Great inventions of mankind. History of inventions and scientific discoveries

Every year or decade there are more and more scientists and inventors who give us new discoveries and inventions in various fields. But there are inventions that, once invented, change our way of life in the most enormous way, moving us forward on the path of progress. Here are just ten great inventions that have changed the world we live in.

List of inventions:

1. Nails

Inventor: unknown

Without nails, our civilization would surely collapse. The exact date the appearance of nails is difficult to establish. Now the approximate date of the creation of nails is in the Bronze Age. That is, it is obvious that nails could not have appeared before people learned how to cast and form metal. Before wooden structures had to be built using more complex technologies, using complex geometric structures. Now the construction process has become much easier.

Until the 1790s and early 1800s, iron nails were made by hand. The blacksmith would heat a square iron bar and then beat it on four sides to create the sharp end of the nail. Machines for making nails appeared between the 1790s and the early 1800s. Nail technology continued to evolve; After Henry Bessemer developed the process to mass-produce steel from iron, the iron nails of yesteryear gradually fell out of favor, and by 1886, 10% of nails in the US were made from mild steel wire (according to the University of Vermont). By 1913, 90% of the nails produced in the US were made from steel wire.

2. Wheel

Inventor: unknown

The idea of ​​a symmetrical component moving in a circular motion along an axis existed in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and Europe separately at different times. Thus, it is impossible to establish who and where exactly invented the wheel, but this great invention appeared in 3500 BC and became one of the most important inventions of mankind. The wheel facilitated work in the areas of agriculture and transportation, and also became the basis for other inventions, ranging from carriages to clocks.

3. Printing press

Johannes Gutenberg invented the manual printing press in 1450. By 1500 twenty million books had already been printed in Western Europe. In the 19th century, a modification was made, and the iron parts replaced the wood ones, which speeded up the printing process. The cultural and industrial revolution in Europe would not have been possible had it not been for the speed with which the printing press made it possible to distribute documents, books and newspapers to a wide audience. The printing press allowed the development of the press, and also gave people the opportunity to educate themselves. Political sphere would also be unthinkable without millions of copies of leaflets and posters. What can we say about the state apparatus with its endless number of forms? All in all, a truly great invention.

4. Steam engine

Inventor Story by: James Watt

Although the first version of the steam engine refers to 3rd century AD, only in early XIX century with the advent of the industrial age appeared modern form internal combustion engine. It took decades of design, after James Watt made the first drawings, according to which the combustion of fuel releases high-temperature gas and, as it expands, puts pressure on the piston and moves it. This phenomenal invention played a decisive role in the invention of other mechanisms such as automobiles and airplanes that changed the face of the planet we live on.

5. Bulb

Inventor: Thomas Alva Edison

The invention of the light bulb was developed during the 1800s by Thomas Edison; he is credited with the title of the main inventor of a lamp that could burn for 1500 hours without burning out (invented in 1879). The idea of ​​the light bulb itself does not belong to Edison and was expressed by many people, but it was he who managed to choose the right materials so that the light bulb burned for a long time and became cheaper than candles.

6. Penicillin

Inventor: Alexander Fleming

Penicillin was accidentally discovered in a petri dish by Alexander Fleming in 1928. The drug penicillin is a group of antibiotics that treats several infections in humans without harming them. Penicillin was mass-produced during World War II to rid military personnel of STDs and is still used as the standard antibiotic against infections. It was one of the most famous discoveries made in the field of medicine. Alexander Fleming received in 1945 Nobel Prize, and the newspapers of the time wrote:

"To defeat fascism and liberate France, he made more whole divisions"

7. Phone

Inventor: Antonio Meucci

For a long time it was believed that Alexander Bell was the discoverer of the telephone, but in 2002 the US Congress decided that the right of primacy in the invention of the telephone belongs to Antonio Meucci. In 1860 (16 years earlier than Graham Bell), Antonio Meucci demonstrated an apparatus that could transmit voice over wires. Antonio called his invention Telektrofon and applied for a patent in 1871. This set the stage for one of the most revolutionary inventions that almost everyone on our planet has in their pockets and on their desks. The telephone, which later also developed as a mobile phone, has had a vital impact on mankind, especially in the fields of business and communication. The expansion of audible speech from inside one room to the whole world is a feat unparalleled to this day.

8. Television

Zworykin with an iconoscope

Inventor: Rosing Boris Lvovich and his students Zworykin Vladimir Konstantinovich and Kataev Semyon Isidorovich (not recognized as a discoverer), as well as Philon Farnsworth

Although the invention of television cannot be attributed to one person, most people acknowledge that the invention of modern television was the merit of two people: Vladimir Kosma Zworykin (1923) and Philo Farnsworth (1927). It should be noted here that in the USSR Kataev Semyon Isidorovich was engaged in the development of a TV using parallel technology, and Rosing described the first experiments and principles of operation of electric television at all at the beginning of the 20th century. Television was also one of the greatest inventions that has evolved from mechanical to electronic, from black and white to color, from analog to digital, from primitive models without a remote to intelligent, and now all to 3D versions and small home theaters. People usually spend about 4-8 hours a day watching TV, and this has greatly affected family and social life, as well as changed our culture beyond recognition.

9. Computer

Inventor: Charles Babbage, Alan Turing and others.

The principle of the modern computer was first mentioned by Alan Turing and later the first mechanical computer was invented in the early 19th century. This invention really did amazing things in more spheres of life, including philosophy and culture human society. The computer helped take off high-speed military aircraft, bring spaceship into orbit, control medical equipment, create visual images, store great amount information and improved the functioning of cars, telephones and power plants.

