", i.e. Engaged in organized robbery.

Along with the wholesale foreign trade, which "trading guests" or authorized feudalists developed, and retail domestic trade. A significant number of citizens turned a small (retail) trade in its constant lesson.

The transition of peasant mantles from the category of natural in the category of money dramatically changed both the relationship between the owner and peasant economy and the structure of the latter. To pay monetary mantoms, the peasants had to realize their products on the market.

The "commercial part" of the peasant economy consisted of a variety of products depending on the conditions of local production and sales. Such an advantage was, for example, flax in the Pskov and Novgorod regions; Bread, cattle, leather, fat, oil - in more fertile southern localities; Gardening products - near cities, and the main product of landowner production - bread was produced not only for their own needs, but also for sales, moreover, on very remote markets. According to the testimony of the Imperial Ambassador of the Sigizmund Herberstein's diplomat, who visited Russia in 1517 and 1525, to 700-800, the supply with bread, fish and other products was brought to Moscow in winter, and bread was brought from remote areas located at a distance of up to 1600 miles.

With the insecurity and low level of the welfare of the peasant economy, in general, it could absolutely could not be much significant. Some foreign observers (for example, Daniel Prince) indicated that the peasants of Moscow Rus in the XVI century. They lived very poorly, they fed on one rye bread, and the rest of the more valuable products of their farm sold the market.

Internal trade in Russia was engaged in various layers of the population - princes, boyars, clergy, merchants, as well as ordinary people.

Representatives state power, Princes of faults, "Volostelli" not only led trading, but also used it to be charged in their favor of all sorts of charges and duties. Domestic trade was taxed by special charges in favor of the Prince: Tamga, soot, more than the living room, etc., from which monasteries were often released. These fees are spoken by numerous agreements and humble diplomas, and starting with the XI V. and Russian True (Karamzin List).

To the XIV century Trade as professional activity focused in the hands of merchants. Funding trade began large boyars; In this regard, among the cities, Novgorod was leading, where in the XIII century. There were also phenomena, which in Moscow developed only in the XV-XVI centuries. In any case, large property status, acquired in the Novgorod trade, are found already in the XIII century.

To become a full "vulgar", as it was said (from the word "went", i.e. hereditary), merchant in Novgorod, it was necessary to join in special organization Merchants, the residence of which was the Ivanovo Church.

In this regard, you should pay attention to the change in prices, on the example of the price of bread. Such calculations for the period from the middle of the XVI century. before the beginning of the XX century. Published B.N. Mironov in the book "Historian and Sociology". The price index is the indicator of the total price level, which characterizes the change in prices in time relative to the base period, is accepted for 100. If you take for the base period, i.e. With an index equal to 100, the period is 1701 -1710., then in 1551 - 1560. It was 170, in 1651 - 1660.- 160, and in 1791-1800. - 555 and in 1901 -1910. - 1940.

Comparison of price dynamics in Russia and Western Europe shows that in the second half of the XVI - the first half of the XVII century. Prices in Europe rises, and in Russia decreased. In the second half of the XVIII century. In Russia, the rapid increase in prices continued, in Europe, there was also a slow increase in prices - by about 40-80%.

These information show that Russia remained aside from the revolution of prices in Western Europe, held in the second half of the XVI - the first half of the XVII century. But in the XVIII century. Unlike Europe, prices in Russia rose 5-6 times - approximately as much as they rose in the West during the times of the price revolution.

The entrance fee was determined in 50 hryvnia silver. "And who wants to merchants to invest in Ivanovo, gives the merchants to the vulgar deposit of 50 hryvnia ... And who will not invest in the merchants, will not give 50 hryvnia silver, then not a vulgar merchant." The fee gave the right to trade and merchant affairs, be elected to public posts and participate in self-government.

Trade and trade between the city and the nearest area usually occurred in special markets called trading and having the importance of the city's socio-economic center. Torg, as a rule, was located in the center of the city, near the princely chorus, divided into the ranks by the nature of the goods: a cloudy, commander, scrambled, bread and others. Since trade was first carried out predominantly, then there was anyone who had any The thing he wanted to make money and for which I wanted to buy some other thing.

According to the "Russian truth", the market was not only a place of commerce, but also a place where stolen things were wanted. "Capture Pa Bear", i.e. To declare the search for the missing thing, it was one of the required judicial procedures. In other words, internal trade relations Between individual cities were so insignificant that such a search was admitted appreciated.

Novgorod, Smolensk, Kiev and many other cities, had extensive and numerous markets - bazaars (in Kiev, for example, there were 8 special markets), specializing in various goods, and a large number of non-resident merchants.

In the 80s. XVI in. In Veliky Novgorod, there were two living room courtyards and 42 trading series with 1500 shops, in Pskov - 40 trading series with 1478 shops, in Serpukhov (in the 50s) - 250 shops and barns.

According to the testimony of Adam Olaira - a German scientist and traveler who visited Russia in Russia in the 30s. XVII century, in Moscow there was a special market "Behind the White Wall", where it was possible to purchase a pre-harvested log house, which remained only to transport and collect.

