The social system of Russia in the first half of the XIX century.

The entire population continued to be divided into nobles, clergy, peasantry and townspeople.

The nobility continued to exert a huge influence on state affairs.

Serfdom and serfdom with all its orders were the basis of noble power.

Legal status clergy is changing. It gets additional privileges. Corporal punishment of priests, deacons and their children has been abolished. The clergy were exempted from land tax (1807) and from lodging (1821).

The bulk of the population was serf peasantry. Alexander 1 and his friends condemned serfdom from a moral and ethical standpoint, but he was not a supporter of drastic measures, but hoped that the goal would be achieved through slow and cautious steps. So, in 1803, a decree “On free cultivators” was issued, giving landowners the right to release their peasants with land for a ransom by agreement of the parties.

The most difficult situation was landlord peasants. Half of the peasant income went to the landowner in the form of dues.

Urban population was divided into honorary citizens, merchants, guilds, philistines and working people.

honorary citizenship was introduced with the aim of separating the top of the emerging bourgeoisie from the general mass of the urban people. It was divided into hereditary and personal. The first was assigned by birthright, the second - on the proposal of ministers or personal request. Honorary citizens enjoyed a number of privileges: freedom of movement, exemption from corporal punishment and from personal forced labor. But the most important thing was their exemption from all taxes and taxes.

Merchants were assigned to one of the two guilds (wholesale trade - the first guild; retail - the second). Along with general rights (freedom of movement, the right to be awarded ranks and orders, freedom from corporal punishment), merchants of the first guild had the right to visit the imperial court, wear a provincial uniform, and receive the title of commercial and manufactory advisers.

Artisans divided into masters and apprentices. Only an apprentice who had been in this rank for at least three years could become a master.

State system of Russia in the first half of the XIX century.

According to the form of government Russia in the 1st half. 19th century remained an absolute monarchy. The emperor was at the head of the state apparatus. In his activity in governing the state, the tsar relied on branching ranks. apparatus.

Until 1801, the Council at the Highest Court acted as the highest deliberative body, which included the tsar's close associates. In the period 1801-1810. the Indispensable Council functioned, consisting of 12 representatives of the titled nobility and performing exclusively advisory functions. In 1810, the State Council was established by the tsar's manifesto - the highest legislative body of the Russian Empire.

The State Council consisted of five departments: laws, military affairs, civil and spiritual affairs, state economy, affairs of the kingdom of Poland. Office work was carried out by the office, headed by the Secretary of State. The State Council was liquidated in 1917. From the second quarter of the 19th century bills began to be developed in the royal office. His Imperial Majesty's own Chancellery gradually became the body that led the system of central organs government controlled. It consisted of six departments, which, in turn, were subdivided into expeditions. The office kept the tsar informed of all issues of state administration.

In 1802 a ministerial reform began. In accordance with the tsarist manifesto "On the Establishment of Ministries", ministries were formed instead of collegiums: the military ground forces, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce and public education. The ministries were governed by the principle of unity of command. The ministers were entrusted with executive power within the limits of the activities of the ministries entrusted to them.

Preparation and implementation of the peasant reform of 1861

It was a turning point when Alexander II reigned. He, unlike his father, understood that it was better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it was abolished from below, in connection with which he was created special secret committee on peasant issues (on changing the life and way of life of peasants).

1) the peasants received personal freedom, freedom of movement, which, of course, was not complete, since, having freed themselves from the landlords, they became dependent on the peasant communities

2) received the right to education, except for especially privileged educational institutions

3) engage in public service

But the issue of land was not resolved immediately.

4) the peasants are in the position of temporarily liable until they bought out a piece of land for themselves, the amount of work or quitrent was stipulated by law, and the law regulated the size of the allotment and the amount of payment, depending on the quitrent.

6. Peasant reform 1861 Legal status of peasants after the abolition of serfdom.

Peasants received personal and property rights:

Marry on your own

conclude contracts,

Engage in trade, industry,

The right to conduct their own legal affairs,

The right to participate in the work of public self-government bodies,

The right to enter the service, to study,

The right to acquire movable/immovable property.

But the peasants actually received these rights on a deferment, because within 2 years it was necessary to draw up statutory letters. Exactly charter and regulated the relationship between the peasant and the landowner. Really diplomas status

landowners. The letters themselves were certified by peace mediators who smoothed out conflicts between peasants and landlords.