10. Internet and World Wide Web

Map of the whole computer network for 2016

Inventor: Vinton Cerf and Tim Berners-Lee

The Internet was first developed in 1973 by Vinton Cerf with the support of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Its original use was to provide a communications network to research laboratories and universities in the United States and to expand overtime work. This invention (along with the World Wide Web) was the main revolutionary invention of the 20th century. In 1996, over 25 million computers were connected via the Internet in 180 countries, and now we even had to switch to IPv6 to increase the number of IP addresses, since IPv4 addresses were completely exhausted, and there were about 4.22 billion of them.

The World Wide Web, as we know, was first predicted by Arthur C. Clarke. However, the invention was made 19 years later in 1989 by CERN employee Tom Berners Lee. The network has changed our attitude towards various areas including education, music, finance, reading, medicine, language, etc. The network is potentially superior all the great inventions of the world.

The opening often involves several people. Before reaching its final form, it feeds on the following precursors:

1. A dreamer who arouses a thought and a desire to realize it. Such are talented storytellers without any education and with education.

2. The same, but with a more moderate fantasy. Examples: Jules Verne, Wells, Edgar Poe, Flammarion.

3. A gifted thinker, regardless of his education.

4. Compiler of plans and drawings.

5. Modelers.

6. The first unsuccessful performers.

7. Implementation.

Sometimes one person goes through several stages, and even all. But this is not often the case.

All these outstanding people are not united either by time or place.

For the successful progress of inventions and discoveries, it would be good to combine them for collective work.

After all, all the talents necessary for discovery are so rarely combined in one person!

A society that moves humanity forward must live together or meet often for meetings. The upper stage, that is, the stage of dreamers, selects from its midst the fantasies that the dreamers themselves, in their ardor, consider the most solid. They are sent in the form of a report to second-class societies, consisting of people who are less addicted. They discuss all the fairy tales that come to them, and some of them, which seem to them the most feasible, are sent for consideration by third-class societies, where people who are more knowledgeable are already sitting. They choose several best projects and send them for viewing to the following societies, which have all kinds of specialists who choose what they think fit, and make up accurate calculations and drawings. Finally, one and the other goes to talented performers who successfully carry out some of these projects, while the rest consider them either unfeasible or postpone their implementation to the future.

How can this be done in practice?

There are a lot of unfounded inventors and discoverers.

Let every small place point to its outstanding people. Their number will be proportional to the population, for example, one person is chosen for every hundred or thousand of them.

These visionaries, among whom there may be efficient people, gather in groups of a hundred, a thousand people. They live in special villages or palaces like the others, but each group lives in one village. There can be many such villages or towns. Each of them selects the most talented representatives from their midst. There are far fewer of them, but they also make up many places scattered across the country far from each other. So, let's move on. The last selected group will make up one town and will already implement all inventions and test all discoveries. The whole country will go to their aid with its own forces and means.

The basic laws of all groups are as follows:

1. Elected people spend half their time among the electors (for testing and testing), and half in the community of their own kind, that is, in their village, where the chosen ones of a certain category gather.

2. An elected person cannot be expelled by a society equal to him. But he may not be chosen again by the village, where he returned at the end of his term. The purpose of this law is to prevent the implementation of the proverb "The hand washes its hand."

3. No group may choose or exclude their equals. Her right to choose the highest for the highest next group.

The general purpose of these laws is the elective principle, or the right to have their own leaders by choice, that is, at will. After all, every talent or strength acquires authority even if only by the consent of a few. It will be even better if the authority is chosen according to the common desire of all mankind.

conditional truth

There is no real (absolute) truth, because it is based on the full knowledge of the cosmos. But there is no such complete knowledge and never will be. Science, which gives knowledge, constantly moves forward, rejects or affirms the old and finds the new. Every century changes science. It does not reject, but rather changes its content more or less, deleting one thing and adding another. There will be no end to this, just as there is no end to the centuries and the development of the brain.

This means that truth can only be conditional, temporary and variable.

Religious faiths call their dogmas truth. But can any belief be true? The number of faiths is expressed in thousands. They contradict each other, are often refuted by science and therefore cannot be accepted even as a conditional truth. Political beliefs are also more or less inconsistent. Therefore, we will say the same about them. Philosophical reflections created worldviews. Their disagreement also makes them look at them as a personal opinion.

Some philosophers accepted nothing for their conclusions other than exact scientific knowledge. But their conclusions are not worthy of the name of conditional truth, since they did not agree with each other. Finally, there is no person who does not understand the truth in his own way. How many people, so many truths. What is this truth?

However, we must first agree on what we want to mean by conditional truth.

Philosophers, sages and scientists, of course, contribute to the spread of knowledge about the universe and therefore improve people's understanding of conventional truth.

Conditional truth can be earthly, national, urban, volost, rural, rural, family and personal.

Personal is the one that a person acquires in different ways and considers it to be the best, the most correct and the most fair. On average, this is the lowest grade of conditional truth. It changes with age and knowledge of a person. The truth of the village is that which the village is ready to accept and submit to it.

How can it be? The village, by a large majority (0.6, 0.7, 0.8, etc.) of votes, chooses from among its midst the person whom it considers in all respects the highest. She instructs him to develop a code of truth, as he knows how. Adopted Code will be a conventional village truth. Of course, it changes with the change of the elected person. Yet this truth is somewhat above the personal views of the ordinary members of the village. I mean averages.

Elected from several villages, living together, knowing each other, instruct to find the truth to a special person from their own environment, whom they consider to be the most intelligent. So it turns out the truth of the countryside.

