INSTRUCTIONS AND PROPHECIES OF THE Blessed MOTHER ALIPIA GOLOSEEVSKY, Kyiv...
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION BASHKIR STATE UNIVERSITY GEOGRAPHICAL FACULTY
Chair " physical geography»
COURSE WORK
in the discipline "Physical geography of continents and oceans"
on the topic: "Geographical zones and natural zones of South America"
Introduction
CHAPTER 1. NATURAL ZONES OF THE EQUATORIAL AND SUBEQUATORIAL BELT
1.1 Equatorial rainforest zone
1.2 Subequatorial forest zone
1.3 Zone of savannas, woodlands and shrubs
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Rainforest zone
2.2 Zone of savannas, woodlands and shrubs
2.3 Tropical semi-desert and desert zone
2.4 Subtropical mixed forest zone
2.5 Pampa or subtropical steppe
2.6 Dry hardwood Mediterranean forest zone
2.7 Temperate semi-desert zone
2.8 Subantarctic forests
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Human settlement in South America
3.2 Human influence on environment South America
CONCLUSION
LIST OF USED LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
South America is a continent crossed by the equator, most of which is located in the Southern Hemisphere. South America is located between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. It was connected to North America very recently in the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. The Andes, a relatively young and seismically unstable chain of mountains, extends along the western border of the continent; the lands east of the Andes are occupied mainly by tropical forests, the vast basin of the Amazon River. The largest country in South America in terms of area and population is Brazil. The regions of South America include the Andean States, the Guyanese Highlands, the Southern Cone and East South America. South America also includes various islands, most of which belong to the countries of the continent. Caribbean territories belong to North America. South American countries that border the Caribbean Sea - including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana - are known as Caribbean South America. In this term paper we will consider the natural zones and geographical zones of South America, as well as human settlement and its impact on the nature of South America.
CHAPTER 1. NATURAL ZONES OF THE EQUATORIAL AND SUBEQUATORIAL BELT
1.1 Equatorial rainforest zone
Moist equatorial forests - evergreen forests, mainly in the equatorial, less often in the subequatorial belts in the north of South America, in Central America, in Western Equatorial Africa, in the Indo-Malay region. In the Amazon basin, they are called helium, selva. Distributed in areas with annual precipitation of more than 1500 mm, relatively evenly distributed over the seasons. A wide variety of tree species is characteristic: from 40 to 170 species are found per 1 ha. Most trees have straight trunks, columnar, branching only in the upper part. The tallest trees reach heights. 50-60 m, trees avg. tier - 20-30 m, lower - approx. 10 m. Many trees have board-shaped roots, sometimes rising to heights. 8 m. In swampy forests, stilted roots appear on trees. Change of foliage different types trees occurs in different ways: some shed their leaves gradually during the year, others only at certain periods. The emerging young leaves hang as if withered at first, differing sharply in color, which is characterized by a wide range of colors - from white and pale green to crimson and burgundy. Flowering and fruiting also occur unequally: continuously throughout the year or periodically - one or several times a year. Often on one tree you can see branches with fruits, flowers and young leaves. Many trees are characterized by caulifloria - the formation of flowers and inflorescences on the trunks and leafless parts of the branches. The dense crowns of trees almost do not let in sunlight, so there are very few grasses and shrubs under their canopy. In the equatorial forests there are many vines, mainly with lignified stems, less often herbaceous. Their trunks reach a diameter of 20 cm, and the leaves are raised to the height of the tree crowns. Some creepers, for example, rattan palms, rest on tree trunks with short shoots or special outgrowths; others, such as vanilla, are fixed by adventitious roots; however, most tropical vines are climbing. There are frequent cases when the trunk of a liana is so strong, and the crown is so closely intertwined with several trees, that the tree braided by it does not fall after death. Epiphytes are very diverse and numerous - plants growing on trunks, branches, and epiphylls - on the leaves of trees. They do not suck the nutritious juices from the host plant, but use it only as a support for growth. Epiphytes from the bromeliad family accumulate water in rosettes of leaves. Orchids store nutrients in thickened areas of shoots, roots or leaves. Nesting epiphytes, eg. ferns "bird's nest" and "deer antlers" accumulate soil between the roots, epiphytes-sconces - under leaves adjacent to tree trunks. In America, even some types of cacti are epiphytes. Moist equatorial forests have been rapaciously exterminated and continue to be exterminated. To date, their area has already halved and continues to decrease at a rate of 1.25% per year. They are inhabited by St. 2/3 of all species of plants and animals on the Earth, many of which are dying, even without being discovered and explored by man. On the site of the destroyed primeval forest, stunted and very species-poor forests of fast-growing trees begin to grow. With regular fires and logging, secondary forests are replaced by savannahs or pure stands of cereals.
1.2 Subequatorial forest zone
The zone of subequatorial forests is located on the outskirts of the equatorial belt. Subequatorial forests in the interior of the subequatorial belt, in the outer - savannas. Subequatorial forests are divided into 2 epochs: 1. Seasonal moist forests. Dry season 3.5-4 months, ferralite soils. The main background of forests in the north of the Guiana plateau.2. Subzone of permanently humid subequatorial forests. It occupies only the North-East of the Guiana Plateau. The dry season is less than two months. The soils are ferralitic and red-yellow.