The main point of internal and foreign trade was, of course, Moscow. Hunting, fishing and hunting products from Siberia and from the north, iron products from the Urals and from Tula, household items and luxury from abroad are flown here. Moscow stood at the intersection of new trade routes, significantly changed to the best relatively with the paths of Kiev and Novgorod Russia. The old way to the west and to Europe through Novgorod passed through Tver, Torzhok, Novgorod, Narva. Another Western way went through Smolensk, Vitebsk, Riga.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. The Northern Way to Vologda is becoming increasingly important, Ustyug, Dvina to Arkhangelsk - a route, an open by the British and giving a strong impetus to the development of Anglo-Russian trade.

In the first place in the sizes of trade turnover, Moscow was about 450 thousand rubles, or about 1/3 of the turnover of the whole country; In second place - Kazan - 140 thousand rubles, or about 10%; Next, Nizhny Novgorod is 50 thousand rubles, Yaroslavl - 35 thousand rubles, etc.

All foreigners were amazed by the abundance of shops in Moscow and other cities and the tendency of Russian to trade. According to Kilburger observations (1674), in Moscow, the number of shops was more than in Amsterdam, but these stalls were small stalls in which the merchant was difficult to turn.

The largest fair in the XVII century. There was a fair at the Khopinger town in the Arkhangelsk province, where the bargaining was exclusively exchanged - exchanged fur and craft products. "With this hoppy town, historians had a lot of worries," said Sergey Markov researcher. Until now, this town has no accurate information. In Russian chronicles, he never mentioned, and meanwhile and Nikolai Karamzin, and Timofey Kamenovich-RVovsky, and Alexander Musin-Pushkin, wrote about him. Already in our time, Sergey Markov traveled to the city of Loku on the eve of his flooding by the waters of the new man-made sea, saw a huge meadow at the very molotic mouth. There, at Ivan III, a fair of the Hop cage was moved. Causes bewilderment: why so far, in fifty miles from the Volga, it was necessary to choose a place for the first fairs in Russia?

Sigismund Herberstein, who described the Hopi town, fantasized, saying that the Novgorod Cales once captured his Lord's wives, when the latter were in the campaign, and the angry husbands were kicked out of the horses from Novgorod, and those had rooted protection in the walls of the Hoping Town. Then there was a huge exchange trade ingoing, where Muscovites, Swedes, Livons, Tatars and other visits from Eastern and nordic countries. Timofey Kamenovich-RVovsky wrote that the hoodoral city gave 180 puddles of silver annually from alone trading duties.

At the beginning of the XVII century. Makarev Fair under the walls of the monastery at Nizhny Novgorod opened. Checklets came here with goods from Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Veliky Novgorod, and there was a bargain with merchants of the East, which brought their products from the lower Volga through Astrakhan.

Up to the XV century. Monopolies of trade with Novgorod belonged to Ganze. The development of the Moscow state laid the end of this monopoly; The Ganzian yard in Novgorod was closed, the property of merchants was looted. Although the next century an agreement with Ganza was renewed on behalf of the Moscow government, trading guests reluctantly visited this country, especially since Ganza at that time was experiencing a period of acute coester. The disintegration of Hanse reduced to insignificant size of the West trafficking with Russia.

In the second half of the XVI century. English trade company Sent a small squadron to establish direct trade relations with India and China along the Northern Sea Route. Two ships died, and the third (under the Captain Cencer team) got into the White Sea. Since that time, trade relations of England began with Russia. A special company was established for this trading, which received a monopoly with the consent of the British government and a number of privileges from the Moscow government. The British had the right to trade in the whole Moscow state, to trade with East - Persia and Bukharoy, to build a cable plant in Vologda, to extract under Vologda iron Rud., to start off the office and coupling throughout the state. Caravans with fur, hemp, flane, canvas, gland and bread reached out in England. In addition, the transit from Persia British was taken out cotton, silk, carpets.

In the XVII century In the Arkhangelsk port, through which the overseas trading came, the courts of Dutch, Flemadsev, Germans appeared. Russia with Holland has especially developed especially successfully.

If you compare the economic development of the Moscow state of that era with the development of Western European countries, Muscovy was a country largely backward. However, at the end of the XVI - early XVII century in the Moscow state there were many shopping and industrial cities. The villages and suburbs, located north of Moscow, were supplied to the market a large number of canvases (especially the Yaroslavl and Vologda canvas); In many towns, leather production was developed; In Cherepovets, Ustyug and Tikhvin district, iron ore was mined. Moscow counted about 250 different specialties of artisans. The lively trade took place in many small markets and fairs. Thus, it is possible to compare the economic development of the Moscow state of that era with the XIII-XIV centuries in Western Europe,

The so-called complete shop has usually occupied the area of \u200b\u200b4-5 so -5, but for the most part the "half-shop", "Quart of the shop" prevailed. However, some merchants had 1 1 / 2 - 2 and more shops in one or different rows.

Traveler Yakob Riettfels (1671 - 1673), describing the trade around the Kremlin and China-Cities in Moscow, emphasized the diversity of goods sold here - Silk fabrics, canvas, silver, foreign wines, fur, bells, axes, leather, carpets, fat, giving, icons, bread, etc.

In Moscow in 1626. In the trading part (China-city) there were 827 trade holdings of the type of permanent shops and 680 portable commercial premises, tents, benches, etc. Trade in the same goods usually focused in special rows - woolen, silk, sable, iron, etc.; such rows foreign travelers There are dozens.