Now it is clear how to create conditional truth: urban, national and earthly.

All these truths will be conditional because they are inconsistent, variable and imperfect. The highest truth, of course, will be earthly, received by a person chosen from all people, that is, by all nationalities.

It may be that some personal truths (in general, of the lowest sort) will in fact turn out to be higher than the highest chosen ones. But no one can claim or prove this. And therefore, for people, the truth will be the one chosen by their representative.

Man accepts what he perceives. The rest, imposed on him, in his eyes is delusion and violence, even if he is mistaken a thousand times.

Indeed, we have no right to impose on him our personal truth, even the truth of a city or a country. He demands the truth of the whole world, even from the whole universe, if only that were possible.

The imposed truth will disturb the peace, arouse disagreement and discontent.

So, the conditional highest truth is that which is worked out by the village, then by the village, district, city, district, nation, and, finally, elected from all nations.

How can I pass off my beliefs as truth and force them on the basis of them, if this truth is not approved by the whole world.

This is how leaders, emperors, conquerors, etc., acted and erred. We must not imitate them, but humbly step back and leave elections and the definition of truth to all mankind.

It is only necessary that each community, choosing the best face, periodically has it in front of its eyes and makes a continuous assessment of it: it has changed for the worse - and out of it. In order for this person to be always in sight, it is necessary that there be several elected representatives in one society: some govern the community, while others go to the elections in high society. Each elected half of the time spends in his society, and half - in the highest.

It is also necessary that the higher society could not exclude him without the consent of the lower. Yes, it is necessary that the number of members in each community be small. Then the members can study each other, determine mutual merits and make the right choice. From this point of view, than less number members, the better. But still they should not be less than 100-1000. This is enough for the average human memory and powers of observation. There are no reasonable choices anywhere in the whole world. But if they were, then our planetary truth would hardly be the highest. In practice, for the time being, individual truth takes possession of humanity. Hence the source of violence against mankind. This truth, in some cases, can be much higher than the total planetary truth, and therefore, as if, can be justified. Here, as it were, the higher man forcibly saves the rest of mankind. So the shepherd manages the flock and saves it from predatory animals. Theoretically, this can be allowed, and in history something like this happens.

1932

Kind or characteristic of knowledge*

To the section of epistemology

According to the property of knowledge, they can be divided into the following categories.

1. Direct knowledge. For example, we can measure the distance between two cities with a simple measure overlay. You can directly weigh an object, determine its density, volume, etc. scientific knowledge should be included in this category.

2. Theoretical knowledge that can be directly verified. For example, geometry provides ways to measure the distance to objects, as well as their size, without approaching them. Direct verification confirms the geometric method. Volume can also be measured by immersion in water and the weight of the displaced water. All departments of science use indirect methods of measuring quantities. The results can be confirmed directly.

3. Knowledge is theoretical or mediocre, which cannot yet be verified. For example, we know the real composition celestial bodies, but this cannot be directly verified until they find a way to visit celestial bodies or get matter from there. The distance, size, density, mass and gravity of celestial bodies are also known, but it is not yet possible to directly prove the correctness of such studies. A huge amount of such knowledge relates to astronomy.

4. Knowledge is undoubted and accurate, but our senses are not adapted to verify it directly.. Such is the knowledge about the mass of atoms and their arrangement in molecules.

5. Knowledge is probable, or approximate, which can be verified. An example is statistical data, for example, on average life expectancy, on the number of suicides during the year, etc.

6. The same approximate, or probable, knowledge that cannot yet be verified .

Let's take an example. There are 500 billion suns in our Milky Way. Our sun has over a thousand planets. Do other suns have their own planets? In connection with astronomical knowledge, we can say with a great degree of probability that they have. Second example: are there beings on these planets? Again, in connection with other cosmic knowledge, we must answer with the same high degree of probability that we have. Check it out for sure the right decision so far impossible.

You can still answer correctly to many other questions of the same kind. But this would divert us far from the task at hand.

7. Knowledge is certain, but it is completely impossible to verify and approve it.. For example, the infinity of time indicates the infinite complexity of each atom. If so, then every atom is complex world like Earth or another planet. It must also contain special intelligent beings, similar to people or other animals. It is absolutely impossible to test these ideas either now or in the future. Here is a simpler example of the certainty of such knowledge. Do other people and animals feel joy and sorrow, or are they automatons? Of course, they feel, but it is impossible to prove it directly. They resort to the theory of probability.

8. Knowledge is factual, but contradictory to the sciences, that is, other facts. If this is not a deception of the senses, then they cannot be rejected. They should be looked at as proof of the incompleteness of existing scientific information. It is unreasonable to stubbornly deny undoubted phenomena only because they are inexplicable from the point of view of modern science. A person tends to reject everything new. But such stubborn denial harms the development of science. Its present state is only one stage, which will be followed by other higher stages.

9. Assumptions or hypotheses, that is, semi-knowledge that explains some phenomena, but not all, and vaguely. With the development of knowledge, they are either rejected, replaced by other hypotheses, or become more probable, even affirmed as undoubtedly scientific truths. Hypotheses, in general, already belong to the area of ​​doubtful knowledge.

10. Folk tales, superstitions, prejudices, myths, most historical information, etc.. Everyone considers himself entitled not to believe them. But still there are believers or half-believers. It's even lower.

The first 8 categories of knowledge can be considered strictly scientific. They can be accepted and are of great importance to all thinking beings. They have nothing to do with fantasies, religious arguments and unsubstantiated opinions and statements of authorities.