1.3 Zone of savannas, woodlands and shrubs
The zones of savannas, light forests and shrubs are located mainly in the subequatorial and partly in the tropical climatic zones. The savannahs occupy the Orinoc lowland, where they are called llanos, as well as the hinterland of the Guiana and Brazilian highlands (campos).
The soils of the savannas are red ferralitic and red-brown. In the savannahs of the northern hemisphere, sparse palms and acacias grow among tall grasses. Along the banks of the rivers, gallery forests are characteristic. In the savannahs of the Brazilian Highlands, the grass cover, as in the llanos, consists of tall grasses and legumes. But the woody vegetation is much poorer, mimosa, tree-like cacti, and milkweed predominate. In the northeast of the Brazilian Highlands and the Inner Tropical Plains, in a drier climate (up to 400 mm of precipitation per year), hard grasses, thorny shrubs, bottle trees, undersized woodlands of quebracho, a tree with very hard wood (“quebracho” in translated means “break the ax”). There are few ungulates (small deer) in the fauna of the savannas of South America; there are pigs-bakers, armadillos, anteaters, among predators - a cougar. Subzones:1. Wet savannas. Orinoc lowland (llanos). A clear division into a dry period, 3.5-4 months. The soils are red, there are areas of yellow and red-yellow. Vegetation palm trees and herbs. 2. Dry shrub savannas and woodlands. The central part of the Brazilian Plateau, the North-East of the Orinoco Lowland. The amount of precipitation is not more than 700 mm, the soils are brown-red. The grass cover is sparse, represented mainly by grasses, shrubs are typical. This type of savannah is called campos. Dry period about 5 months.3. Kaatin (subzone of deserted woodlands). Northeast of the Brazilian Plateau. The almost complete absence of grass cover, only shrubs and wax palms grow. The soils are red-brown.
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Rainforest zone
It extends along the entire eastern, windward slope of the Brazilian Plateau, receives 1500-2000 mm of precipitation per year due to the southeast trade winds. The close proximity of the ocean determines an equal maritime climate with temperatures of + 20 ... + 24 in winter and + 26 ... + 27 in summer. Therefore, the vegetation is represented by dense multi-tiered evergreen forests, close to mountainous equatorial forests. In these forests there are many species of trees with valuable wood: pau-Brazil tree, rosewood tree, rosewood, purple tree, zebra tree, ebony tree, etc. There are many palms and ferns. Typical soils of the zone are red-yellow ferralitic. It is divided into two subzones (east of the Brazilian Plateau): 1. Subzone of seasonally wet forests (in the north). Precipitation is not more than 1400 mm, the dry period is about 5 months.2. Subzone of constantly wet (trade wind) forests.
Towards the west, the tropical belt narrows.
2.2 Zone of savannas, woodlands and shrubs
Widespread in the Gran Chaco. The climate of the zone is similar to the subequatorial one, but differs from it in significant continentality and large amplitudes of seasonal temperatures. It is here that the "pole of heat" of South America is located - + 47 C. The duration of the dry period is 9-10 months, which causes complete drying of water bodies in winter time. The soils are brown-red and even red-brown. The vegetation cover is dominated by dry light forests, represented by gnarled quebracho, algarrobo, Chanyar trees with an admixture of succulents. The fauna is very poor, similar in species composition to the fauna of the savannas of the subequatorial belt. As the climate changes, that is, with the advent of the dry season, tropical rainforests in South America are moving into savannahs and tropical woodlands. In the Brazilian Highlands, between the savannas and tropical rainforest, there is a strip of almost pure palm forests. Savannahs are common in a large part of the Brazilian Highlands, mainly in its interior regions. In addition, they take large areas on the Orinok lowland and in the central regions of the Guiana Highlands. In Brazil, typical savannahs on red ferralite soils are known as campos. Their herbaceous vegetation consists of high grasses of the genera Paspalum, Andropogon, Aristida, as well as representatives of the legume and Compositae families. Woody forms of vegetation are either completely absent, or are found in the form of individual specimens of mimosa with an umbrella-shaped crown, tree-like cacti, spurges and other xerophytes and succulents. In the dry northeast of the Brazilian Highlands, a significant area is occupied by the so-called caatinga, which is a sparse forest of drought-resistant trees and shrubs on red-brown soils. Many of them lose their leaves during the dry period of the year, others have a swollen trunk in which moisture accumulates, for example, the cottonwort (Cavanillesia platanifolia). The trunks and branches of Caatinga trees are often covered with creepers and epiphytic plants. There are also several types of palm trees. The most remarkable caatinga tree is the carnauba wax palm (Copernicia prunifera), which produces vegetable wax, which is scraped or boiled from its large (up to 2 m long) leaves. Wax is used for making candles, rubbing floors and other purposes. Sago and palm flour are obtained from the upper part of the carnauba trunk, the leaves are used to cover roofs and weave various products, the roots are used in medicine, and the fruits local population used in raw and cooked form. It is not for nothing that the inhabitants of Brazil call carnauba the tree of life. On the Gran Chaco plain, in especially arid regions, thickets of thorny bushes and sparse forests are common on brown-red soils. In their composition, two species belong to different families, they are known under common name"quebracho" ("break the axe"). These trees contain a large number of tannins: red quebracho (Schinopsis Lorentzii) - up to 25%, white quebracho (Aspidosperma quebracho blanco) - somewhat less. Their wood is heavy, dense, does not rot and sinks in water. Quebracho is heavily cut down. At special factories, tanning extract is