Of course, it is impossible to exaggerate neither the size and liveliness of this trade turnover, nor his freedom and organization. In the absence of good land messages and freezing of rivers, trade capital often turned around only once a year, sometimes less. Roads, neurozence due to driers and forests, were also dangerous due to robberies. In addition, all sorts of charges, customs duties, travel, Tamga, Mostovshchina, Sot, and PR, were a heavy burden on the trade.

Already in the XVI century. Among the owners of shops, for example, not only small craftsmen, but also larger merchants, leading retail or even wholesale trade. These are no longer "craftsmen", but representatives of capital. But it happened, and the peasant economy was evacted from the framework of local trade and engaged in larger trade. In some cities, for example, in Ustyug, there were peasants who traded "big products", i.e. We led wholesale trade, moreover by busy capital.

It is from these former "passed" peasants, the merchants who engaged in trading as professionals are often published in the whole of these former "passed" peasants.

In the southern border cities, good people were particularly successfully traded: in Tula, for example, they owned 30% of all shops and only 20% - landing trading people.

Above the average group of professional merchants "elevated" large and famous merchants - "guests". The title "Guest" was privileged, and was assigned for special merits to very few people. At the beginning of the XVII century. In Moscow, they were numbered about 30. But, of course, the magnitude of merchant capital was at the heart of this honorary title.

The main rule, subsequently fixed by the new-selling charter of 1667, was the prohibition of foreigners to engage in retail trade with the population. "Not to sell any products to all foreigners ... and in the fairs to them and in no cities with our goods and with money, do not send cursors." All the intercourse could only be held through Russian merchants.

Foreign trade quite rapidly developed, mainly with the Germans, Swedes, the British. Secretary of the Swedish Royal Commerce College, Johann Philipp compiled lists of goods that imported and exported to Muscovy from 1655-1671. It was exported: 10,000 lastys (about 1 million pounds) of bread, fur by 98 thousand rubles, leather for 371 thousand rubles, about 500 thousand Arshin canvas and canvas, salo by 126 thousand rubles, caviar, wax, etc. in the list imported through Arkhangelsk products appear: pearls, gold and silver products, 28 thousand stop paper, 10 thousand German hats, 837 thousand. Balascu and needles, gold coins, wine, ginger, pepper, herring, weapons, moskal pharmacist goods, cloth.

The whole economy of the importation and export of goods, as specialists noted, was based largely at very low vacation vested goods in Muscovy and high prices for them abroad and, on the contrary, at relatively low prices for products brought from abroad, and high Cepping on them in Moscow. This gave the opportunity to get big profits both foreign and Russian merchants at the expense of the manufacturer, partly and consumer.

List of references used:

1. BRA L.P. Money, banks, credit functions M. VSh 1993
2. Chepurin M.N. Course of Economic Theory Kirov 1999
3. Poltheeva N.I. Economic history of foreign countries Minsk 2002
4. Bulatova A.S. Economy: Tutorial M. 1995
5. Rysberg V.A. Economy Course M. 1997
6. Ruzavin G.I. Basics market economy M. 1996.
7. Kameaeva V.D. Economy and business M. 1993
8. Textbook on the basics economic theory M. 1996.
9. Chernyak V.Z. Popular Economic History and Business M. 2002

Trade relations between people arose in deep antiquity. In Russia, they existed in the time of the emergence of the first Slavic state associations At the beginning of the IX century. At the time of Prince Oleg Slavs had trade relations with Byzantium, supported by the relevant treaties. The path of "Varyag in Greeks" passed through the Dnieper to the Black Sea, then the Slavs sailed along the shores to the mouth of the Danube, and from there they continued their way to Byzantium. With you, leather, honey, fish, caviar, sable and ermine fur were taken. And in Byzantium bought wine, silk mats, safyan, spices, incense, gold, pearl necklaces.

Over the years, Russian merchants gradually expanded their trading relations and in the eastern direction until the Caspian Sea. In the Khazar Earth, the Russians brought mainly fur, wax, honey. In exchange, precious stones, chains, rings, fabrics, wine, vegetables, spices were obtained. The Arab coins who served in Russia and decorations were especially in demand.

We went to the Slavs and in the region of the Volga and Kama rivers, where the Bulgarian kingdom was located. His capital, the city of Bulgar was famous for his trade. From there, Russian merchants exported fur, goat skins, fish, amber, wax, honey, nuts, cattle, swords and chain mail. The acquired goods of neighboring peoples have greatly come true in Western Europe. Trading routes west went along the Volga, Oka, Dnieper, Western Dvina, Neve to Ladoga Lake.

In the 9-10 centuries, trade relations brought closer to the eastern Slavs with the peoples of Western Europe, and here Novgorod had an important role in international trade. Novgorod merchants regularly went on ships to Denmark and the island of Gotland, where the Baltic trade flourished. In Visby on the island Gotland even had orthodox ChurchBecause the Russian merchants constantly lived there.