1932

space philosophy

1. We doubt the widespread life. Of course, on the planets of our system, if not the absence of life, then its primitiveness, weakness, perhaps ugliness and, in any case, backwardness from the earth, as being in especially favorable conditions of temperature and substance, is possible. But milky way, or spiral nebulae, have billions of suns. Their group contains millions of billions of luminaries. Each of them has many planets, and at least one of them has a planet in favorable conditions. This means that at least a million billion planets have life and intelligence no less perfect than our planet. We limited ourselves to a group of spiral nebulae, that is, the universe accessible to us. But she is limitless. How can one deny life in this infinity?

What meaning would the universe have if it were not filled with an organic, intelligent, sentient world? Why would there be endless blazing suns? What is their energy? Why is she wasting away? Do the stars really shine to decorate the sky, to delight a person, as they thought in the Middle Ages, the times of the Inquisition and religious madness?

2. We are also inclined to think that the highest development of life belongs to the Earth. But its animals and man were relatively recently born and are now in a period of development. The sun will still exist as a source of life for billions of years, and humanity will have to go forward and progress in this unimaginable period - in terms of body, mind, morality, knowledge and technical power. Ahead of him is waiting for something brilliant, unimaginable. After a thousand million years, nothing imperfect, like modern plants, animals and humans, will no longer exist on Earth. Only one good thing will remain, to which reason and its strength will inevitably lead us.

But do all the planets in space have the same small age as the Earth? Are they all in a period of development, in a period of imperfection? As we know from astronomy, the age of the suns is the most diverse: from newly born rarefied giant luminaries to extinguished black dwarfs. The old people have many billions of years, the young suns have not even given birth to their planets yet.

What is the conclusion? It turns out that there must be planets of all ages: from flaming, like suns, to dead, due to the fading of their suns. Some planets, therefore, have not yet cooled down, others have a primitive life, still others have grown to the development of lower animals on them, fourths already have a mind similar to a human, fifths have still stepped forward, etc. From this it is clear that we must renounce the opinion as if the most perfect life belongs to our planet.

Nevertheless, we come to a conclusion that is not entirely comforting: in the Universe, imperfect, unreasonable and painful life is as common as the highest, intelligent, powerful and beautiful.

3. But is this conclusion correct? No, he's wrong, and we'll find out in a moment. We found that the age of the planets is the most varied. It follows from this that there are planets that have reached the highest degree in the development of intelligence and power and are ahead of all the planets. Having gone through all the torments of evolution, knowing their sad past, their former imperfection, they wanted to save other planets from the torments of development.

If we, earthly inhabitants, already dream of interplanetary travel, then what have planets that are billions of years older than us achieved in this respect! For them, this journey is as simple and easy as it is for us to travel through railway from one city to another.

On these advanced mature planets, reproduction is millions of times faster than on Earth. However, it is regulated at will: a perfect population is needed - it is born quickly and in any number.

Visiting the immature worlds surrounding them with primitive animal life, they destroy it as painlessly as possible and replace it with their perfect breed. Is it good, isn't it cruel? If it were not for their intervention, then the painful self-destruction of animals would have continued for millions of years, as it still continues on Earth. Their intervention in a few years, even days, destroys all suffering and puts in their place a reasonable, powerful and happy life. It is clear that the latter is a million times better than the former.

What follows from this? And the fact that in space there is no imperfect and suffering life: it is eliminated by the mind and power of the advanced planets. If it exists, it is on a few planets. In the general harmony of the Universe, it is imperceptible, like a speck of dust on a snow-white field is imperceptible.

But how to understand the presence of suffering on Earth? Why don't the higher planets liquidate our unhappy life, stop it and replace it with their beautiful one? There are other planets like Earth. Why are they suffering? In a perfect world, in addition to the prevailing progress, there is also regression, a retrogression. In addition, the flowers of life are so beautiful, so diverse, that the best of them need to be grown, waiting for seeds and fruits. Although the advanced planets have outstripped others, but this, perhaps, is due to their old age. There may be later planets with better fruits. It is necessary to correct the regression of the Universe with its belated fruits. That is why a small number of planets are left without intervention, promising extraordinary results. Between them is the Earth. She suffers, but for good reason. Its fruits must be high if it is left to self-development and inevitable torment. Again I will say that the sum of these sufferings is imperceptible in the ocean of happiness of the entire cosmos.

4. Others think: we have years of life and decillions of years of nonexistence! Isn't this, in essence, non-existence, since being in the mass of non-existence is imperceptible and the same as a drop in the ocean of water?

But the fact is that non-existence is not marked by time and sensation. Therefore, it does not seem to exist, but there is one life. A piece of matter is subject to an innumerable series of lives, although separated by enormous intervals of time, but merging subjectively into one continuous and, as we have shown, beautiful life.

What comes out? And the fact that the overall biological life of the Universe is not only high, but also seems to be continuous. Every piece of matter continuously lives this life, since the intervals of long non-existence pass imperceptibly for it: the dead do not have time and receive it only when they come to life, that is, they take the highest organic form of a conscious animal.

Perhaps it will be said: is organic life accessible to the centers of suns, planets, gaseous nebulae and comets? Isn't their matter doomed to eternal death, that is, non-existence?.. And the Earth, and we, and all people, and all the organic modern life of the Earth were once the substance of the Sun. However, this did not stop us from getting out of there and getting life. Matter is constantly mixed: some of its parts go into the suns, while others come out of them. Every drop of matter, wherever it is, will inevitably have a turn to live. It will take a long time to wait. But it's an expectation huge time exist only for the living and there is their illusion. Our drop will not experience painful expectation and will not notice millions of years.