obtained from it, sleepers, piles and other items are made from wood, designed for a long stay in water. Algarrobo (Prosopis juliflora) is also found in the forests - a tree from the mimosa family with a twisted trunk and a strongly branching spreading crown. The fine, delicate foliage of the algarrobo leaves no shade. The low tiers of the forest are often represented by thorny shrubs that form impenetrable thickets. The savannas of the northern hemisphere differ from the southern savannas in appearance and species composition of the flora. To the south of the equator, among the thickets of cereals and dicotyledons, palm trees rise: Copernicia (Copernicia spp.) - in drier places, winding Mauritia (Mauritia flexuosa) - in swampy or flooded areas. The wood of these palms is used as construction material, the leaves are used for weaving various products, the fruits and core of the Mauritia trunk are edible. Acacias and tall tree-like cacti are also numerous. The red and red-brown soils of the savannas and tropical woodlands are more high content humus and greater fertility than the soils of moist forests. Therefore, in the areas of their distribution are the main areas of plowed land with plantations exported from Africa coffee tree, cotton, bananas and other cultivated plants. The fauna of the drier and open spaces of South America - savannahs, tropical woodlands, subtropical steppes - is different than in dense forests. Of the predators, in addition to the jaguar, the cougar (found almost throughout South America and entering North America), the ocelot, and the pampa cat are common. The southern part of the mainland is characterized by a maned wolf from the canine family. On the plains and in mountainous regions, the pampa fox is found almost throughout the mainland, in the extreme south - the Magellanic fox. Of the ungulates, a small pampas deer is common. In savannahs, forests and arable land, there are representatives of the third American family of edentulous - armadillos (Dasypodidae) - animals equipped with a strong bone shell. When danger approaches, they burrow into the ground. Of the rodents in the savannahs and steppes, there are viscacha and tuco-tuco living in the ground. The swamp beaver, or nutria, is widespread along the banks of reservoirs, the fur of which is highly valued on the world market.
Of the birds, in addition to numerous parrots and hummingbirds, there are also rhea (genus Rhea) - South American representatives of the ostrich-like order, some large birds of prey. There are many snakes and lizards in the savannas and steppes. A characteristic feature of the landscapes of South America is a large number of termite mounds. Some areas of South America periodically suffer from locust invasions.
2.3 Tropical semi-desert and desert zone
Deserts and semi-deserts are a natural zone characterized by a complete absence of vegetation and very poor wildlife. All this is due to the extremely harsh climatic conditions of the planet where they are located. Deserts, in principle, can form in any climate zone. Their formation is primarily associated with low rainfall. That is why deserts are primarily common in the tropics. Tropical deserts occupy the territory of the western coast of the tropical belt of South America. The natural conditions of the deserts are extremely harsh. The amount of precipitation here does not exceed 250 mm per year, and in large areas - less than 100 mm. Daily temperature amplitudes reach 30 °C, very dry winds are constant. All this creates favorable conditions for intense physical weathering and deflation, accumulation of strata of clastic material, in which temporary streams dry up. annual runoff does not exceed 50 mm, there is no runoff into the ocean. Salt lakes and solonchaks are widespread in depressions. On barely developed gravel or sandy soils, a very sparse "cover" of desert vegetation, also called puna, is characteristic of creeping or cushion-like herbaceous and shrubs. The driest desert in the world is the Atacama Desert, where precipitation has not fallen for 400 years. The animal world, except for birds, is also poor. In the less severe northern and eastern regions, steppes appear on ancient alluvial soils, and agriculture is possible up to a height of 4200 m. Mules are also bred here, and especially llamas. Coastal deserts and semi-deserts in the west of the tropical belt of South America are unusually stretched in latitude: from 5 to 28 ° S. sh. along the coast and along the western slopes of the Andes. To all their inherent features (low coastal temperatures, waterlessness, intense physical weathering, buried decrepit relief, single representatives of xerophytic-succulent vegetation and desert fauna) in South America, a special coastal type of vegetation is added - scrap (plural lomas), vegetating during development of heavy fogs and drizzle.
2.4 Subtropical mixed forest zone
To the east of the Andes, not only does the amount of precipitation increase (from 400-500 mm / year in dry steppes to 1000-1200 mm in wet ones), but their seasonal distribution evens out - in the east they fall throughout the year. Accordingly, gray-brown soils in the subzone of dry steppes are replaced by chernozem-like and reddish-black soils in humid steppes and subtropical savannahs. These are areas of intensive farming (crops of cereals, fodder grasses, flax for seed, etc.) and cattle breeding. Almost no natural vegetation has been preserved, and ground cover subject to severe erosion. Despite abundant rainfall, the river network in the Pampas is poorly developed and surface runoff is low. The position and nature of the eastern oceanic zone of subtropical mixed forests are very peculiar in South America. It is expressed on the high lava plateau of Parana between 24-30 ° S. sh., i.e., in lower latitudes than on other continents. The gentle slope of the Brazilian Plateau to the south allows for deep intrusions of winter cold winds from the Pampas - pamperos, causing temperatures to drop to -6 ° C. Average July temperatures are 12, 13 °C. Due to the limited land area, there is no winter continental monsoon in this area (as in Pampas), frontal rains occur in winter.
