Ancient civilizations of southeast asia. East Asia

South of China and east of India lies the peninsular and insular region of Southeast Asia, which includes Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Indochina (Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam), Malaysia and Indonesia, as well as Brunei and Singapore. In the first centuries of the new era, an original civilization grew on this territory, giving rise to large cities, giant temples, complex irrigation systems, as well as vast powerful states. The most famous of them is the power created by the Khmers on the lands of Cambodia with the capital in the heart of the jungle, in the Angkor region.

The civilization of Southeast Asia owes its origin and largely its main features to the influence of India, in particular Hinduism and Buddhism. Their impact was so strong that modern scientists call this civilization "Hindu-Buddhist".

ORIGIN OF HINDU-BUDDHIST CIVILIZATION

History of Southeast Asia until the 2nd century AD remains a blank spot in science. The earliest information about it is contained in Chinese written sources of that time and in archaeological finds. In the Chinese dynastic chronicles states are mentioned, whose rulers bore Indian names in Sanskrit, and the priests were representatives of the highest caste - the Brahmins. Images of Buddha in the same style as at Amaravati on the Krishna River in South India, characteristic of the period between 150 and 250 AD, have been found in Thailand, Cambodia and Annam (Central Vietnam), and on the islands of Java, Sumatra and Sulawesi.

The earliest texts - in Sanskrit - were found in West Java, East Kalimantan, northern Malaya and Cambodia. These inscriptions are made in the ancient alphabet of the times of the Pallavs, a Tamil dynasty that ruled from the 3rd to the 8th century. in Kanchipuram, southeastern India. More recent times include evidence of cultural influences from other areas of India. From the northeast came one of the directions of Buddhism - Mahayana. It bore the imprint of the mystical, Hindu-influenced doctrine of Tantrism, which originated in the Buddhist monastery of Nalanda in Bihar. From the 11th century. the authority of the Ceylon (Sri Lankan) branch of Buddhism begins to show itself. This branch of Buddhism - Hinayana (Theravada) - gradually replaced Mahayana and Hinduism from Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.

The most ancient culture of Southeast Asia. The origin of the peoples of Southeast Asia. Little is known about the genesis and early migration of peoples who, influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism, developed their own cultures. Today, the most civilized peoples inhabit the plains, especially river valleys and deltaic lowlands, as well as sea coasts. Economically relatively backward peoples lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle in the mountains and other elevated regions. The cultures of the Neolithic, as well as the Bronze and Iron Age were brought to Southeast Asia by Malay tribes from Southwest China, which are subdivided into Pro-Malay and Pre-Malay, respectively. They have become the ethnic substratum of the current population of the region. Both of these groups probably migrated down river valleys towards delta and coastal areas. The South China Sea, the Gulf of Thailand and the Java Sea formed a kind of inland basin, fostering community cultures of nations who lived on the coast and the banks of the rivers flowing into them.

Material culture... The material well-being of the peoples of Southeast Asia was based on the cultivation fruit trees, intensive rice cultivation and fishing. Artificial irrigation systems required relatively high density population: irrigation facilities were built with the participation of large masses of people, organized either under the rule of a strong leader, or, in some cases, within the framework of rural communities. Apparently, the appearance of pile buildings and the use of domesticated buffaloes for plowing fields dates back to this time.

There was also a "boat" civilization culture, distinguished by an amazing variety of ships used. different types and sizes. Many families spent their lives on their boats, and until recently, communication between settlements in Southeast Asia was carried out mainly by water. Especially high art of navigation was possessed by the inhabitants of the coasts, who made long sea voyages.

Religion. The religion was a mixture of three elements: animalism, ancestor worship, and worship of local fertility gods. The water gods of fertility were especially revered in the form of a naga - a mythical cobra with several human heads. For the inhabitants of Southeast Asia, the world was filled with mysterious forces and spirits, ideas about which were reflected in dramatic mysteries and in works of art that have survived to this day. The construction of megaliths was associated with the cult of ancestors, in which the remains of the deceased leaders were placed.

Penetration of Indian culture. The penetration of Hinduism and Buddhism into Southeast Asia, apparently, began before the 2nd century. AD Hinduism was implanted by the rulers of local states who sought to emulate the splendor of Indian courts. Buddhism was brought with them by mendicant Buddhist monks (bhiksu) who founded monasteries.

The rulers who converted to Hinduism invited indian brahmanas for the administration of rituals of deification of monarchs by identifying them with one of the highest Hindu gods - Shiva, Vishnu or Harihara, (a deity that combines the features of the first two). The new names of the rulers often indicated the gods with whom they were identified (Isanavarman - "Favorite of Shiva", Indravarman - "Favorite of Indra" and Jayavarman - "Favorite of victory"). The widespread use of the suffix "-varman" in names seems to be traced back to the Pallavas. At first, it was a ritual suffix of the Kshatriyas - the class (varna) of warriors and leaders in Ancient India, but later it lost its class meaning and was used to designate members of the ruling class. In addition to the brahmins, the rulers had to invite specialists in the construction of appropriate sanctuaries for the worship of the god-king.