At the same time, domestic trade developed. In the 12th century, almost 300 cities were already in Russia, in which representatives of different estates lived. They all needed food and economic goods. In the non-fermented Smolensk, Pskov, the Polotsky region, the bread was brought not only to hiking, but also water paths. But here they successfully developed home and handicrafts. In general, by the beginning of the 13th century, according to the annals in the Russian land, the crafts were at a rather significant level. They produced wooden dishes, chests, carts, wheels, sleighs, axes, secrets, knives, braids, sickles, swords, shields, bows, arrows and more. All these products were made predominantly on urban and rural fairs. Usually, trading in the cities took place on Fridays, and in villages - several times a year in a certain time. Trade in cattle, horses, geese, ducks, meat, fish, wheat, bread, salt, vegetables, hay, firewood, barrels, rods, pots, hats, rods, rogs, pots, hats, loans, furs, dresses, weapons, horse breakdowns, rods, rods, groceries, horseshots, rods, rods, fellows, saucers, fears, dresses, weapons.

The merchants in those days were divided into communities where there were her oldas and their community capital. The merchants were in honor of the state, often they were in the honored embassies, took part in trade negotiations. In general, at the time of the trade and the simple people, and the princes, and the clergy were engaged. For the sale of his goods, the merchant was obliged to pay a duty that was called Myto. For crossing the river, transport was charged, and for travel on bridges - Mostovshchina. For the storage of goods in the living room took the living room. From the goods sold by measure, they took a dashest, with goods weighed - puddow. All duties were not great, but all their total value was quite burdensome.

Shipping was the main means of the message: trading movement and military campaigns were performed on the rivers. But a significant part of the year, especially in Northern Russia, the rivers were covered with ice; In addition, the so-called "Volbs" was climbing between the river systems, according to which the message occurred was dried, that is, they transport goods and all sorts of gravity on the kolas, or on a sleigh. The most convenient time for land calls, of course, was winter, when rivers, swamps and fops were tightened with strong bark; In any other time, especially in spring and autumn, dirt and fopi represented great obstacles to the message. Impassable debris and impenetrable forest slums, abundant predatory beasts, also served considerable difficulty; In the latter, it was easy to get lost and die without. Therefore, the device of valves, bridges, forest requests and river crossings on the most important ways has long been one of the main concerns of the rulers and the population. But in winter, the Russian man often had to fight cruel frosts, strong blizzards and deep snow. In constant struggle with all these difficulties, the energy and patience of the Russian people was tempered. He managed to overcome numerous natural obstacles and take advantage of some favorable conditions, especially rich in the river network to penetrate the most distant, deaf edges of Eastern Europe, to wander the road to them, to have settlements and fixing in them and revitalize them with their industrial and commercial enterprises.
Ilovai D. I. - "Formation of Russia"

International trade flourished in Novgorod. Under the Treaty, Novgorod residents were obliged to protect and accompany foreign merchants with their goods to the city. German merchants had the right to freely ride in Novgorod land and trade where they want. They paid shopping duties who were considered very low and surprised the generosity of Russian people. The number of foreign merchants in Novgorod reached a few hundred people, which speaks of a significant sprinkler of trade. Foreigners brought English, German and Polish cloths, red and white wine, bells for churches, lead and tin sheets for roofs, copper, tin, as well as safyan, gloves, yarn, canvas. They bought copper, wax, fur, flax, hop, leather, terrain forest.

In the 15th century, many European merchants from Poland and Germany arrived in Moscow to buy fur. This trading occurred in the living courtyard - an extensive stone building, whose shops hit foreigners a variety of goods. Each merchant who brought the goods to Moscow was obliged to submit them to customs officers who registered the goods and represented them at the discretion of the sovereign. If a grand Duke I wanted to buy something for myself, then the merchant did not have the right to trade until they sell the goods to the prince.

Trade and trade with the East. In the Caucasus, trade penetrated even for terk. Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich took measures to restore the Astrakhan bargaining, Alexey Mikhailovich concluded a contract with the Persian Shah Abbas II in 1667, by virtue of which Spanish merchants received the right to trade freely throughout Russia with the condition to pay a fee from all goods brought to Astrakhan, Moscow and Border cities.

Since the development of Siberia by Russian immigrants, it was included in close trade relations with the middle and east Asia. Many Siberian cities became considerable shopping centers. Soon our Siberian possessions reached the limits of China, which led to the emergence of Russian-Chinese trade. The first steps in this direction were made by Russians. In 1655, the Tsarist Messenger Theodore Baikov, who sent from Tobolsk to China, managed to reach Beijing. As a result of the negotiations, in 1689, a trade treatise on the free trade of Russians in China was concluded.

The center of trading in Moscow was China-city, in the walls of which in the XVII century there were three living rooms: old, new and Persian. Also were Lithuanian courtyards, Armenian, Greek, English. At the Embassy courtyard with Russian, foreign merits, who came to us with embassies were led. In the seating courtyards traded only in bulk; retail It happened in the ranks, and each product was intended for their row and their place. On Red Square was the main market where it was possible to buy all sorts of household items. Was allocated a special place where women sold their products homework. Next to the main market was up to 200 wine cellars. Bidding in Moscow took place usually on Wednesdays and Fridays: in the summer - in the large market in the Church of Vasily Blessed, and in the winter - "on the ice". In addition to the main market there were many others, mainly in the marigions. There were bread and sunset, as well as the forest market, where the finished logs were sold - the running goods at frequent and devastating fires. Prisoners were sold on Ivanovo Square. Near the city there was an equestrian square, which was driven from Astrakhan per year to 50,000 horses.