After the conclusion of the statutory charter, the peasants received an allotment. With the help of the dress changed legal status peasant. He moved into the category of temporary debt. This suggested that the land was still the property of the landowner. And the peasant bears a duty for the use of the land.

The autocracy well prepared a ref-mu in order to compensate for the losses of the landowners:

1) the land was redistributed, the entire territory of the country was divided depending on the quality of the land into several regions, for each state an obligatory allotment was established.

2) The size of the allotment was determined as a result of negotiations between a particular landowner and his peasants. (This is the meaning of the Charter)

Outcome: The peasant ref-ma was extremely inconsistent. She eliminated such a feudal relic as serfdom. But she kept the serf community unchanged.

By the end of the 19th century most of the former landowner's land actually passed to the new social. group - Russian bourgeoisie.

7. Zemskaya 1864 and city 1870 reforms. Their role in the development of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. Zemstvo reform began, during which a system of local self-government bodies was created in Russia at two territorial levels - in the county and the province. The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were county and provincial zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were county and provincial zemstvo councils. Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, three electoral congresses (curia) were created to elect deputies of the county zemstvo assembly.

K 1st Curia(county landowners) included persons, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 acres of land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same).

Co 2nd Curia(urban voters).

3rd curia(elected from rural communities). Electors of a given county were elected at volost gatherings, who then elected deputies of the county zemstvo assembly. Since an approximately equal number of vowels were elected from each curia, the peasants were always in the minority.

The functions of the zemstvos were quite diverse. They were in charge of the local economy (construction and maintenance of local roads, etc.), public education, medicine, and statistics. However, they could deal with all these matters only within their county or province.

Zemstvo reform had many opponents. Cause: by law Russian Empire any policy. activity was prohibited! She was considered exclusive competence government. Zemstvos- these are organs of self-management, => apparatus. In this regard, the government feared that a political force would be formed on the basis of the Zemstvos, which would become in opposition to the government.

To avoid this situation, a number of restrictions have been introduced:

1) to a large extent, the number of zemstvo bodies was controlled by the governor;

2) zemstvo organs of self-government were created only in individual provinces;

3) there was no all-Russian zemstvo and self-government at the volost level;

4) the zemstvos of one province were forbidden to enter into contacts with the zemstvo institutions of other provinces.

Zemstvos played a huge role in the development of the local economy. For the normal existence of the zemstvos and to solve their problems, a special tax was established. The consequence of the work of the zemstvos was that the new social. Group - land intelligentsia. First of all, they are doctors, teachers, extras.

On June 16, 1870, the "City Statute" was approved, which fixed the system of city self-government bodies, elected by the population for a period of 4 years.

The administrative body of the city government was city ​​council, executive - City government which was headed mayor

Vowels in the City Duma could only be elected by payers of city taxes (homeowners)

All voters were divided into 3 curiae:

1. large taxpayers

2. average taxpayers

3. small owners

Formation of the USSR

Reasons for the formation of the USSR

1) it was necessary to combine the economic resources of the republics to restore the economy.

2) successful foreign policy activity.

Background of the formation of the USSR: the presence in the republics of the dictatorship of the proletariat, public ownership of the means of production.

December 30, 1922 - Declaration and Treaty on the formation of the USSR. The Union State is a federation of republics with equal rights. Elected by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. The executive power is the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR. January 1924 - adoption of the Constitution. The supreme legislative body is the All-Union Congress of Soviets, in between congresses of the Central Executive Committee: the Council of the Union, the Council of Nationalities. executive branch- SNK(Council of People's Commissars). The CEC has the right to elect decrees and resolutions, its presidium has all the power between sessions. The supreme all-Union bodies were entrusted financial system, health care and education, gr,ug and labor Code. Under the Council of People's Commissars, a united state political administration (OGPU) was established to combat espionage, terrorism and counter-revolution. On the basis of the Constitution of the USSR of 1924, changes were made to the constitutions of the Union republics.

General characteristics of the period of development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century.

The first half of the 19th century in Russia was characterized by a crisis of the feudal-serf formation, in the depths of which the process of the formation of the capitalist structure was taking place.

A characteristic feature of the absolutism of that time was its ability to maneuver, to change the course of policy flexibly, to make minor concessions in order to preserve the serfdom.