Sanskrit gradually became the sacred language of the court. Over time, Indian writing was adapted for the first literary works in local languages. The earliest surviving inscriptions in Javanese, Malay, Mon, and Khmer are excellent examples of this.

To legitimize the rulers of Southeast Asia, the Brahmans used mythical images taken from epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata as well as from the Puranas (collections of religious myths and hymns) and other texts containing the mythical genealogy of the royal families of the Ganges region. They also imposed the control system set forth in Arthasastra (Treatise on Politics and the State), Indian astrology and Indian calendars. The inhabitants of Southeast Asians themselves made an important contribution to this process, many of whom made a pilgrimage to India to study sacred texts.

Early Shaivite inscriptions indicate that the basis of the state religion was the cult of the royal linga (phallic symbol), in which, it was believed, the magical power of the god-king was concentrated, ensuring the prosperity of the state. Thus, the autochthonous cult of fertility was dressed in Indian clothes.

EARLY INDUCED STATES

Funan. The first royal courts under Indian influence, known to historians, appeared by the end of the 2nd century. AD in three areas: a) in the Mekong Delta, b) on the coast of modern Vietnam, south of Hue, and c) in the north of Malaya. The name "Funan", by which the state located in the Mekong Delta is known, is found in Chinese sources and is a derivative of the ancient Khmer word "mountain". For the Chinese, Funan meant the land of the "king of the mountain." Chinese sources report that her ruling dynasty was founded by a brahmana named Kaundinya, who married the leader of one of the local tribes. This legend was based on the local version of the Pallavian dynastic myth, in which the founder of the family was Princess Naga - the mythical nine-headed cobra, the goddess of water. Later, the Khmer adopted Naga as a sacred symbol from the Funani, and she became indispensable attribute iconography of the Khmer capital of Angkor. The prosperity of the country was believed to be supported by the nightly conjunction of the Khmer kings and Princess Naga.

In the first half of the 3rd century. Funan developed into a powerful empire under the rule of a king, whose name is referred to in Chinese chronicles as Fang Shiman. The ships of this monarch dominated the seas, and the states on the lands of the lower course of the Mekong up to the northern regions of the Malacca Peninsula were his vassals. Phan Shiman assumed the title of Maharaja, or “great ruler,” sent one embassy to the court of Murunda in India, and another to China. Someone Kang Tai, whom the Chinese emperor sent with a reciprocal embassy, ​​left the first description of Funan. Its subsequent rulers expanded the territory of the state and its overseas trade. As follows from the surviving inscriptions, one of the tasks of the tsarist government was the development of irrigation. Large-scale work to create irrigation systems often associated with the sanctuaries where the traces of Vishnu were kept.

Like Rome in Europe, Funan left many elements of its culture as a legacy to the states that replaced it, but in the middle of the 6th century. under the pressure of the gaining strength of the Khmers, the influence of Funan herself dwindles. The Chinese called the Khmer state Chenla and reported that at first it was a vassal of Funan. No explanation for this name has been found. During the century preceding the accession to the throne of the Khmer king Jayavarman II in 802, Chinese sources mention two states: Chenla Earth and Chenla Voda. Until now, little is known about their history. The name "Chenla" was mentioned for a long time after the founding of the great Khmer city of Angkor.

Tyampa (Champa). The historic Vietnamese region of Annam is rich in archaeological remains of the people known as the Cham (Cham). For the first time in history, they are mentioned as lin-yi in the reports of the Chinese governor to the north of the located Namwiet: a high-ranking official complained about the raids of the cham. Until now, it remains unclear how Indian trends penetrated them. The earliest inscriptions, dated ca. 400 AD, indicate that the court religion was Shaivism. One of the inscriptions is associated with the oldest linga found in Southeast Asia.

The early history of the Cham is a continuous series of attempts to expand northward both by land and sea, which forced the Chinese to undertake punitive expeditions against them. The Vietnamese at that time inhabited lands whose borders in the south extended only slightly beyond the Tonkin region, which occupies the northern part of modern Vietnam. After the liberation from Chinese rule in 939, a long struggle for the possession of lands south of Tonkin developed between the Vietnamese and the Toms. Ultimately, after the fall of Tyampa in the 15th century. the highly Chinese-influenced Vietnamese culture supplanted the Hinduized Cham culture.

States on the Malacca Peninsula. Scant information about these states is available in Chinese sources. More valuable information is contained in the inscriptions made in the oldest script of the Pallavs, the earliest of which date back to the end of the 4th century.

Early Indonesian states. The earliest known inscriptions in Java date back to about 450. They were made by the king of Taruma in West Java - Purnavarman, who began the construction of irrigation systems and erected a temple dedicated to the god Vishnu. In the east of Kalimantan, in the Kutei region, on the Makhakam river, dating from the beginning of the 5th century were found. the inscriptions of a certain king Mulavarman, but nothing is known about the further fate of his state. Chinese sources mention the existence of Hinduized states in Sumatra since the 5th century, the discovered inscriptions date from no earlier than the end of the 7th century.