In the 16th century, Nizhny Novgorod becomes the center of trade. Near the city, the famous Makarev Fair spread out, where merchants came from many cities in Russia. There was a river path between Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan, which sometimes connected to 500 merchant ships. Trading communication with Central Asia occurred in the Caspian Sea. But swimming here was dangerous due to the attack sea RobbersTherefore, trade in these places developed weakly.

Horses made up important industry internal trading. The government did not want individuals to own horses worthy of being in the royal stable, and therefore the best horses were selected in the cities, reward owners. In Siberia, bargaining horses were produced freer. A good horse could buy in Novgorod land for 5 rubles.

Cattle, meat and oil were sold only within the country. The external sales of it was insignificant why cattle and meat were cheap. At the end of the XVI century, salty beef meat was sold in Russia on 23/4 of the hryvnia for PUD. Pone oil got a merchant to 26 Altyn 4 money. The demand for Russian leather from abroad was so great that the Moscow state was unable to satisfy it: merchants purchased significant reserves of raw skin in Malororsia and Livonia.

Lakes, the sea and rivers were abundant by fish, which can be judged at then prices. The barrel of Pereyaslavian herring, which consisted of their 200 pieces, cost 11 Altyn 4 money; In Astrakhan, 200 sterling could be bought for 10 Altyn; In Moscow, 20 sturgeon cost 8 rubles. This product went mainly in Holland and France. The caviar of sturgeon and the fibery went to Arkhangelsk. She walked mainly in England and the Netherlands. Bread prices ranged depending on the crop. In the years of the reign, Alexei Mikhailovich Wheat was sold on 16 Altyn 4 money for a quarter, rye - 16 Altyn 2 money.

Tobacco in Russia at that time was banned, but still illegally brought from abroad and was sold to everyone. The forest was sold mainly only in Russia, only masts went abroad. The oak table cost 10 Altyn, a hundred spa - 20 Altyn. The resin bought foreigners for ship needs. The glasses were made in Russia a little, it was purchased in Livonia and Malorus. Mirrors brought from Europe, and by custom each Russian groom considered his duty to give the bride to the mirror.

The cloth of a simple variety bought mostly rural people. It was sold at rural fairs. Thin high quality cloth brought from England and Holland and bought their wealthy people.

Under Peter I, trade offensive expanded significantly. For foreign merchants, significant benefits were envisaged, which contributed to the expansion of trade relations between Russia and Western Europe. The king tried to limit the influence of Western merchants and increase the share of goods produced in Russia. The patronage of his manufacturers came even before attaching peasants to factories. Peter conceived to send Russian ships to Spain to promote domestic goods. This was done already under Catherine I. Ships, loaded with lard, pegneck, canvas, flax, Ikro profit in Spanish port of Cadix, and here all the goods were safely sold out. But in the future, the idea was not supported by the authorities and went on no. It was also not possible to start a steady trade with Italy and France.

Russian foreign trade remained in the hands of the Dutch and the British. In 1734, an agreement was concluded between Russia and England, according to which both states had the right free swimming and trade. Similar agreements were signed with Sweden and Prussia. Trade relations developed and with countries Central Asia. Catherine I concluded a free trade agreement with China between the two countries. Significant changes occurred in trade legislation. Numerous duties were canceled, such as pavement, transported and many others. Tsaritsa Ekaterina II with his decree facilitated the trade in bread, meat, flax, canceling customs duties.

Under Alexandra, the first success reached our trade on the Black Sea, thanks to the advantageous geographical position Novorossia. But foreigners still dominated foreign trade. Of all vessels on the sea, only 14% belonged to the Russians, the rest were foreign origin.

In the internal trade, the annual production of consumer items was 9 billion rubles. About half of the entire mass of products did not go to the markets, and consumed on the ground. Natural farm in Russia slowed down the development of the domestic market and prevented the development of trade.

Russian truth Monument of ancient Russian law
- the same name is the monument of the ancient Russian law, the open V. N. Tatishchev in 1738 in the list of the Novgorod chronicle, written at the end of the XV century. Tatishchev wrote off this monument and presented it to the Academy of Sciences, providing translation and notes. The other number of lists R. Pravda, in Novgorod chronicles, feed books, legal collections, etc. Now they are known to more than 50. Published. P. Pravda was published only in 1767, August Schleser, by Tatishcheva manuscript, under the title "True Russian, given in the XI century. From the great princes of Yaroslav Vladimirovich and his son Izaslav Yaroslavich. "
Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

"For a lack of own coin, the trade of ancient Russia was mostly the advantage of exchange, especially with ingeneses, a significant part of trade turnovers took place on faith, that is, on credit; What is clearly evidenced by the Russian truth, which devotes several articles to the procedure for the recovery of debts from an untenable merchant. The existence of a loan indicates the so-called "Relogenation", that is, a loan loan or things for the sake of "Likhva", or growth. The clergy in his teachings strongly rebelled against high percentages, which the lenders oppressed their debtors, and threatened the first eternal flour, especially those who paid poor debtors to their chores. But in society there is still little developed, with a lack of safety and large risk, interest is inevitably high. Judging by the Russian truth, legitimate, that is, moderate, the cuts were considered up to 20% per year; But from it we see that sometimes cuts stretched to 40 and even up to 60%. "

Ilovai D. I. - "Formation of Russia"