Again they say: I will die, my substance will be dispersed throughout the globe how can I come alive?

Before you were born, your substance was also dispersed, but this did not prevent you from being born. After each death, the same thing is obtained - scattering. But, as we see, it does not prevent revival. Of course, each animation has its own form, not similar to the previous ones. We have always lived and will always live, but every time in new form and, of course, without memory of the past.

5. The coming thousands and millions of years will improve the nature of man and his social organization. Mankind will turn, as it were, into one powerful being under the control of its president. This is the best of all people physically and mentally. But if the members of society are high in their qualities, then how high is the highest, scientifically chosen one of them!

This is how the populations of other planets are inevitably organized. The powerful population of the highest planet of each solar system will have access not only to the planets of this system, but also to the entire circumsolar space. It is operated for the benefit of the population, like all solar energy. It is clear that one planet is a crumb in the solar system. It does not form the center. The population is dispersed throughout the solar space. Not only each planet is subject to unification, but also their entire totality and the entire ethereal population living outside the planets in artificial dwellings. So, after the unification of each planet, the unification of each solar system will inevitably come.

Their power is so great that they communicate with each other not only by special telegrams, but also personally, directly, as acquaintances. Thousands of years are required for this journey, but other inhabitants live for thousands of years solar systems, because the billions of years of future development of any planet will give the population of each and indefinitely long life. The catastrophes of the suns, their explosions, rises and falls in temperatures force the population to foresee everything and know everything about the neighboring suns in order to move away from the threatening danger in advance.

A union of the nearest suns is formed, a union of unions, etc. It is difficult to say where the limit of these unions is, since the Universe is infinite.

We see countless presidents of varying degrees of perfection. And since there is no end to these categories, there are no limits to personal perfection - individual ...

6. So far we have only talked about things and beings made of ordinary matter. It contains 92 or more elements, and the latter are made up of a combination of hydrogen atoms.

So, we talked about hydrogen beings, about the hydrogen world.

But is there any other substance? We have such a substance - an incomprehensible luminiferous ether that fills all the space between the suns and makes matter and the Universe continuous.

There are grounds for assuming that the suns and all bodies in general lose matter the more the hotter they are. Where does this matter go? We think that it decomposes into a simpler and more elastic one, which spreads in space. Maybe this is the ether or some other non-hydrogen substance.

But where did the suns, gaseous nebulae and the entire hydrogen world come from? If matter decomposes, then there must be a reverse process - its synthesis, that is, the formation of 92 types of hydrogen matter known to us again from its fragments.

We observe reversibility in all mechanical, physical and biological phenomena. Is it necessary to talk about it? Who is not aware of the phenomena of the reversibility of the circular process, when the destroyed reappears? I mean this phenomenon in a broad sense, in an approximate, and not exactly mathematical, because nothing exactly repeats. In these phenomena, however, the law of conservation of energy is observed. But here the latent potential intraatomic energy of matter intervenes, and the phenomenon is sometimes confused. So, radioactivity at first confused scientists. Let us present the simplest signs of reversibility. The high speed of the bodies turns into a small one and vice versa. Steam is produced from liquid and vice versa. going on chemical compound and back. All 92 elements decompose into hydrogen, and from the latter 92 elements are obtained. Organic matter passes into inorganic (destruction, death), and inorganic - into organic.

So, probably, the decomposition of suns in one place is accompanied by their formation in another.

Since reversibility is so common, why not allow it in the destruction of hydrogen matter?

It turns into energy, but we must think that energy is a special kind of the simplest matter, which sooner or later will again give us the hydrogen matter known to us.

What is the very atom of hydrogen - the beginning of the entire known material world?

It was created by the past time, and it is infinitely great. Therefore, the atom is infinitely complex. Hydrogen had simpler parents, even simpler grandfathers, and so on.

Is not the origin of man similar to this? Were not his ancestors more and more simple as they moved away from our time? The ancestor of man is hydrogen, and closer ancestors are 92 elements. But man is only a few hundred million or billion years distant from these ancestors. This is so small compared to infinity! What were the ancestors of hydrogen a few decillion years ago?

In a word, if we divide infinite time into a series of infinities, then each of these infinities will have its own matter, its suns, its planets and its beings.

“Each epoch in relation to all the previous ones is grossly material, and the same epoch in relation to the subsequent ones is ephemeral. All of them are material, but conditionally, due to the extreme difference in the densities of these worlds, some can be called spiritual, others - material. In relation to our hydrogen world, all previous epochs are spiritual. And ours, when the infinity of time passes and the era of a denser substance comes, will become spiritual. It's the same, but it's relative."

Is there anything left from previous epochs: simpler matter, light ethereal beings, etc.? We see the light ether. Is this not one of the fragments of primitive matter? We sometimes see extraordinary phenomena. Are they not the result of the activities of the surviving intelligent beings of other eras?

Is it possible that there are traces of them? Let's take an example. Our earthly beings began to emerge from the time of cooling earth's crust. But some of them have grown to higher animals, while others have remained the same ciliates and bacteria that they were. The same time has passed, but what a difference in achievements! So, perhaps, a part of the substance of each epoch left a certain amount of both the matter characteristic of it and the living beings characteristic of it?

It turns out that there are countless other cosmos, other beings, which we can conditionally call non-material, or spirits.

Are they perfect or do they represent ugly phenomena like our unfortunate terrestrial animals?