Inscriptions in Myanmar and Thailand. There is evidence that from the middle of the 4th century. in Arakan, on the western coast of Burma (Myanmar), north of the Ayeyarwaddy delta, the Chandra dynasty ruled, but this information is known only from inscriptions of a later period. In Srikshetra, near present-day Pyi (Proma), in central Myanmar, inscriptions were discovered that probably date back to 500. Srikshetra was the capital of the state of the Pyu people, who are believed to have been the vanguard of the Burmese (Myanmar) migrating to the country. The Pew occupied the Ayeyarwaddy Valley as far as Halindzhi, in the north, near present-day Shuebo. To the east of them, from Chaush to present-day Molamyain in the south, and in the Ayeyarwaddy Valley, were the states of the Monks Pegu and Taton. The Monas also inhabited the Menama Chao Phraya Valley (Thailand). The earliest of the revealed inscriptions of monks date back to about 600. They were found in Phrapatona, where the oldest known capital of the Mon state, Dvaravati, located in the basin of the specified river, was located. Subsequently, the Monas had a strong cultural influence on their kindred Khmers, as well as on the Burmese and Thai (Siamese), about whose history little is known until the 11th century.

Rise of the state of Srivijaya. After the fall of Funan in the 6th century. its place was taken by Srivijaya, which developed around Palembang, in the southeast of Sumatra. This vast trading empire owed its prosperity to its control of the Straits of Malacca and Sunda, as well as to the benevolence of China, where it sent numerous embassies. Srivijaya existed from the 7th to the 13th century. She did not leave behind such monumental monuments as are found in Central Java, but Palembang has long been an important center of education for the Mahayans. In 671, in order to study Sanskrit grammar, he was visited by the Chinese Buddhist monk I Ching, who then went to India. After several years of study at Nalanda, he returned in 685 to Palembang, where he translated the Sanskrit texts into Chinese and left his description of the Buddhist religion of the time. Srivijaya's close ties with the Indian regions of Bengal and Bihar explain the strong influence that Tantric Buddhism had on the rulers of Indonesian states. In the 9th century. Nalanda was visited by so many pilgrims from Sumatra that a special house was built for them.

THE AGE OF THE BUILDERS OF THE TEMPLE

In the period from 650 to 1250 in the states of Southeast Asia, wonderful works of art and architecture were created, in no way inferior to the best world examples. Among the Chams, this flourishing in the artistic sphere began in the middle of the 7th century, when the Tang dynasty in China for a long time stopped the expansion of Tyampa to the north. Very little is known about significant changes in the lower Mekong after the Khmer conquest of Funan. Sufficiently complete and reliable information on the history of this territory appears only since the founding of the Khmer capital on the northern shore of Lake Sap (or Tonle Sap - “Great Lake”), founded in 802 by King Jayavarman II. But even earlier, those grandiose changes in art and architecture began, which eventually led to the creation of such masterpieces as the ensembles of Angkor. In Java, a similar process emerges approx. 730 in its central regions, and on Burmese soil, in the state of Pagan, much later - approx. 1100. (However, in the place of the capital of the state, Pju Srikshetra, the ruins of buildings of the 8th century have been preserved, which were the prototypes of temples built later in Pagan.)

Javanese kingdoms. The historical information we have about these kingdoms is often inaccurate. The development of the art of Central Java was associated with two local dynasties: the Mahayanist Shailendra and the Shaivite Sanjaya. Information about these dynasties up to the 8th century. absent. In Sanskrit, Shailendra means "king of the mountain", and it is possible that this indicates the ties of the dynasty with the "kings of the mountain" Funani of an earlier period. Under the Shailendras, wonderful Buddhist monuments and temple complexes were erected, of which the most impressive are the huge ensemble of Borobudur and the Chandi (Hindu temple) of Mendut. In the 9th century. the construction of such structures in Java stops, but it begins in the state of Srivijaya. Probably, the Sanjaya dynasty prevailed in Central Java, and one of its rulers married a princess from the Shailendra dynasty. Her brother Balaputra fled to Sumatra, married the heiress of the Srivijaya clan and named the Shailendras of the Srivijaya dynasty.

An outstanding monument of the Sanjaya dynasty is the magnificent Shaiva temple complex of Lara Jongrang in Prambanan, built in the early 10th century.

Soon after, the center of power is shifted to East Java for reasons that are not clear. In Central Java, the construction of monumental architectural objects ceases. Nothing of the kind was created in East Java until the 13th century. On the other hand, it was an important period in the development of the original Javanese literature. Sanskrit epic Mahabharata had a strong influence on Javanese literature and shadow theater "Wayang", as well as on the sculptural reliefs that began to adorn the East Javanese temples of a later period. One of the most famous works of ancient Javanese literature Arjunavivaha (Arjuna's wedding) is based on contained in Mahabharata the story of the ascetic Arjuna. This poem was written by the court poet Mpu Kanwa in honor of the marriage of Erlang, the most revered of the East Javanese kings (reigned 1019-1049), presenting the life of the king in allegorical form. The heyday of the kingdom of Erlang falls on a short period of decline of Srivijaya, when the Sumatran state was weakened by the war with the South Indian state of Cholov.