2.5 Pampa or subtropical steppe
Pampa is a steppe of the subtropical belt of South America. Here warm winters and there are rarely frosts, there is little precipitation of only up to 500 mm per year. There are no trees in these steppes due to recurring dry spells and highly dense clay soils. Cereals suffer less from grazing and fires. Trees are found only on the slopes of the terraces along the river valleys. A characteristic feature of the pampas is the presence of endorheic lakes, many of which dry up in summer. The waters in them alkaline reaction, as soda accumulates in them. Today, the pampas are densely populated, the main part of the inhabitants of Argentina live here. Animal husbandry and agriculture are well developed. The soil is plowed up and the indigenous vegetation is almost not preserved, and there are no reserves. You can find some indigenous vegetation in isolated strips along the banks of rivers, roads and railways. The landscape of the pampas has changed, alternating arable land (corn, wheat), seeded pastures and strips of plantings of exotic trees. The former richest flora had about 1000 species of cereals and the same number of herbs. In this vast green sea, the rider could easily hide. Grasses predominated mainly: barley, bonfire, bearded vulture, feather grass, bluegrass, in the south tuesok. Also animal world was rich, many species of rodents, only one representative of the epidemic of the South American family of Viscacha has survived to this day. Most animals and birds are on the verge of extinction, for example, the pampian deer. Argentine pampa - flat desert area stretches from Atlantic Ocean to the foothills of the Andes, from the river La Plata to the Rio Negro. "Pampa" - plain, translated from the language of the Quechua Indians. The landscape is deserted and sometimes monotonous, as if out of nowhere mountains rise in front of the traveler, like an island in the middle of the sea. The pampa covers about 80 thousand square kilometers of territory, such a long stretch of the pampa arose as a result of the accumulation of loose rocks, destroyed rocks of the Andes. Brought to the pampa by mountain streams of rivers and the wind played its role, driving here small particles of destroyed rocks. Thick sedimentary strata up to 300 m are located near Buenos Aires, and in some places they completely cover ancient landforms. There are no slopes, which makes the flow of water difficult, so the pampa was formed due to the gigantic forces of nature itself, which sculpted the relief and many times reworked the work of its creation. Today, the Argentine pampa is similar to the Indus-Gangetic plain, but natural conditions South Asia are different from Argentina. There are no slopes, and rainwater does not run off, rivers do not form. Rain water accumulates in clay areas in depressions and forms Lagunas - marsh lakes. Most of the rivers originate in the Pampian Sierras, but the further they go into the valley they lose their strength and most of them dry up. Often they change the course of the river, leaving behind flood waters that become swampy over time. The difference in climate between the eastern and western parts explains the difference in the composition of their soils. In the western part there is a hot arid climate - stunted vegetation, most of the land is completely bare. Eastern with a lot of rainfall - dense vegetation.
2.6 Dry hardwood Mediterranean forest zone
In the subtropical zone in the west of the mainland between 32-38 ° S, lat. (the central part of middle Chile), as on all other continents, there is a zone of dry hard-leaved Mediterranean forests and shrubs, the transition to which from tropical semi-deserts occurs through subtropical semi-deserts (28-32 ° S). It is most typically represented on Beregovaya Cordillera, where brown soils and maquis-like thickets of hard-leaved shrubs are common. A zone of subtropical shrub steppes with brown soils penetrates south along the arid Central Valley. On the Main Cordillera, a spectrum of high-altitude zones, characteristic of the Mediterranean zone, is expressed. Hard-leaved shrubs are located below, in the middle zone there are evergreen deciduous forests with an admixture of conifers, in the upper zone there are mountain steppes, in the wetter south alpine meadows appear. Since precipitation falls mainly in winter, and summer is rainless, the regime of rivers is uneven, floods occur in winter and in spring and summer, when snow and glaciers melt in the mountains. In the relief, along with water-erosion forms, towards the south, glacial forms play an increasingly important role. The river valleys in the mountains and the Central Valley are the most important agricultural regions of Chile.
2.7 Temperate semi-desert zone
In the extreme south of the mainland in the temperate zone, a natural zone of semi-deserts and deserts, not very characteristic of these latitudes, has formed. This is the only zone of deserts and semi-deserts in the world that goes to the coast of the ocean within the temperate zone. In conditions of low rainfall (about 200 mm per year), grasses, cacti and cushion shrubs grow on sierozem and brown soils. The animal world is poor, only rodents and reptiles are numerous. Coastal deserts and semi-deserts extend in a narrow strip (from 5 degrees to 28 degrees S) and on the western coast of South America. The proximity of the ocean is the reason here high humidity air, a significant part of the year the coast is shrouded in fog, and there is little precipitation. It happens that there is no rain for 10-20 years. The reason for this is not only the prevailing air masses, but also the cold Peruvian current. The driest part of the natural zone is the coastal Atacama Desert. On its predominantly sandy surface, single drought resistant plants especially cacti. Atacama rises along the slopes of the Andes up to 3000 m, where it passes into the high desert. South of the coastal deserts on the western coast of the mainland and the island of Tierra del Fuego, there are forests of the temperate zone, where coniferous trees appear: Chilean cedars, cypresses and araucaria.