Evolution state system, formed in the first quarter of the 18th century, took place throughout the century. Dissatisfied internal and foreign policy Paul I, the nobility eliminated him by a palace coup. Until 1801, the Council at the Imperial Court acted as the highest deliberative body, it was replaced by the Permanent Council, consisting of 12 members, which lasted until 1810. In 1810, the State Council was created as the highest legislative body.

The Senate established itself as the highest judicial body of the state. All departments of the Senate became the highest courts of appeal for the provincial courts.

Further centralization of state administration required a revision of the system of sectoral bodies of state administration. In 1802, a manifesto "On the establishment of ministries" was adopted and it was

8 ministries were formed: military ground forces, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce, public education.

ministers was defined as the highest executive, directly subordinate to the supreme imperial power.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. the government was forced to follow the path of maneuvering, promises and reforms that corresponded to historical development. The reforms adapted the political system of Russia to bourgeois relations, strengthened the highest and central state apparatus, and linked it more closely with local institutions.

First half of the 19th century passed under the auspices of the reign of two tsars - Alexander I (1801 - 1825) and Nicholas I (1825 - 1855).

As a result of a palace coup, Alexander I became the Russian emperor, who promised to rule the people "according to the laws and heart of his grandmother Catherine the Great."

The first years of the reign of Alexander I left the best memories for many contemporaries. "The days of the Alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning" - this is how A.S. Pushkin. During these years, Alexander relied on a small circle of friends that had formed around him even before he ascended the throne. This circle became known as The secret committee". Its members were young and full of good intentions. With their direct participation, the first transformations were carried out: an amnesty was declared for 12 thousand people who suffered under Paul, borders were reopened, European books and goods began to be freely imported.

The meetings of the Unofficial Committee began in July 1801 and continued until May 1802. The main result of the work was to be the limitation of the power of the autocracy, with which the tsar himself agreed.

9.1. social order

At the beginning of the XIX century. The Russian Empire was a huge continental country, which included vast territories of Eastern Europe, Northern Asia and Transcaucasia. The Russian Empire included the Baltic States, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Finland, Bessarabia. Its size has grown to 18 million square meters. km.

The vast space, the variety of natural, economic and ethnic conditions left their mark on the structure of the state and its society.

The crisis of the feudal-serf system intensified in the country.

There have been changes in the social structure of society. Along with the old classes, the classes of bourgeois society appear: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The nobility still remained a privileged social stratum in Russian society. in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century. There were 127 thousand landowners, who were divided into large and small landlords. Large landowners belonged to the titled nobility and occupied the highest posts in the state. With the development of capitalist relations, the nobles received the right to build factories and factories in the cities, along with the merchants to trade. On April 2, 1801, Alexander I restored in full the Letter of Complaint to the nobility. In 1817, a state commercial bank and other credit institutions were established to support the nobles who went bankrupt during the Patriotic War of 1812. In 1831, the Manifesto "On the order of noble assemblies, elections and service on them" was published. A new procedure for participation in elections was introduced. Only large landowners could participate in direct voting, others voted indirectly, through electors. In the second quarter of the XIX century. The composition of landowners has changed significantly. There were over 250 thousand nobles, of which 150 thousand did not have peasants. Access to the nobility from 1845 became difficult. According to the Decree of 1845, in order to become a hereditary nobleman, it was necessary to rise to the 5th class in the civil service, i.e. become a state adviser, and in military service rise to the rank of major.

Since 1845, reserved noble estates could be inherited only by the eldest son, they could not be divided and transferred to persons from another family.

Clergy. The legal status of the clergy in the first half of the XIX century. has changed significantly. From 1801, the clergy, and from 1835 and their children, were exempted from corporal punishment, from 1807 their houses were exempted from land tax, and from 1821 - from lodging. In 1803 - 1805, clergymen who did not have regular places in churches were allowed to move to other classes, i.e. change occupation. The clergy, awarded orders, acquired noble rights. The white clergy received hereditary noble rights, and the black received a piece of land with the right to personal use. Children of priests and deacons, in case of leaving the clergy, received the title of hereditary honorary citizens. Since 1822, the clergy from the nobility were given the right to buy artisans and peasants.