In the next century, during the heyday of the East Javanese kingdom of Kediri, another masterpiece of Javanese literature was created - Bharathayuddha... It is also based on the Sanskrit epic, but in its spirit it is a purely Javanese work. The heyday of Kediri continued until 1222, when she became a vassal of another Javanese state - Singasari.

In the religious sphere, there was a close fusion of Buddhism and Hinduism, which by that time had absorbed local magical rites and the cult of ancestors. At that time, there was a custom according to which kings after death were identified with the god Vishnu. A magnificent expression of this tradition is the sculpture of King Erlang, originally installed in his mausoleum in Belakhan and currently kept in the Modjokert Museum. The cult that developed around her was a kind of Javanese ancestor cult.

Khmers and Angkor Cambodia. Creation of the state. In 802, Jayavarman II founded the state of Cambujadesh (in the historical literature of Angkor Cambodia) in the area of ​​the lake. Sap (modern Cambodia). The choice of the site was determined by a number of conditions explaining the power reached by the new empire, which arose at the crossroads of sea and land routes. The lake was abundant in fish, and the alluvial plain allowed for up to four harvests a year using the irrigation techniques developed by the Khmers. The richness of the forest was combined with the ability to extract sandstone and clay from the Dangrek mountain range, located to the north, necessary for the construction of giant architectural structures.

Jayavarman II spread among the Khmers the cult of the god-king, which formed the basis of the ramified religious system developed by his successors. A linga was erected on the top of the mountain, and the brahmanas, who became the supreme priests of the cult, through meditation began to identify the king with Shiva, and the linga became the seat of his sacred soul. The sanctuary, around which the capital grew up, personified the mythical Hindu Mount Meru, the center of the universe, while the monarch, as the “king of the mountain,” declared himself the ruler of the universe.

Pre-Indian roots of the cult of the god-king. Upon closer inspection, it is revealed that under the cover of Hindu terminology and mythology, ideas and concepts that originated in an earlier period were hidden. So, in Cambodia, Tyampa, Java and Bali, there was a belief that the construction of a temple-image fixes the essence or life principle of the person being immortalized in the stone. The temple was built as a future tomb-sanctuary of the king, who, when laying it, left an inscription instructing the descendants to continue this tradition, and with it to maintain the established order - "dharma". Thus, the ruler tied together himself, his ancestors and descendants in a single cult of ancestors. A remarkable example is Borobudur, the mountain temple of the Shailendra dynasty in Central Java. This Buddhist monument, which includes hundreds of bas-relief images, is a veritable textbook of the Mahayan movement in Buddhism that developed in Nalanda, Bihar, during the time when Borobudur was being built. However, its full name Bhumisambarabhudhara - the Mountain of accumulation of virtue at the ten stages of bodhisattva - has another meaning, which is revealed only with regard to the worship of ancestors. Each of the ten steps, with the exception of the lowest, symbolizes one of the Shailendras, the predecessors of the creator of the temple, King Indra. The lower step was deliberately left unfinished in anticipation of the death of the monarch and his transformation into a bothisattva, the future Buddha.

Khmer conquests. Jayavarman II's kingdom was small. The construction of large reservoirs and a system of canals, which became the basis for the prosperity of the state, was begun by Indravarman II (reigned 877–889). Under him, the place of natural heights, from where the ecumenical king showered with blessings the population of his miniature universe, is occupied by man-made temples-mountains. The first city of Angkor was founded by Yasovarman I (reigned 889-900). Somewhat later, the Khmer capital was moved for a short time to Chjok Gargyar (Kokhker), northeast of Angkor, but already Rajendravarman II (reigned 944-968) returned it back to Angkor, which since then remained the seat of the Khmer kings until 1432. when the city was completely abandoned.

Little is known about the history of the Khmer conquests. The first of the Khmer wars with Tyampa was fought during the reign of Rajendravarman II, but it did not bring visible success. In the 10th century. Angkorian possessions probably extended up the Mekong Valley to the border of China. Suryavarman I (r. 1002-1050) expanded his lands westward, conquering the Mon state of Dvaravati, in the Menam Valley, and part of the Malacca Peninsula that is now part of Thailand. From this time on, the Mon influence on the art and architecture of the Khmer was clearly traced.

By the beginning of the 12th century. Khmer civilization and statehood reached their peak. Suryavarman II (reigned 1113-1150), under which Angkorvat was built, which was the culmination of the development of the temple-mountains, was the most powerful monarch in Khmer history. Nevertheless, his endless wars against the Mon, Thai, Vietnamese and Cham did not produce lasting results. His unsuccessful campaign to Tyampa led to several retaliatory strikes, during one of which, in 1177, the Tyams unexpectedly captured and plundered Angkor. Jayavarman VII (r. 1181-1219) in response occupied their country in 1203 and held it until the end of his reign.