2.8 Subantarctic forests
The slopes of the Patagonian Andes are covered with moisture-loving subantarctic forests, consisting of tall trees and shrubs, among which evergreen species predominate: at 42 S.l. there is an array of araucaria forests, and mixed forests are common to the south. Due to the density, abundance of species, multi-layered, variety of lianas, mosses and lichens, they resemble forests of low latitudes. Soils under them are like brown soils, in the south - podzolic. There are many swamps on flat areas. The main representatives of the forest flora Southern Andes- evergreen and deciduous species of southern beeches, magnolias, giant coniferous Alerce of the genus Fitroja and libocedruses, bamboos and tree ferns. Many plants have beautiful fragrant flowers, especially decorating the forest in spring and summer. The branches and trunks of trees are entangled with lianas and dressed in a lush moss and lichen cover. Mosses and lichens, along with leaf decay, cover the surface. With the rise in the mountains, the forests are thinned out and their species composition is depleted. In the extreme south, they are gradually replaced by tundra-type vegetation. On the eastern slope of the mountains, facing the Patanonian plateau, precipitation is much less than in the west. The forests are less dense, poorer in species composition compared to the Pacific coast. The main forest-forming species are southern beeches with an admixture of some conifers. At the foot of the mountains, the forests turn into dry steppes and shrubs of the Patagonian plateau.
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Human settlement in South America
equatorial forest savannah environment
South America is mastered by man unevenly. Only the marginal areas of the mainland are densely populated, mainly the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and some areas of the Andes. At the same time, inland areas, such as the wooded Amazonian lowland, remained virtually undeveloped until recently. The question of the origin of the indigenous population of South America - the Indians - has long been a matter of controversy. The most common point of view about the settlement of South America by Mongoloids from Asia through North America about 17-19 thousand years ago (Appendix 1). But, based on some anthropological commonality of the Indian peoples of South America with the peoples of Oceania and the presence of the same tools for them, some scientists have expressed the idea of settling South America from the Pacific Islands. However, this view is shared by few. Most scientists are inclined to explain the presence of Oceanian features among the inhabitants of South America by the fact that representatives of the Oceanian race could also penetrate through the northeast of Asia and North America with the Mongoloids. At present, the number of Indians in South America is much larger than in North America, although during the period of colonization of the mainland by Europeans, it has greatly decreased. In some countries, Indians still make up a significant percentage of the population. In Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, they are about half of the total, and in some areas they even significantly predominate. Most of The population of Paraguay is of Indian origin, many Indians live in Colombia. In Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, the Indians were almost completely exterminated in the first period of colonization, and now there are very few of them. Brazil's population is also steadily declining. In the Andes and on the Pacific coast, strong Indian states developed, characterized by a high level of development of agriculture and cattle breeding, crafts, applied arts and the beginnings of scientific knowledge. The agricultural peoples of South America gave such cultivated plants as potatoes, cassava, peanuts, pumpkin. In the process of European colonization and a fierce struggle against the colonialists, some Indian peoples completely disappeared from the face of the Earth, while others were pushed back from their ancestral territories to uninhabited and uncomfortable lands. Separate Indian peoples continue to live in areas of their former habitat. Until now, there are tribes living in isolation, retaining the level of development and way of life at which they were caught by the invasion of Europeans. In the interior of Brazil, there are still remnants of the tribes of the language family "zhe". By the time the Europeans arrived on the mainland, they inhabited the eastern and southern parts of Brazil, but were pushed back by the colonialists into forests and swamps. This people is still at the level of development corresponding to the primitive communal system, and is distinguished by a wandering way of life. At a very low stage of development were the inhabitants of the extreme south of South America (Tierra del Fuego) by the arrival of Europeans. They protected themselves from the cold with animal skins, made weapons from bone and stone, and obtained food by hunting gunakos and sea fishing. The fire-earthers were subjected to the most severe physical extermination in the 19th century; now there are very few of them. Before the arrival of Europeans, the main occupation of the tribes living in the Argentine Pampas and Patagonia was hunting. The Spaniards brought horses to the mainland, which later became feral. The Indians learned how to tame horses and began to use them to hunt gunakos. The rapid development of capitalism in Europe was accompanied by the ruthless extermination of the population of the colonial lands. In Argentina, in particular, the Spaniards pushed the local residents to the extreme south of Patagonia, to lands unsuitable for grain farming. At present, the indigenous population is almost completely absent in Pampas. Only small groups of Indians have survived, working as farmhands in large agricultural holdings. The highest socio-economic and cultural development by the arrival of Europeans was achieved by the tribes that inhabited the elevated plateaus of the Andes within Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, where one of the oldest centers of irrigated agriculture is located. The most numerous modern Indian people - Quechua - inhabits the mountainous regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina. On the shores of Lake Titicaca live the Aymara, one of the highest mountain peoples in the world. A significant part of the population, especially in the Atlantic regions (in Brazil, Guiana, Suriname, Guyana), are Negroes - the descendants of slaves imported into South America at the beginning of colonization, when a large and cheap labor force was needed, used on plantations. The Negroes partly mixed into the white and Indian population. As a result, mixed types were created: in the first case - mulattoes, in the second - sambo. Fleeing from exploitation, Negroes - slaves fled from their masters to the rainforests. Their descendants, some of whom mixed with the Indians, in some areas still lead a primitive forest lifestyle. Until the independence of the South American republics, that is, until the first half of the 19th century, immigration to South America from other countries was prohibited. But subsequently the governments of the newly formed republics, interested in economic development their states, the development of vacant lands, opened access to immigrants from different countries Europe and Asia. Especially many citizens arrived from Italy, Germany, Balkan countries, partly from Russia, China and Japan. Settlers of a later period usually keep apart, preserving their language, customs, culture and religion. In some republics (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay) they form significant population groups.