We have already proved that the mature mind of our era, emitted by the cosmos, eliminates all imperfections. So our hydrogen era contains beautiful, strong, powerful, reasonable and happy. I'm talking about the general state of the era. Also, the mind of other eras singled out one good thing. Therefore, we are surrounded by perfect spirits.

Another question: do they influence us and each other? In essence, the spirits of different infinities are all material. But matter cannot but influence matter. Therefore, the influence of spirits on us and on each other is quite possible. A rough example: the wind moves the water, the oceans change the land.

Can we turn into these spirits and live their lives? Matter either becomes more complex or decomposes. Both are happening at the same time and all the time. The more time passes, the more likely it is to get a different matter: simpler or more complex. In the first case, spirits can arise from our matter, in the second case, substances that are denser than hydrogen ones. Of course, the most possible and closest is the emergence of 92 elements. The second is the emergence in the elements of the nearest infinity.

Even more time is needed for the appearance in the elements of infinity of the second order, more distant, etc.

7. We summarize the above:

A. Organic life is spread throughout the universe.

B. The strongest development of life does not belong to the Earth.

8. The mind and power of the advanced planets of the Universe make it drown in perfection. In short, her organic life, with imperceptible exceptions, is mature, and therefore powerful and beautiful.

D. This life for every being seems to be continuous, since non-existence is not felt.

D. Distributed throughout space public organizations which are governed by presidents of various denominations. One is higher than the other, and thus there is no limit to personal or individual development. If every mature member of the cosmos is incomprehensible to us, then how incomprehensible is the president of the first, second, tenth, hundredth rank?

E. The infinity of elapsed time makes us suppose the existence of a number of peculiar worlds, separated by infinities of a lower order. These worlds, becoming more complex, left part of their substance and part of their animals in their original form.

They are perfect in their own way and can be conditionally called, due to their low density, spirits. We are surrounded by hosts of spirits from different epochs and can also turn into them, although it is infinitely more likely to appear in the form of dense modern matter. And yet, we are not guaranteed against becoming a conditional spirit, and sooner or later this is inevitable.

8. From here one can see the infinite complexity of the phenomena of the cosmos, which, of course, we cannot comprehend in due measure, since it is even higher than we think. As the mind expands, knowledge increases and the Universe opens up for it more and more.

Doubt and hesitation

There are phenomena that can only be explained by the intervention of other beings. For example, a reasonable and moderate appeal to higher powers is performed by someone, especially when the one who asks has received their favor and really needs support. From our point of view, if it is not entirely clear and actually not proven, then it is possible.

But how to understand help from deceased relatives and high people who have left our lives when you turn to them, exhausted by misfortunes and injustice? According to our theory, they live a blissful life, but lose all their past, including you. Therefore, it is meaningless to refer to them here.

How can they help us?

It is possible that they, taking on a different image, remain observers of our life. But who can point out to them their kinship, if they themselves, like all others, have lost their past?

And the very relationship beyond the grave no longer makes sense.

One man, of a very good life, said that he always received help in his suffering from deceased relatives. But when he wanted to verify this needlessly, by making experiments, he immediately lost support, that is, he did not receive a response.

Are our comforting conclusions (monism) quite correct? Does not something of a person remain after death, some part of his earthly nervous life? But then we must admit the same for all animals, although in the most varied and lowest degree. modern science cannot recognize the possibility of such remnants, that is, remnants of memory from any existence. Finally, if it were possible, then in the present life we ​​would still have the memory of an innumerable number of past existences. This is unthinkable, if only because not a single memory can accommodate the infinity of past sensations.

It is possible that help is given not by relatives (which makes no scientific sense), but by other beings, seeing our suffering. This is perfectly acceptable. We only think about relatives, but it's not about them.

I worked hard on the expediency of nature and came to positive conclusion. This is a long topic and deserves special study. Someday I will share my work.

But if the universe is expedient, then why not allow things that are completely incomprehensible to us, but useful for humanity?

So, on Earth, bad deeds find retribution, which comes naturally from themselves. But there are also crimes that go unpunished until death. Everyone knows this, and therefore they do not abstain from evil. Expediency and the common good require that a person be afraid of the slightest deviation from the truth. It would be good if he were confident in retribution after death, in retribution, steadfast, by all means. This would keep many from crime. This is good, useful, expedient. But if it is, then why not! We just don't understand how it happens.

From a scientific point of view, retribution seems impossible to us, but from an ethical point of view, it is another matter.

Also useful would be rewards for feats - by all means: if not in this life, then in the next. From our scientific point of view, there are no punishments, but there are rewards (monism). The only unpleasant thing is that both the criminal and the self-sacrificing useful worker receive these awards without distinction.

How to admit, for example, that the perpetrators of imperialist wars receive the same reward as Galileo, Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Hus, etc. So many victims and executioners ... and as a result, everyone is the same: happiness and a perfect life after death. The idea of ​​individual rewards is useful, but unscientific. From the point of view of expediency, it is acceptable.

Different faiths spread the idea of ​​rewards and punishments. Many believed in them, and therefore this idea, if erroneous, was useful in its time.

And now the masses believe them. However, science cannot confirm them. It is possible that, having played their expedient role, they will be dispelled by knowledge and replaced by some other convictions that also act in favor of a good life. For example, gratitude to nature, which promises the highest bliss. Gratitude and delight in the future life after death can also serve to refrain from evil, as well as fear of punishment.

Many are pleading higher power about forgiveness and a better posthumous fate for their loved ones: parents, spouses, children, friends. They do not really believe, but love for relatives makes them disturb higher powers. Many rationalists cannot resist such prayers. Science considers this to be meaningless, since all the dead, without distinction, must immerse themselves in the perfection of the universe (and there is nothing to ask for).