Jayavarman VII, the last of the Great Builders. Jayavarman VII completed the most extravagant building project in Khmer history. He redesigned the capital, making it smaller, but at the same time turning it into a fortified city of Angkor Thom. In the center of the city towered the Temple of Bayon, and around the perimeter were built a monumental gate with towers crowned with giant heads with four colossal faces. This was already the time of the expansion of Mahayana Buddhism: in the central temple of Angkor Thom there was an image of Buddharaja - the king as the embodiment of Buddha, and in the radially located temples there were images with the names of the highest court nobles of Jayavarman, who thus joined the process of his deification. The faces on the towers were his portraits in the form of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara - “the god who looks down,” with compassion, at suffering humanity.

Suryavarman II also replaced Devaraja, the Shaivite god-king of his predecessors, Vishnuraja in Angkorvat. In essence, the two cults merged, similar to what happened in East Java. Jayavarman VII, having established the cult of Buddharaja, whose main temple was Bayon, took another step in this direction, just as it happened in modern Java, under the rulers of the state of Singasari. And just like in Java, Hindu and Buddhist elements were intertwined with traditional Khmer magic and ancestor cult: mythology, terminology and rituals were Hindu, but expressed purely Khmer ideas about the universe. The cults were dedicated to the material prosperity of the country and the earthly salvation of people. The compassion of Buddharaja was also expressed in the construction of more than 100 hotels for pilgrims and an equal number of hospitals open to all citizens on the roads radiating from the capital.

The state could not endure such a policy, which continuously demanded forced laborers and soldiers, for a long time, and it ended with the death of Jayavarman. New grandiose structures were no longer built. About the history of the Khmers in the remaining years of the 13th century. so little is known that it is difficult to judge the situation after the death of Jayavarman VII. The Khmers had to leave Tyampa, and the lands in the upper reaches of the Menam passed to the Thai tribes. Chinese traveler Zhou Daguan, who visited the area at the end of the century, wrote of the magnificent city and thriving countryside. There is a new, extremely important point in his notes: Hinayana Buddhism became the religion of the people. Thus, the state religion of the god-king had to lose its significance.

Pagan: Mont-Burmese Synthesis. Rise of Pagan. The great era of temple construction is associated with the Burmese city of Pagan, which united them into the first state that existed from 1044 to 1287. The Burmese, who ruled in Pagan, migrated to the arid central part of the country from the Shan Highlands in the second half of the 9th century. First, they concentrated in the Chaushe area, not far from modern Mandalay, and then settled in other lands, which they gave their name to. Earlier Mona were the first to grow rice and pulses in Myanmar. The Burmese adopted from them the artificial irrigation technique vital for Pagan. The foundations of Hindu-Buddhist culture, including writing, were also taken from the monks.

The state of Pju Srikshetra collapsed under the onslaught of Nanzhao, the Thai state in Yunnan, just before the arrival of the Burmese, while the people themselves gradually lost their identity and were assimilated. The Mon states of Lower Burma were conquered by King Anorate (reigned 1044-1077), the founder of Pagan. This led to an increase in Mon cultural influence in Pagan, where Hinayana Buddhism was the state religion. Pali became the canonical language, replacing Sanskrit. In essence, Pagan Buddhism was the same combination of Buddhism, Hinduism and local cults as elsewhere, but the official religion was the Hinayana, which gradually took the leading positions with the help of the royal power.

Mon influence. Mon influence in Pagan became predominant under King Chanzit (reigned 1084-1112). Under him, the temple of Ananda was built, the first and, perhaps, the most beautiful of the religious buildings. Unlike Angkor, the then Pagan was not the center of an extensive irrigation network.

Before the end of the prosperity of Pagan, which fell, as in the case of Angkor, in the first half of the 13th century, there was a change of cultures, accompanied by a change in the language of the inscriptions from Mon to Burmese. Much more important, however, were the shifts in local Buddhism as a result of the development of ties with Ceylon (Sri Lanka). New trends were brought by Mon pilgrims who visited this island at the end of the 12th century. They poured into a movement for the purification of the Hinayana in accordance with the orthodox teaching, which preached personal salvation through poverty, meditation, complete detachment. Missionary monks spread this doctrine throughout the country and far beyond.

SOUTH EAST ASIA AFTER THIRTEENTH CENTURY

The thirteenth century proved to be an important turning point in the history of the region. In Angkor and Pagan, the construction of huge temples ceased, and the minds of the people inhabiting the vassal possessions of these two centers were seized by Hinayana Buddhism. He was destined to gain a foothold on the religious map of the mainland of Southeast Asia. There have also been major political changes. The maritime power of Srivijaya has disappeared, although the available data do not give a clear idea of ​​how this happened. After the conquest of China by Kublai Khan, the Mongols invaded Burma, Vietnam, Tyampa and even penetrated into Java. Pagan disintegrated in 1287, even before the Mongol invasion, and the same happened with the East Javanese state of Singasari in 1293.

Thai conquests. By the end of the 13th century. outside the islands, the Thai peoples are taking the leading positions. The Shans, one of them, sought to establish control over Upper Burma, and the state of Sukhothai, founded by King Ramkamkheng (reigned 1283-1317), subjugated the Mon-Khmer tribes inhabiting the western outskirts of Angkor Cambodia and adopted the Hinayana.