3.2 Human impact on the South American environment
The peculiarities of the history of South America and, as a consequence, the great unevenness in the distribution of the modern population and its relatively low average density have led to a significant preservation of natural conditions compared to other continents. Large expanses of the Amazonian lowland, the central part of the Guiana Highlands (the Roraima massif), the southwestern part of the Andes and the Pacific coast remained undeveloped for a long time. Separate wandering tribes in the Amazonian forests, with almost no contact with the rest of the population, did not so much influence nature as they themselves depended on it. However, there are fewer and fewer such areas. Mining, laying communications, in particular the construction of the Trans-Amazonian highway, the development of new lands leave everything in South America less spaces unaffected by human activities. The extraction of oil in the very thick of the Amazonian rainforests or iron and other ores within the Guiana and Brazilian highlands required the construction of transport routes in recently still remote and inaccessible areas. This, in turn, led to population growth, the destruction of forests, and the expansion of arable and pasture land. As a result, on nature using latest technology the ecological balance is often disturbed, easily vulnerable natural complexes are destroyed (Appendix 2). Development and significant transformations began primarily from the La Plata plain, the coastal parts of the Brazilian Highlands, extreme north mainland. The areas developed even before the start of European colonization are located in the depths of the Andes of Bolivia, Peru and other countries. On the territory of the most ancient Indian civilizations, centuries-old human activity has left its mark on the desert plateaus and mountain slopes at an altitude of 3-4.5 thousand meters above sea level. Now the population of South America is almost 320 million people, and 78% are urban. The growth of large cities is causing serious environmental problems that are characteristic of urban areas around the world. This is a defect and poor quality. drinking water, pollution atmospheric air, accumulation of solid waste, etc.
CONCLUSION
South America is mastered by man unevenly. Only the marginal areas of the mainland are densely populated, mainly the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and some areas of the Andes. At the same time, inland areas, such as the wooded Amazonian lowland, remained virtually undeveloped until recently. Oil production in the very thick of the Amazonian rainforests or iron and other ores within the Guiana and Brazilian Highlands required the construction of transport routes in recently still deaf and inaccessible areas . This, in turn, led to population growth, the destruction of forests, and the expansion of arable and pasture land. As a result, with the use of the latest technology, the ecological balance is often disturbed, easily vulnerable natural complexes are destroyed. The growth of large cities is causing serious environmental problems that are characteristic of urban areas around the world. These are the lack and low quality of drinking water, air pollution, accumulation of solid waste, etc.
LIST OF USED LITERATURE
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Answer left Guest
1. The zone of equatorial forests occupies in South America giant areas of the Amazonian lowland, the adjacent foothills of the Eastern Andes, the northern part of the Pacific coast in the region of the equatorial climatic zone. These forests are called selvas, which means “forests” in Portuguese. A. Humboldt suggested calling them hylaea (from the Greek. "Gileion" - forest).
2. Zones of savannas, light forests and shrubs are located mainly in the subequatorial and partly in the tropical climatic zones. The savannahs occupy the Orinoc lowland, where they are called llanos, as well as the hinterland of the Guiana and Brazilian highlands (campos).
3. The zone of subtropical steppes, which are called pampas here, is located south of the savannas of the tropical belt. The soils in the pampa are reddish-black, formed as a result of the decay of dense vegetation from turf grasses - pampas grass, feather grass, bluegrass, etc. These soils have a significant humus horizon (up to 40 cm) and are very fertile. For the natural areas of the pampas, fast running animals are typical - pampas deer, pampas cat, llamas. There are many rodents along the banks of rivers and lakes - nutria, viscacha. At present, the natural landscapes in the pampas have been little preserved: convenient lands are plowed up (fields of wheat, corn), dry steppes are divided into huge paddocks for large cattle.
4. The zone of semi-deserts of the temperate belt prevails on the territory of the southern - narrowed part of the mainland, in Patagonia. Patagonia is located in the "rain shadow" of the Andes. In the conditions of dry continental climate, on serozems and gray-brown soils (saline in some places), open vegetation cover is common. It is formed by densely sod grasses (bluegrass, feather grass, fescue) and shrubs that form prickly pillows (undersized cacti, ephedra, verbena). Among the endemic representatives of the animal world of Patagonia, it should be noted skunk, Magellanic dog (similar to a fox), Darwin's ostrich (southern species of rhea). There are pampas cat and armadillos, small rodents (tuco-tuco, mara, etc.).