The organization of the guild merchandise finally took shape at the end of the XVIII century. By this time, the trade estate was already distinguished from the members of the living room and the cloudy hundred XVII century with their numbers and power. Only at least 12 thousand merchants and members of their families lived in Moscow. There were several hundred manuffs in the country, trade turnover constituted millions of rubles. Tsarist Manifesto 1775 dismissed merchants from the hated pillow. Now they paid an annual tax of 1% from capital. Mercury was divided into three guilds, where, depending on the magnitude of the capital, all merchants who had more than 500 rubles were attributed. The final decoration of the merchant class was completed with the publication in 1785. Under this law, each, subject to capital declarations from 1 to 50 thousand rubles, could be recorded in the guild (1st Guild - from 10 to 50 thousand rubles; II - from 5 to 10 thousand rubles; 2nd - from 1 to 5 thousand rubles.). The merchants of all three guilds were exempted from the natural recruitment of duty, and the 1st and 2nd Guild - from corporal punishment.

Belonging to the first two guilds increased the status of the merchant - they had the right to the internal wholesale and retail bargaining, on the device of factories and factories, were released from government services. And the merchants of the first guild were allowed to trade not only in the country, but also beyond what could be sea vessels; Members of the 2nd Guild - only river. The merchants of the Third Guild could only deal with small bargaining, contain innocents, baths, innings.

In the middle of the 19th century, in Russia, an increasing number of peasants engaged in internal trading, the rings of merchants. First, the peasants sold only products of their production. But gradually the most fortunate began to drive around by cities and villages and buy cloth, sheepskin, hemp, flax, cattle and even Silk. Then, at the fairs, they all resold with profit not only in bulk, but also retail. Going to other villages, these bold and dexterous people bought agricultural products from their fellows, and then with interest to the merchants. In the Nizhny Novgorod province in those years, villages were already known, which were famous for their fisheries. Pavlovsky, Liskov and Murashkinsky peasants at fairs and trading sold horse slab, wooden dishes, plumbing and blacksmatic products, caps, shoes. In addition, the trade in different kind of edible supplies has been successfully located. Some peasants, earning a well-known capital, entered into large bidding.

Over the years I have been buying and selling goods, the peasants accumulated large amounts of money, often catching up incomes of professional merchants. Possessing such capital, they quietly went to major fairs, drove goods to distant Siberian cities, moving both foot and aquatic way. Many peasants often sent their corders to buy goods even foreign production such as Dutch cloth, silk fabrics and paints.

Peasants-merchants boldly mastered the deaf Siberian terrain. Without fear, they were confidently advanced deep into the country, farther from the house at the taped roads, reaching even to Irkutsk and Yakutsk. In those places, they purchased Fur Sobility, Lisiza, Bobrov, Sadsz, Protein and Gornostayev. Then returned to their native fenats and sold all this wealth in huge quantities, rich on every transaction year from year. In addition to increasing capital, the reputation of such a merchant was important. Large peasants-merchants at fairs in seating courtyards have always provided the best trading places.

Known by their trading scope of the Write Peasants, who have no arable land, were engaged in merchant fishery. They built boats and even big vessels, on which, together with the goods, made trading trips along the Volga from Astrakhan to St. Petersburg. Some of the most deft and lucky even exported bread, honey, wax, butter, itself, meat, skin beyond Russia. It happened that on behalf of the merchants, the peasants were sold to domestic and sold foreign goods throughout Russia.

So the peasants were not limited to trade in Russian agricultural products and articles of handicrafts, but also made such trade operations as the delivery of Russian goods to ports and exporting them abroad, although according to the laws it was prohibited.

After the cancellation of the serfdom, the peasants became more and more trading fishery and participate in various kinds of financial transactions.

With the beginning of the development of capitalism in Russia, enthusiast manufacturers appeared in the merge of merchants. Almost half of this number were the merchant dynasties associated with the royal courtyard. They used the privileges and support of the state, had in their hands working capital and income from state-owned contracts and could base production on the work of serfs and attribute peasants.

The role of Russian merchants in the development of Russia's trade relations is enormous. The Russian industry was created not by the state, but by private individuals and no noble origin. Factories and plants are built and equipped with Russian merchants. The industry of Russia has grown out of trade. The merchant word often replaced any contracts and agreements, he was 100% believed. Small and large trade provided uninterrupted supply of cities and villages to products and goods of everyday demand. The cities were packed by small traders, offering the population all sorts of products both food and industrial. And the famous shopping fairs of Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Moscow collected a unmeasurated number of small, medium and large entrepreneurs who put numerous goods for sale. for every taste.

Shipping was the main means of the message: trading movement and military campaigns were performed on the rivers. But a significant part of the year, especially in Northern Russia, the rivers were covered with ice; In addition, the so-called "Volbs" was climbing between the river systems, according to which the message occurred was dried, that is, they transport goods and all sorts of gravity on the kolas, or on a sleigh. The most convenient time for land calls, of course, was winter, when rivers, swamps and fops were tightened with strong bark; In any other time, especially in spring and autumn, dirt and fopi represented great obstacles to the message. Impassable debris and impenetrable forest slums, abundant predatory beasts, also served considerable difficulty; In the latter, it was easy to get lost and die without. Therefore, the device of valves, bridges, forest requests and river crossings on the most important ways has long been one of the main concerns of the rulers and the population. But in winter, the Russian man often had to fight cruel frosts, strong blizzards and deep snow. In constant struggle with all these difficulties, the energy and patience of the Russian people was tempered. He managed to overcome numerous natural obstacles and take advantage of some favorable conditions, especially rich in the river network to penetrate the most distant, deaf edges of Eastern Europe, to wander the road to them, to have settlements and fixing in them and revitalize them with their industrial and commercial enterprises.