The Thai expansion drastically changed the balance of power in the region. Ayutthaya was founded in 1350, which laid the foundation for modern Thailand, and already in 1378 she conquered Sukhothai. Three years later, the state of Lansang arose in the middle and upper reaches of the Mekong. After 1350, under the pressure of Thai tribes, the Khmer state quickly disintegrated. In 1431 they ravaged Angkort, which, as a result, ceased to be the capital the very next year. The Khmers moved the capital to the south, to Phnom Penh, but their state did not manage to revive its former power. In 1471, the Vietnamese captured Tiampa, and its Hindu-Buddhist culture gradually disappeared as the Vietnamese penetrated further south into the Mekong Delta.

Burmese and Mon states. In Burma, the struggle between the Burmese and Thai tribes went on until the middle of the 16th century. and ended in a decisive victory for the Burmese. During this confrontation, Burmese culture made a big step forward. Ava, founded in 1364, became its center. independent state Pegu, which existed until 1539. Its capital was the city of the same name, and the ports of Siriam, Martaban and Basin turned into centers international trade... Pegu made an important contribution to the development of Burmese Buddhism thanks to the extensive reforms carried out by the Mon king, Dammazedi (1472-1492). And again, Ceylon was the initiator of the transformation. In 1472 the king sent a mission of monks and novices to the island to the Mahavihara monastery on the Kelani river. Upon their return, they consecrated the center of ordination at Pegu, where all the monks were invited to undergo the ritual according to the Sri Lankan Hinayana rules. Dissent among the monks was strongly condemned, and orthodoxy was instilled everywhere.

Indonesia: Sunset of Singasari and Rise of Majapahit. The state of Singasari in East Java, which disintegrated on the eve of the Mongol invasion in 1293, completed the process of religious unification. One of the most controversial figures in Indonesian history, Kertanagara (reigned 1268-1292) introduced the Shiva-Buddha cult, a mixture of local magic and Tantrism that developed the demonic aspects of Kalachakra (Wheels of Time). For this cult, his followers organized secret vigils. The purpose of obscene rituals was the desire to give the king the necessary magical abilities to fight against the demonic forces that threaten the kingdom: an internal split and an external threat. Kertanagara tried to create, under his leadership, a confederation of Indonesian islands to organize a rebuff to the Mongol invasion, the threat of which turned out to be real for Southeast Asia after the invasion campaigns launched by Kublai Khan in 1264. The challenge thrown by Kertanagara did not go unanswered, and in 1293 the Mongol armada was directed against him. But even before her invasion of Java, one of the vassals of Kertanagara rebelled, who seized the capital, and killed the king himself when he, along with a group of entourage, performed secret tantric rituals. Confederation, or “ sacred union”, As it was called, disintegrated. But the Mongolian army, which after its landing on the island defeated the forces of the usurper, fell into a trap set by the direct heir of Kertanagara, Prince Vijaya, and was able to avoid defeat, only abandoning the intended goal and returning home. Thereafter, Vijaya was crowned under the name of King Kertarajas.

Under Kertarajas, whose policy was a continuation of the expansionist line of Kertanagara, Majapahit became the new capital of the East Javanese kingdom. However, for many years the state was torn apart by civil strife. Majapahit owes its rise to the talent of the chief minister, Gadzha Mada, who held this post from 1330 until the end of his life in 1364. Scholars disagree about how far Majapahit's conquests extended beyond Java. His power was unconditionally recognized by the neighboring islands of Madura and Bali, but it is unlikely that the possessions of Majapahit extended over the entire territory that in the first half of the 20th century. made up the Netherlands India. The decline of the kingdom began shortly before the end of the 14th century, although in the next century it still retains a dominant position in Java. However, with the strengthening of the Islamic sultanate in the Malacca Peninsula and the penetration of Islam into the northern regions of Java, the territory of Majapahit decreased. In the end, the state disappeared from the political arena in the first half of the 16th century, and its history in the 15th century. so vague that it gave rise to a lot of conjectures about the reasons for the death of the state.

Monuments of Majapahit. While the reliefs on the structures of Central Java are realistic, on the reliefs of East Java, the heroes and their servants are depicted in the bizarre form of Wayang theater puppets, as if belonging to the world of ancestral spirits. Most of Java's monuments are known as "chandi". This name, applied to temples-sanctuaries related to the dead, is derived from one of the names of the Hindu goddess of death, Durga. In the Javanese folk tradition, however, these temples acquired a slightly different meaning. They were Hindu-Buddhist only outwardly, and they were seen more as places of spirit release and resurrection, which clearly goes back to the local ancestor cult.

Bali. The conquest of Bali by Chief Minister Gadzha Mada was a milestone in the cultural life of the island. For hundreds of years it had its own form of Hindu-Buddhist culture, which later became completely Javanese. Among other things, ancient Javanese literature had a strong influence on the Balinese literature into which it was incorporated. At present, it is Bali that remains the repository of Javanese literary works of the Hindu-Buddhist period, since in Java itself much of the historical heritage was lost as a result of subsequent Islamization.