5. The Andes are characterized by altitudinal zonality of landscapes. Sections of the Andes, lying at different latitudes, differ in the number and composition of altitudinal belts. The most complete range of altitudinal belts is presented in the equatorial region.
6. Zone of deciduous and coniferous forests (this is in southern Chile)
Along the Pacific coast, there is a special change in meridional natural zones: in tropical latitudes, a zone of deserts and semi-deserts of the tropical belt is formed (in the Atacama, a loma formation is formed, which is characterized by bulbous and tuberous ephemeroids); in the subtropical zone between 32-38 ° S. sh. there is a zone of dry hard-leaved Mediterranean forests and shrubs. South of 38°S sh. in the subtropical zone - a zone of constantly moist evergreen forests (hemigile zone), which extends to the south and within the temperate zone up to 46 ° S. sh. Hemihylaea consist of evergreen southern beeches, Chilean araucaria, “Chilean cypresses” and other tree species.
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South America is mastered by man unevenly. Only the marginal areas of the mainland are densely populated, mainly the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and some areas of the Andes. At the same time, inland areas, such as the wooded Amazonian lowland, remained virtually undeveloped until recently. The question of the origin of the indigenous population of South America - the Indians - has long been a matter of controversy. The most common point of view about the settlement of South America by the Mongoloids from Asia through North America about 17-19 thousand years ago. But, based on some anthropological commonality of the Indian peoples of South America with the peoples of Oceania and the presence of the same tools for them, some scientists expressed the idea of settling South America from the Pacific Islands. However, this view is shared by few. Most scientists are inclined to explain the presence of Oceanian features among the inhabitants of South America by the fact that representatives of the Oceanian race could also penetrate through the northeast of Asia and North America with the Mongoloids. At present, the number of Indians in South America is much larger than in North America, although during the period of colonization of the mainland by Europeans, it has greatly decreased.
In some countries, Indians still make up a significant percentage of the population. In Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, they are about half of the total, and in some areas they even significantly predominate. Most of the population of Paraguay is of Indian origin, many Indians live in Colombia. In Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, the Indians were almost completely exterminated in the first period of colonization, and now there are very few of them. Brazil's population is also steadily declining. In the Andes and on the Pacific coast, strong Indian states developed, characterized by a high level of development of agriculture and cattle breeding, crafts, applied arts and the beginnings of scientific knowledge. The agricultural peoples of South America gave such cultivated plants as potatoes, cassava, peanuts, pumpkin. In the process of European colonization and a fierce struggle against the colonialists, some Indian peoples completely disappeared from the face of the Earth, while others were pushed back from their ancestral territories to uninhabited and uncomfortable lands. Separate Indian peoples continue to live in areas of their former habitat.
Until now, there are tribes living in isolation, retaining the level of development and way of life at which they were caught by the invasion of Europeans. In the interior of Brazil, there are still remnants of the tribes of the language family "zhe". By the time the Europeans arrived on the mainland, they inhabited the eastern and southern parts of Brazil, but were pushed back by the colonialists into forests and swamps. This people is still at the level of development corresponding to the primitive communal system, and is distinguished by a wandering way of life. At a very low stage of development were the inhabitants of the extreme south of South America (Tierra del Fuego) by the arrival of Europeans. They protected themselves from the cold with animal skins, made weapons from bone and stone, and obtained food by hunting gunakos and sea fishing. The fire-earthers were subjected to the most severe physical extermination in the 19th century; now there are very few of them. Before the arrival of Europeans, the main occupation of the tribes living in the Argentine Pampas and Patagonia was hunting. The Spaniards brought horses to the mainland, which later became feral. The Indians learned how to tame horses and began to use them to hunt gunakos.
The rapid development of capitalism in Europe was accompanied by the ruthless extermination of the population of the colonial lands. In Argentina, in particular, the Spaniards pushed the local residents to the extreme south of Patagonia, to lands unsuitable for grain farming. At present, the indigenous population is almost completely absent in Pampas. Only small groups of Indians have survived, working as farmhands in large agricultural holdings. The highest socio-economic and cultural development by the arrival of Europeans was achieved by the tribes that inhabited the elevated plateaus of the Andes within Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, where one of the oldest centers of irrigated agriculture is located.
The most numerous modern Indian people - Quechua - inhabits the mountainous regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina. On the shores of Lake Titicaca live the Aymara, one of the highest mountain peoples in the world. A significant part of the population, especially in the Atlantic regions (in Brazil, Guiana, Suriname, Guyana), are Negroes - the descendants of slaves imported into South America at the beginning of colonization, when a large and cheap labor force was needed, used on plantations. The Negroes partly mixed into the white and Indian population. As a result, mixed types were created: in the first case - mulattos, in the second - sambo. Fleeing from exploitation, Negroes - slaves fled from their masters to the rainforests. Their descendants, some of whom mixed with the Indians, in some areas still lead a primitive forest lifestyle. Until the independence of the South American republics, that is, until the first half of the 19th century, immigration to South America from other countries was prohibited. But subsequently, the governments of the newly formed republics, interested in the economic development of their states, the development of vacant lands, opened access to immigrants from different countries of Europe and Asia. Especially many citizens arrived from Italy, Germany, the Balkan countries, partly from Russia, China and Japan. Settlers of a later period usually keep apart, preserving their language, customs, culture and religion. In some republics (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay) they form significant population groups.