Peasants were divided into three categories: landlords, specific and state. State peasants belonged to the treasury and were officially considered "free rural inhabitants". In 1796, there were 6,034,000 state male peasants. The bulk of the state peasants were concentrated in the northern and central regions of Russia, the Volga region and the Urals. State peasants for granted them land they had to perform duties: quitrent and soul tax. The norms of peasant allotments were 8 acres per male in small-land provinces and 15 acres in large-land provinces. Periodically, these allotments were redistributed, which hindered the development of productive forces in the countryside, and on the other hand, prevented the formation of a proprietary psychology among the peasants. State peasants were often transferred to the category of landlords. Alexander I stopped the distribution of state peasants to landowners, but since 1816, part of the state peasants was transferred to the position of military settlers. They had to carry out military service, engage in agriculture, pay duties to the state. Their life was regulated by the Military Charter.

In 1837-1841, a reform of the management of state peasants was carried out, as a result of which the principle of peasant local self-government was introduced, land allotments were increased, and a seed fund was created in case of crop failure. In the villages began to open primary schools and hospitals.

Specific peasants occupied an intermediate position between state and landowners. These are former palace peasants who received the title of appanage in 1797, when the Department of appanages was created to manage the peasants who belonged to members of the imperial family. In 1797, there were 463 thousand male souls in the specific peasants. Specific peasants mainly lived in the Samara and Simbirsk provinces.

They paid dues, carried monetary and in-kind duties. By the middle of the XIX century. royal family received annual income from specific estates up to 3 million rubles. silver.

The landowning peasants constituted the largest and most exploited group of the population. They had to work off corvée 3-5 days a week and pay dues in kind and money. The landowners disposed of the peasants as movable property, kept their court over them. Mass actions of peasants forced the government to pay attention to this problem. In 1803, a decree was issued on free cultivators, according to which the landowners received the right to release their peasants into the wild for a certain ransom, but the decree was not widely used, because. the landlords were reluctant to let the peasants go, and the peasants did not have the money to pay the ransom to the landowner. In 1804, a decree was issued on attaching peasants to the land, and not to the landowner. Under this Decree, it was forbidden to sell peasants without land.

In 1816 - 1819, Alexander I freed the peasants of the Baltic from serfdom, but without land. In the second quarter of the XIX century. it was forbidden to give serfs to factories and exile them to Siberia. In 1841, a law was passed prohibiting the sale of peasants singly and without land. In 1843, landless nobles were prohibited from acquiring peasants. In 1842, the Decree "On obligated peasants" was issued, according to which the landowner could provide the peasants with a plot of land for use, and the peasants had to work out certain duties for this. Unfortunately, these were partial measures that did not change the essence of serfdom, and the peasants remained poor, downtrodden, and hungry.

The urban population was divided into five groups: honorary citizens, merchants, artisans (guild masters), small proprietors and working people.

The honorary citizens included the big bourgeoisie and merchants. Honorary citizens were divided into hereditary and personal. The category of hereditary honorary citizens included large capitalists, scientists, artists and children of personal nobles and priests. Lower officials and persons who graduated from higher educational institutions, artists of private theaters and children adopted by hereditary nobles were considered personal honorary citizens. Honorary citizens did not pay the poll tax, were exempted from corporal punishment, and did not bear recruitment duty.

Merchants were divided into two guilds. The first included merchants engaged in wholesale trade, the second - engaged in retail trade. Merchants retained their privileges, could receive ranks and be awarded orders. Money acquired by merchants in trade was invested in industry. This is how the dynasties of the Russian bourgeoisie Morozovs, Kondrashovs, Guchkovs and others gradually took shape.

Groups of guild masters were artisans assigned to guilds. They were divided into masters and apprentices. The workshops had their own self-government bodies.

In the first half of the XIX century. the number of workers employed in industry has increased significantly. Freelance workers became peasants who left for quitrent. Residents of some villages began to unite in artels and create their own artistic crafts. Some crafts, for example, Palekh, Gzhel, Fedoskino, have survived to this day.

Thus, in the first half of the XIX century. in Russia began to develop factory production, manufactories, small-scale industry, which was facilitated by the legislation on cities.