The spread of Islam in Malaya and Indonesia. At the end of the 13th century. in Southeast Asia, the results of the activities of Islamic preachers began to be felt. Marco Polo, who visited the Sumatran port of Perelak in 1292, noted that its population had already been converted to the religion of the Prophet. Under the influence of North Sumatra, the monarch of Malacca converted to Islam, with the strengthening of the power of which in the 15th century. Islam was accepted by Malaccan vassals in the mainland and in Sumatra. Trade relations of Malacca contributed to the penetration of Islam into the northern ports of Java and Brunei, in Kalimantan, whose rulers joined the ranks of the adherents of the new faith. Just before the Portuguese conquered Malacca in 1511, the rulers of the Spice Islands (Moluccas) followed suit. By the end of the 16th century. most of the Indonesian rulers were already adherents of Islam, but in East Java, the struggle between the defenders of the old faith in the old state of Pajadjaran and the Muslim elite of the new state of Mataram continued into the 17th century. Bali has resisted all attempts at conversion and has preserved its Hindu-Buddhist culture to this day.

However, the adoption of Islam by the rulers did not mean the extension of this process to their subjects. The situation that was observed in earlier times, when Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced at royal courts, was repeated with Islam. The adoption of Islam did not violate the integrity of the cultural history of Indonesia. Social relations continued to be governed by local “adat” (customary law). There were no mass conversions, there was no break in cultural life. It's just that the Indonesian and Malay civilizations have absorbed elements of Islam for centuries, as they used to absorb elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, and later - the beginning of Western culture.

The spread of Hinayana Buddhism on the mainland of Southeast Asia. In this territory, where the leading positions were taken by the Hinayana, in particular in Arakan, Burma, Siam (Thailand), Cambodia, Laos, there was also a long process of interaction of cultures. At the same time, their early traditional forms of religion showed an amazing resilience, and Buddhism - a magnificent spirit of tolerance. It is noteworthy that neither Islam nor Christianity left a noticeable mark on the peoples who professed Hinayana. The most peculiar feature of this process of acculturation is not just a tolerant attitude towards animism, but in fact its inclusion in Buddhist mythology. Pagoda festivals and nationwide celebrations are excellent examples. Among them are New Year(Tingjan, or Water Festival) in April, the First Furrow ceremony in May, the Festival of Lights (tarinjut), usually in October, and the Swing Festival, celebrated in December or January at harvest time. The New Year's Water Festival in these Buddhist countries marks the annual return of the king of spirits (for the Burmese “Taj Min”, for the Tai “Phra In”) to Earth, and the very moment of this return is determined by the brahmanas. Young boys and girls solemnly sprinkle water on the Buddha image. The Festival of Lights, which marks the end of Buddhist fasting (and the monsoon season), is an even greater amalgam of Buddhism, animism and the remnants of Hinduism. At this time, ritual meals are organized for the monks, who are presented with new robes. The buildings are decorated with illuminations and fireworks.

In Burma, the process of mixing beliefs took an extreme form of celebration in the context of the legend of how Gautam Buddha ascended to the land of spirits to explain to his mother, who became their queen, the commandments of the teachings he created.

The Orthodox Hinayana is essentially an atheistic teaching that denies the existence of the spirit world. Nevertheless, in all the countries of Southeast Asia, where the Hinayana reigns, every phase of a person's life, from birth to death, from plowing to harvesting, is accompanied by rituals of propitiation of spirits. Numerous places of worship are found everywhere, where fresh donations are received. On the territory of the Shwezigon stupa, in Pagan, famous for its Buddhist relics, there are temples of the Thirty-seven Nats (spirits), which testify to their respect for shrines.

Socio-economic conditions of the Hindu-Buddhist civilization. Information about the socio-economic conditions of life during the existence of the Hindu-Buddhist civilization is extremely fragmentary. This is due to the fact that until now only structures made of brick and stone have survived, while all dwellings, starting with the royal ones, which were built of wood, have long disappeared from the face of the earth. Lettering, a valuable potential source of social relations research, has not been adequately studied. The latest methods of archaeological excavations and aerial photography can seriously help specialists, but so far the only successful attempt at analysis economic system, which gave rise to a boom in the construction of temples, was undertaken by Bernard P. Groslier in Angkor. He described the city in detail as the center of a powerful system of reservoirs and canals that provided constant irrigation and intensive cultivation of vast rice fields, but at the same time required a strictly centralized management of the life of a close-knit community. The Khmers created a governing apparatus to suit their own needs, but the administrative structures of all the other leading states in the region were also based on the cult of water and fertility. Thus, the god-king among the Khmers, Chams, Burmese, Mon, or Indonesians performed almost the same function everywhere, and their cities were closely connected with irrigated rice-growing regions. Even Bagan, located in the arid zone of Burma, owed its existence to the Chaushkhe irrigation network and was so located on the Irrawaddy River to keep the irrigation facilities downstream under control. Its fall at the end of the 13th century. was mainly due to the loss of control over Chauskhe, and the fall of Angkor in the 15th century. happened due to the destruction of its water facilities during the Siamese invasions.