Human impact on the South American environment
The peculiarities of the history of South America and, as a consequence, the great unevenness in the distribution of the modern population and its relatively low average density have led to a significant preservation of natural conditions compared to other continents. Large expanses of the Amazonian lowland, the central part of the Guiana Highlands (the Roraima massif), the southwestern part of the Andes and the Pacific coast remained undeveloped for a long time. Separate wandering tribes in the Amazonian forests, with almost no contact with the rest of the population, did not so much influence nature as they themselves depended on it. However, there are fewer and fewer such areas. The extraction of minerals, the laying of communications, in particular the construction of the Trans-Amazonian highway, the development of new lands leave less and less space in South America unaffected by human activity. The extraction of oil in the very thick of the Amazonian rainforests or iron and other ores within the Guiana and Brazilian highlands required the construction of transport routes in recently still remote and inaccessible areas.
This, in turn, led to population growth, the destruction of forests, and the expansion of arable and pasture land. As a result, with the use of the latest technology, the ecological balance is often disturbed, and vulnerable natural complexes are destroyed (Appendix 2). Development and significant transformations began primarily from the La Plata plain, the coastal parts of the Brazilian Highlands, the extreme north of the mainland. The areas developed even before the start of European colonization are located in the depths of the Andes of Bolivia, Peru and other countries. On the territory of the most ancient Indian civilizations, centuries-old human activity has left its mark on the desert plateaus and mountain slopes at an altitude of 3-4.5 thousand meters above sea level. Now the population of South America is almost 320 million people, and 78% are urban. The growth of large cities is causing serious environmental problems that are characteristic of urban areas around the world. These are the lack and low quality of drinking water, air pollution, accumulation of solid waste, etc.
1. What are the similarities and differences between the natural areas of South America and Africa. Give reasons.
Since the equator crosses Africa in the middle, the placement of natural zones will be symmetrical, and South America is crossed by the equator in its northern part, therefore, the placement of natural zones will occur in a latitudinal direction.
Both continents are located in the natural zone of moist equatorial forests. On both continents, red-yellow ferralitic soils have formed in the zone of equatorial forests. These territories on both continents are characterized by rich multi-layered vegetation and wildlife.
The savannah zone is formed in a subequatorial climate. Savannahs in South America occupy a much smaller area than in Africa. This is due to the fact that Africa has a large extent from west to east and lies on both sides of the equator. Also, in South America, the flora and fauna of this natural area is poorer than in Africa. In the savannas of South America, there are no large animals, such as elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, which are found in Africa.
The steppe zone is present only on the mainland of South America. It is characterized by a drier climate and grassy vegetation.
There is a zone of tropical deserts on both continents. In Africa, deserts occupy a huge area, including the Sahara Desert. There are no inland deserts in South America, only coastal ones.
2. Take an imaginary trip to the selva, savanna or pampas and prepare a story in the form of a diary, report, memoir, letter.
We are going to the selva - a zone of humid equatorial forests. We immediately enter the world of greenery. These forests are multi-tiered, evergreen. They are very hot and humid. The first tier is made up of huge trees, entwined with lianas of different thicknesses. They often have very beautiful orchids. You can find a melon tree, hevea, cocoa. The largest water lily on Earth, Victoria Regia, grows in rivers. Everywhere great amount insects, including giant butterflies. Among large animals, you can meet tapirs and the largest rodent on Earth - the capybara. On the trees we see birds with multi-colored plumage, many monkeys. Here you can meet the largest boa constrictor - the anaconda, and among the predators - the jaguar, puma, ocelot.
3. What determines the number of altitudinal belts in the mountains?
Altitudinal zonality is a change in natural complexes with height. There are two main factors driving this change. First, the height of the mountains. The higher the mountains, the more altitudinal belts will be in the mountains. Also, the number of belts depends on geographical location. The closer the mountains are to the equator and the greater their height, the more belts. For example, the number of belts in the Andes near the equator is greater than the number of belts in the south of the mainland.
4. In what part of the Andes on altitudinal zonality How much influence does the ocean have? What is this influence?
The altitudinal zonality of the Andes is greatly influenced by Pacific Ocean. It affects the western part of these mountains, as the cold Peruvian current passes along the coast of South America, which brings coolness and dryness along the entire length of the mountains.
5. Give examples of changes in the nature of South America by man.
Since the arrival of Europeans in South America, nature has undergone significant human influence. Forests are cut down, animals are destroyed, pampas are plowed up, domestic animals destroy natural vegetation, people extract minerals, creating quarries and mines.
6. In what natural areas are these changes especially great? Why?
The greatest changes in nature are in those natural zones where the population is large. these are the natural zones of the savannas and pampas, as well as the variable-moist forests of the Atlantic coast.
7. In what natural areas are national parks located? Where are they the most? Why?
There are few protected areas in South America, but they have great importance to preserve the natural complexes of the mainland.