Markets, or "Bidding", accounted for the necessary belonging not only to the city, but also of any significant settlement. The peasants from the surrounding places were gathered here and exchanged their works on iron or copper guns, utensils, etc. The capital's princesses were together and the most important trading points where the goods were sent from the distant regions of Russia. The main focus of the trading movement in South Russia served Kiev and Chernigov, and in Northern - Novgorod and Smolensk. For example, caravans with salt from the Tavrichesky Lakes and Carpathian Mountains from Galician Kopi were sent to Kiev. And in Novgorod, there were calls with bread from the edges of Suzdal and Ryazan.

His enterprises in the internal trade of Seversal merchants seem to be superior to Southhouse. So Novgorod guests, and partly and Smolensk can be found in almost all areas of Russian; Rostov-Suzdal guests went to Kiev and Chernigov. Thanks to mutual exchange The goods between the Russian regions internal trade in Russia were quite developed and satisfied the urgent needs of the population. But in trade of external, in intercourse with foreign people, the merchants of South Russian, that is, Galitsky, Kiev, Chernigov and Pereyaslav, did not inferior and the Novgorod men themselves. The trade relations of South Rusi were directed mainly to the Byzantine Empire. Although Polovtsy Horde and shy the movement along the Dniprovsky way; But it is known that the ship caravans of our "buckwheels" continued to swim almost annually on this path; And the bold Russian guests went with their interstitry even through the steppe Polovtsy in Tavrid, to the mouths of Don, Kuban and to the lower Volga, where they changed fur, slaves and other works of their Earth for goods Greek, Italian and oriental, or Asian. From the east of Muslim countries, they were obtained, by the way, spicy roots, beads, pearls and a silver coin in large quantities. In turn, foreign merchants penetrated South Rus, and many of them were constantly in Kiev. By the way, here in the XII century came to purchase merchants from distant edges of Germany and Western Slavs, for example, from Bavaria and the Czech Republic. One Polish chronicler (Martin Gall) noticed that Poland itself served for foreign merchants only dear in Russia.

Meanwhile, as a Suzdal Mercury went to Kamskaya Bulgaria, to the land of Mordvoy and other neighboring Finns, Novgorod merchants, on the one hand, on shipping rivers penetrated the cloud and to the Ural Range; And on the other hand, they were not satisfied with the constant stay of the Varangian and German guests, but they themselves swam in the Baltic Sea, going to the German and Varangian goods to the island of Gotland and the industrial cities of Slavic-German Pomerania. In trade with Western Europe, Active participation was taken by Smolnyan, Viteblyan and Polochan. On raw works of Russian land, mainly fur, wax and skin, as well as on expensive goods Greek and eastern North-Western Rus vifbled European cloth, canvas, hardware, wines, herring, silver, bread, salt, etc.

Trade Movement B. ancient Russia It should have overcome the great obstacles to nature and people. On the one hand, the long and difficult paths of the message, especially a frequent dissolve, on the other - the lack of justice, folk troubles, the princes of internecine wars, attacks of predatory polovtsy and other neighbors, as well as the robberies of their own Russian pretenders, sponsors, and generally robbing Shakes - all this laid a heavy burden on industry and trade, and therefore on the prices of goods. And it is easy to surprise the energy and enterprise the Russian commercial, who was able to fight with such obstacles. A considerable difficulty met by the frequent removal, which was charged with a duty from goods, or sot. These manic outposts erected by the sake of multiplying revenues were arranged usually on the bridge, on transportation, at the entrance to the city. Further, there were duties in the warehouse of the goods in the living room, to trade, or in the market, "Personal" (on sale per measure), "weighing" (when selling for weight), etc. These duties although they themselves were and not large, but numerous and, with frequent abuse and extortion from the mints and other officials of the princes, slowed down trade turnover and elevated the price of goods.

For a lack of own coin, the trade of ancient Russia was mostly the advantage of exchange, especially with ingeneses, a significant part of trade turnovers took place on faith, that is, on credit; What is clearly evidenced by the Russian truth, which devotes several articles to the procedure for the recovery of debts from an untenable merchant. The existence of a loan indicates the so-called "Relogenation", that is, a loan loan or things for the sake of "Likhva", or growth. The clergy in his teachings strongly rebelled against high percentages, which the lenders oppressed their debtors, and threatened the first eternal flour, especially those who paid poor debtors to their chores. But in society there is still little developed, with a lack of safety and large risk, interest is inevitably high. Judging by the Russian truth, legitimate, that is, moderate, the cuts were considered up to 20% per year; But from it we see that sometimes cuts stretched to 40 and even up to 60%.

The shift rate in the productive forces of Russia in the XI - early XII century. appeared further development Crafts. In the village, in the face of the domination of the natural economy, the manufacture of clothes, shoes, utensils, agricultural equipment, etc. It was homemade, not yet separated from farming. Alone alone agriculture Blacksmith and at least pottery handicraft. Craftsman also acquired a firefly and carpentry. On Volyn, whole villages were made by slate spikes for spicy, diverged throughout Russia.