The cities did not turn into purely urbanized settlements, however. Aerial photographs show that Angkor was cut by canals and included arable land. It was a real garden city, in the center of which was a palace city, the administrative heart of the country. A special quarter was assigned to merchants, and representatives of various countries had their own farmsteads. Around the city, along the banks of canals and rivers, there are villages, fields and plantations of fruit trees.

Local varieties of culture of Southeast Asia. Throughout their early history, the various peoples of Southeast Asia developed highly individually. This is especially evident in the designs of fabrics, for example, on batiks, both made in Malaya and imported from India. The importer had to be well aware of the specific needs of the population of different areas, since what sold well in one of them might not be in demand in another. In all countries of the region, clothing consisted of the same elements: a long piece of fabric was wrapped around the hips, a shorter piece was thrown over the shoulder, and the third was tied around the head. But between the Burmese Lounge, Khmer Kampot, Thai Panung, and Malay or Indonesian Sarong, there were noticeable differences in patterns and wearing styles. The same applies to other types of costume. The official dress worn at the courts of Burmese Ava and Siamese Ayutthaya was very different from each other. Everything that came from abroad was quickly absorbed by the local culture. For example, the shadow theater borrowed from India merged with the Javanese puppet theater and acquired a completely distinct Javanese character. The Pali tales of the Buddha's reincarnations in the form of Jataka, which were common in Burmese prose and drama, were completely Burmanized. Motives of Sanskrit epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata used everywhere: in shadow theater, national literatures, other forms of art, in each case acquiring, however, a local flavor and local interpretation. Similarly, traditional musical ensembles called gamelan in Java and associated forms of dance and singing were widespread throughout Southeast Asia, but had significant local characteristics.

Literature:
Hall D. History of South-East Asia. M., 1958
Peoples of Southeast Asia. M., 1966
Bartold V.V. Works, vol. 6.M., 1966
History of the countries of Asia and Africa in the Middle Ages. M., 1968
Tatar-Mongols in Asia and Europe. M., 1970
Southeast Asia in world history. M., 1977
Southeast Asia: problems of regional community. M., 1977
Shpazhnikov S.A. Religion of the countries of South-East Asia. M., 1980
Berzin E.O. Southeast Asia in the 13th and 16th centuries. M., 1982

In the first centuries of our era, the emergence of Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia (from Laos to Singapore) put an end to the local ancient cults.
Indian influence
In Cambodia and Java, Indian influence explains cultural-religious evolution, as well as associated changes in the visual arts. Temples and stupas are being erected everywhere, testifying to the advent of new cults. Somewhere from the VIII century they have been changing, adapting to local conditions. In Cambodia, at the beginning of the 12th century, a colossal temple complex was created at Angkor Wat; a century later - an equally grandiose architectural complex with thousands of sculptures in Angkor - Thom. The deep evolution of Indian art was expressed both in the general strengthening of monumentality and in the increase in decorative and entertainment elements. Another example of spectacle in the art of the countries of Southeast Asia is a colossal five-story temple - a pyramid in Borobudur on the island of Java (Indonesia) with thousands of statues and delightful bas-reliefs on the themes of Hindu mythology

Great temples of Angkor.

a144221441294.jpg Between the 9th and 15th centuries, the dynasty of Khmer kings founded the capital and built a gigantic temple - Angkor Wat. Its ensemble is symmetrical: around the central building are more squat, connected by lines that reproduce the trajectories of celestial bodies. This striking building is one of the largest architectural monuments in the world. It is surrounded by paved roads, covered streets and winding moats. The length of the main building is hundreds of meters, the height is all 60 m. All structures of the complex were erected from stone blocks laid one on top of the other without cement: they are held in place thanks to a system of special notches. The same construction technique is used in the neighboring figured towers of the Bayon temple in Angkor Thom. ... Its mountainous towers bear a colossal image of the faces of Buddha and look more like the creations of nature, rather than human hands.

Repetitive sculptural images.

a139221456294.jpg The art of Cambodia and Indonesia is not only religious buildings, but also lush palaces, towering like man-made mountains in the jungle sea. One of the amazing features of the architecture of Southeast Asia is the principle of multiplication, repetition. The name of the city-palace Borobudur on the Indonesian island of Java means “many Buddhas.” This is one of the main centers of Buddhism in the region known for its high-mountainous plains, on which hundreds of stupas and hundreds of Buddha statues are lined up, covered with peculiar stone cages. All these statues are almost the same and differ only in the position of the hands, meaning encrypted gestures - mudras.In Angkor Wat, decorated bas-reliefs with friezes decorated with images of apsaras, heavenly dancers, are another example of repeated repetition of images. In the Hindu religion, the apsaras please the gods with their dancing, but ordinary mortals are seduced from the true path. An endless row of graceful silhouettes enhances the visual illusion of movement.
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