We also doubt science. Some kind of innate instinct makes us, albeit vaguely, not strongly, with hesitation, believe in the reasonableness of our prayers. Of course, science is constantly developing, it does not stand in one place, it has not said the last word. Just in case, people do something seemingly incongruous, not believing in science either: in its infallibility and finality. In any case, if we are wrong, then there is no great harm from such mistakes.

Inventions and discoveries contribute to the development of progress, simplify our life and improve its quality. But these achievements should be distinguished from each other.

Definition

invention most often referred to as something new, created by man to solve problems that arise in different areas activities in the most convenient, previously unknown way. A material object can be invented ( washing machine) or something non-material (new method in production). I must say that in addition to useful inventions, there are also useless inventions (chewing gum), and even harmful ones (cigarettes).

Opening- the primary detection of objectively existing phenomena in the universe, the properties of objects, patterns. Discoveries significantly increase the level of human knowledge of the surrounding reality.

Comparison

One of the essential points that distinguishes an invention from a discovery is that the invented thing or mode of action has never existed before. The discovery is the revelation of what has always been present in the world, but was previously outside of human knowledge.

For example, an hourglass was once invented, which has become a very popular thing that helps to keep track of time. Before the invention of such watches in the world did not exist, so it cannot be said that they were discovered. At the same time, no one will call the law of universal gravitation an invention. This is precisely the discovery, since such a law existed and operated even before Newton formulated it.

Let us now analyze how inventions appear. First of all, such a process involves the use of certain knowledge and experience, appeal to intuition, creative work, design. Often an invention is the result of the strenuous efforts of many people.

At the same time, some discoveries can be called an accidental discovery, when something important is discovered completely unplanned, helping to explain the phenomena of reality or bringing practical benefits. The source of other discoveries is a hypothesis, which subsequently finds its confirmation with the help of experience.

Knowing how an invention differs from a discovery is especially important when it comes to patenting achievements. With regard to the invention, such a procedure is recognized as legitimate, since in this case, thanks to specific person or a group of people in the world something valuable and unique appears. Discoveries cannot be patented (for example, it would be absurd to patent the laws of thermodynamics).

In conclusion, it should be noted that there is a close relationship between the two types of achievement. The invention involves the use of once discovered patterns to obtain a specific product. And making discoveries is often not complete without the use of previously created inventions.

Discovery - the establishment of previously unknown objectively existing patterns, properties and phenomena material world that make fundamental changes in the level of knowledge.
The discovery is usually the result of deep scientific research work by solving a scientific problem and means finding something objectively existing in nature, for example, mathematical dependence, physical law, a new nuclear particle. The discovery is only the object of the discovery, and
the way it is used can be an invention. A discovery is not considered a hypothesis.
The invention is a new and significantly different \"technical \" solution to a practical problem in any area of ​​the economic, socio-cultural or defense sphere.
A pioneer invention is an outstanding invention that has not been preceded by prototypes (analogues) in the world practice, they are based on discoveries. Such inventions are the basis of radical innovations, usually opening up a new applied scientific production area eg biotechnology, hovercraft, hydrofoil, laser technology.
The English philosopher and educator J. Locke called the inventors "the fathers of crafts and the creators of abundance."
Methods and systems of organization and management of the economy, rules of conduct, designs of structures, teaching methods and other proposals of a non-technical nature cannot be considered inventions.
The intellectual product is subject to copyright, issued in accordance with the current (international, federal, corporate) laws and regulations. An intellectual product is the property of individuals and collectives. In the legislation of the countries there are a number of laws in the field of protection of intellectual property rights (in Russia - the law\"On copyright and related rights \", the Patent Law of the Russian Federation).
The author of the discovery is the one who, earlier than others, formulated in a research paper, in print, at a conference or in an application, the position claimed as a discovery. The discovery is registered with the State Committee for Inventions, and the author is issued a diploma, which certifies recognition of the priority of the discovery.
Documents protecting the author's priority for an invention are an author's certificate and a patent. They contain the claims - a brief verbal statement of the features of the invention, defining its essence and scope.

More about discoveries and inventions.:

1. 3. Open market operations (open market policy).
2. 2. Registration of rights to an invention, utility model and industrial design
3. § 14. Features of legal protection and use of secret inventions.

Random coincidences can not only amuse and surprise. Many scientific discoveries and inventions that have changed our lives were made by accident. This post is about such accidental discoveries and inventions.

One of the first randomly discovered laws in physics was the law of Archimedes. One day, King Hiero instructed Archimedes to check whether his crown was made of pure gold or whether a jeweler mixed a significant amount of silver into it. Archimedes knew the density of gold and silver, but the difficulty was to accurately determine the volume of the crown: after all, it had irregular shape. Archimedes thought about this problem all the time. Once he was taking a bath, and then it occurred to him brilliant idea: By immersing the crown in water, you can determine its volume by measuring the volume of water displaced by it. According to legend, Archimedes jumped naked into the street shouting "Eureka!", i.e. "Found!". And indeed at that moment the basic law of hydrostatics was discovered. But how did he determine the quality of the crown? To do this, Archimedes made two ingots, one of gold, the other of silver, each of the same weight as the crown. Then he put them in turn in a vessel with water, noted how much its level had risen. Having lowered the crown into the vessel, Archimedes found that its volume exceeds the volume of the ingot. So the dishonesty of the master was proved.