With the development of the feudal system, some of the community artisans moved dependent on the feudalists, others left the village and went under the walls of the princely castles and fortresses, where crafts were created. The possibility of rupture of the artisan with a village was due to the development of agriculture capable of providing the urban population with products and the branch of the craft from agriculture. Crafts development centers became cities. In them to the XII century. There have been over 60 craft specialties. A significant part of the craft was based on metallurgical production, the level of which is indicative to assess the development of the craft in general. If in the village the domain case has not yet separated from blacksmith, then in the cities in the field of iron treatment and raised at least 16 specialties, which ensured considerable production of products. The technical level of metallurgical production is evidenced by artisans of welding, casting, metal forging, welding and hardening steel.

Russian artisans of the XI-XII centuries. produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products, their products played an important role in the development of commodity relations of the city with the village. Ancient Russian jewelers knew the art of non-ferrous metal chasing. In craft workshops, workers were made tools (lemroys, axes, chisel, clash, etc.), weapons (shields, rolling armor, spears, shells, swords, etc.), household items (keys, etc.), decoration - Gold, silver, bronze, copper.

In the field of artistic craft, Russian masters have mastered the complex grain technique (highlight patterns from the smallest grain of Matalla), scany (stretching patterns from the finest wire), curly casting and, finally, requires special art technique for mobiles (manufacture of black background for patterned silver plates) and septo Enamel. Lovely products with gold and silver inlays and copper are preserved. Significant development received in ancient Russian cities Such types of crafts as pottery, leather, hydroda, stone, and dozens of others. His products Rus won fame in today Europe. In cities, artisans worked to order and market. However, the public division of labor in the country as a whole was weak. Village lived in natural economy. Products of few rustic artisans spread to a distance of about 10-30 km. Penetration into the village from the city of small traders did not violate the natural nature of the rural economy. Internal trade centers were cities. There were markets that were sold both food and craft products; Inowge merchants brought their products there. But urban commodity production did not change the natural and economic basis of the country's economy.

More developed was the foreign trade of Russia. Russian merchants traded in the possessions of the Arab Caliphate. The Dnieper way tied Rus with Byzantia. Russian merchants traveled from Kiev to Moravia, Czech Republic, Poland, South Germany; From Novgorod and Polotsk - in the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, Polish Pomorie and then west. In the Customs Statute X in. Raffelshtten (Germany) refer to Slavic merchants. Exported from Russia mainly raw materials. With the development of crafts increased export of craft products. Pushnin, wax, honey, resin, luna and linen fabrics, silver things, straits from pink slate, weapons, locks, carved bones, etc. were imported to the external market, and Ave., fruits, spices, paints, and pr.

The princes of special treaties with foreign states sought to protect the interests of Russian merchants. In the "Russian truth" of a later (the so-called "extensive") edition of the XII-early XIII century. Some measures were envisaged to protect merchant property from losses associated with wars and other circumstances. As money, silver bars, foreign coins went. Princes Vladimir Svyatoslavich I am His Son Yaroslav Vladimirovich produced (albeit in small quantities) a chased silver coin.

However, foreign trade did not change the natural nature of the economy of Russia, since the overwhelming part of the items of export (fur, etc.) was not produced as a product, but was obtained in the form of a tribute or riddle from death; Things brought from abroad, served only by the needs of rich feudal and citizens. In the village, passage products almost did not penetrate.

With the growth of public division of labor, cities developed. They arose from the castle fortresses, gradually influencing the posads, and from trade and crafts, around which fortifications were erected. The city was associated with the nearest rural district, the products of which he lived and the population of which served as crafts. At the same time, part of the urban population kept contact with agriculture, although it was for citizens auxiliary occupation.

Scandinavian sources called Rus "Country Country". Under these cities, they were implied both craft shopping centers and small fortified points. Russian chronicles, keeping mentioning the cities, viciously incomplete, make it possible to judge their growth. In the chronicles of the IX-X centuries. 25 cities mentioned in the news of the XI century. -89. The flourishing of the ancient Russian cities falls on the XI-XII centuries.

The ancient Russian city consisted of a fortress - the devints and urban pose, where the trade and craft population lived and there was a trading market. The population in such major cities as Kiev, which is chronicle of the XI century. Adam Bremensky called the "opponent of Constantinople", or Novgorod, in the XI-XII centuries. It was estimated, apparently, tens of thousands of people. The urban handicraft population was replenished with bright hills and dependes.

As in the countries of Western Europe, handicraft and merchant associations arose in the Old Russian cities, although there was not a workshop. So, there were associations of carpenters and town ceremonies (builders of fortress structures) led by the heads, the Brotherhood of Kuznetsov. Craftsmen shared on masters and students. In addition to free craftsmen, in the cities there were crowded artisans who were holopas of princes and boyars .. City to know was a boyars.

The major cities of Russia (Kiev, Chernihiv, Polotsk, Novgorod, Smolensk and others) were administrative, judicial and military centers. At the same time, fixed, the city contributed to the process of political crushing. It was a natural phenomenon in the conditions of the domination of the natural economy and with the weakness of economic ties between the individual lands.