The phenomenon of radioactivity was another discovery that happened by chance. In 1896, the French physicist A. Becquerel, while working on the study of uranium salts, wrapped the fluorescent material in an opaque material along with photographic plates. He found that the photographic plates were completely exposed. The scientist continued his research and found that all uranium compounds emit radiation.

A little earlier, in 1895, X-rays were discovered. The German physicist Roentgen (1845-1923) discovered this type of radiation by accident while studying cathode rays. Roentgen's observation was as follows. He worked in a darkened room, trying to figure out whether the newly discovered cathode rays (i.e., electron beams) could pass through a vacuum tube or not. By chance, he noticed that a blurry greenish cloud appeared on the chemically cleaned screen at a distance of several feet. It was as if a faint flash from an induction coil was reflected in a mirror. For seven weeks, he conducted research, practically without leaving the laboratory. It turned out that the cause of the glow is the direct rays emanating from the cathode ray tube, that the radiation gives a shadow, and it cannot be deflected with a magnet, and much more. It also became clear that human bones cast a denser shadow than the surrounding soft tissues, which is still used in fluoroscopy. And the first x-ray appeared in 1895 - it was a picture of Madame Roentgen's hand with a clearly visible gold ring.

“... Everything that is hidden and unknown, and which no one can open Scientific research, most likely it will be discovered only by chance by a person who is the most persistent in search and the most attentive to everything that has even the slightest relation to the subject of the search. Charles Goodyear put it this way, and he had good reason for it. After expeditions to America, Europeans became aware of rubber - a soft and elastic material from which the natives made various objects. In Europe, rubber began to be used for the manufacture of waterproof clothing and footwear. But pure rubber smelled bad, when heated it became soft and viscous, and at low temperatures it hardened like a stone. Goodyear once purchased a rubber lifeline from a store. After that, he improved the valve on this circle, and went with this invention to a company producing circles, but the agent of the company said that if he wants to get rich, let him invent a way to improve rubber. Goodyear had an extremely poor knowledge of chemistry, but seized on this idea and set about experimenting, trying to mix rubber with various substances. He mixed with rubber resin the most different substances, from salt to ink, boiled it in a solution of quicklime, etc. He spent four years in futile attempts and got into huge debts. Finally one day he accidentally heated a mixture of rubber and sulfur on the stove. The result was rubber that was elastic, but at the same time did not freeze in the cold and did not melt in the heat. This allowed Goodijr to pay off all his debts, and the discovery of the rubber vulcanization process became an impetus for the development of the industry.

In 1942, in the midst of World War II, Harry Coover (Harry Coover, pictured), a chemist American company Eastman Kodak led a research team that was trying to create a transparent plastic for use in optical sights. In one of the unsuccessful experiments with cyanoacrylates, Coover accidentally touched the sample and suddenly stuck tightly - this experience is now well known to anyone who has ever spilled superglue on their hands or touched surfaces covered with it. Coover later discovered that cyanoacrylates had the unusual property of rapidly polymerizing—combining into a sticky mass in the presence of the smallest amount of moisture. Thus, a glue was invented that glues anything very well, without requiring either heat or pressure to activate it.

Teflon was first obtained in April 1938 by chemist Roy Plunkett. He was looking for a new refrigerant, which he wanted to synthesize from hydrochloric acid and gaseous tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), pumped under pressure into cylinders. To prevent these cylinders from exploding in the laboratory, they were surrounded by "dry ice" - solid carbon dioxide. But instead of gas, Plunkett found there only white flakes of a paraffin-like substance, incredibly slippery, chemically stable, resistant to heat, water and acids. The material took its place in pans later thanks to the French engineer Marc Gregoire, who developed a method for applying polytetrafluoroethylene to aluminum surfaces in 1945. The brand "Tefal" (Tefal) is a combination of "teflon" and "aluminum".

People have been looking for ways to simply make fire for a very long time. In 1826, the English chemist and pharmacist John Walker invented the first truly convenient way- sulfur matches, and did it quite by accident. Once he was mixing chemicals with a stick, and a dried drop formed on the end of the stick. To remove it, he struck a stick on the floor. Fire broke out! Walker immediately appreciated the practical value of his discovery and began to experiment, and then to produce matches. There were 50 matches in one box and it cost 1 shilling. Each box came with a piece sandpaper folded in half.

In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin while researching influenza. He was not very neat, did not wash the laboratory glassware immediately after the experiment, and did not throw away the influenza cultures for 2-3 weeks in a row, accumulating 30-40 cups on his work table at a time. So, once he found a mold in one of the Petri dishes, which, to his surprise, suppressed the sown culture of staphylococcus bacteria. The mold, which turned out to be infected culture, belonged to a rare species. Most likely, it was brought from a laboratory located on the floor below, where mold samples were grown, taken from the homes of patients suffering from bronchial asthma. Fleming left the cup that later became famous on the laboratory table and went to rest. The cold snap in London created favorable conditions for the growth of mold, and the subsequent warming for bacteria. As it turned out later, it was precisely these circumstances that owed famous discovery- and not only of the 20th century - penicillin, which saved and still saves the life and health of an incredible number of people.

In 1987, European experts began to develop a new technical standard for mobile phones. Digital cellular phones have appeared - much more convenient and compact than their predecessors, moreover, they work throughout Europe - in full accordance with the spirit of European cooperation and universal harmony. The standard contained a small addition that allowed engineers who tested telecommunications equipment to exchange short text messages with each other. However, consumers soon discovered this "Short Messaging Service" (SMS) and, much to the surprise of telephone operators, fell in love with it. And we still send text messages to each other.