9.2. Political system

In the first half of the XIX century. Russia remained an absolute monarchy. The emperor was at the head of the state. In 1810, a new advisory body was created - the State Council, which was supposed to be involved in the preparation of bills. It consisted of senior government officials appointed by the emperor. Under Nicholas I, the role of the State Council was significantly reduced. Instead, His Majesty's Own Chancellery, which controlled all the most important issues in the life of the country, acquired particular importance. It was divided into several branches: the first branch exercised control over the activities of the ministries, the second was engaged in the codification of laws. A special place was occupied by the third branch, which carried out political investigation in Russia and abroad. The fourth was social institutions and educational institutions. The fifth developed projects for reforms in the management of state peasants, the sixth was engaged in the preparation of proposals for the management of the Caucasus.

In 1802, the central government system was changed. Instead of the Petrovsky collegiums, ministries were created: foreign affairs, military land and naval forces, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce and public education. The ministries were divided into departments and offices headed by directors. The principle of unity of command was affirmed in the ministries. The Minister was fully responsible for the management of the industry entrusted to him. He was an autocrat in his field. For the joint discussion of certain issues in 1802, the Committee of Ministers was created, which in 1857 was transformed into the Council of Ministers. The Committee of Ministers included the chairmen of the departments of the State Council, the Secretary of State, and the heads of departments. The Committee of Ministers was an advisory body, because none of its conclusions came into effect until approved by the emperor. The creation of secret committees for the development of various projects was widely practiced. The secret activity of the committees was caused by the fear of peasant unrest and the possible dissatisfaction of the nobles during the implementation of certain reforms that infringed on their rights.

The Senate in 1802 was practically reformed. It became the highest judicial institution in the country. Its departments became the highest courts of appeal for provincial courts. Participation in state administration and law-making was expressed only in the fact that he was given the right to make "representations" to the emperor about outdated laws and contradictions in newly issued laws. The Senate also retained the right to audit activities of local administrative bodies.

The Synod was the highest institution for Russian affairs. Orthodox Church. At the head of the Synod was the chief procurator, who, like the members of the Synod, was appointed by the emperor.

In 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, which was given the right to control the activities of the Synod.

9.3. Judiciary

The highest court was the Senate. In 1802, the Ministry of Justice was established, which was supposed to perform the functions of the highest judicial administration and supervision of the activities of judicial institutions.

In the first half of the XIX century. the Upper Zemstvo Courts (for the nobility), the upper and lower reprisals (for the state peasants), and the provincial magistrates (for the philistines) are abolished.

In the provinces there were chambers of criminal and civil courts. They considered cases of all estates and were at the same time the appellate instance for city and county courts. Chambers of the civil court considered cases of real estate in the provinces, disputes over city property. The chambers of the criminal court considered cases of malfeasance of nobles, arson, etc.

In each province there were conscientious courts that considered criminal cases committed by the insane and minors, and civil cases on property disputes between relatives. The task of these courts was to reconcile the parties.

In the two capitals there were court courts that tried the cases of military personnel who were away from the location of the military unit, as well as officials and raznochintsy.

The lower courts were estate and county courts, as well as city magistrates. Departmental courts were also created: military, sea, forestry, mountain, communications, peasant, spiritual. Minor criminal cases were dealt with by mayors, quarterly guards and bailiffs.

The courts were subordinate to the administration. The sentences handed down by the courts were approved by the governor, and some by the Minister of Justice, by the State Council. Supervision of the activities of judicial and local government bodies was carried out by provincial prosecutors, and in counties by county lawyers.

The Russian army, created by Peter I, in this period became one of the strongest in Europe. Her campaigns were led by great commanders: Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Kutuzov.

Together with the entire Russian people, the army won a brilliant victory over the French army in the war of 1812, covering itself with unfading glory.

In 1816, military settlements began to be created, the purpose of which was to reduce the huge costs of maintaining the army in peaceful conditions and to create new system army recruitment. State-owned peasants began to be transferred to the category of military settlers, who were supposed to be engaged in agriculture and carry out military service on a par with soldiers. By 1825, about a third of the soldiers had been transferred to the settlement. Families were assigned to the soldiers. Wives became villagers, sons from the age of seven signed up as cantonists, and from the age of 18 they entered the regiment. A.A. was appointed the chief commander of the military settlements. Arakcheev.

Merciless exploitation and military drill caused frequent peasant unrest. After 1831, military settlements that did not justify their purpose began to be abolished, and by the 1950s they were completely liquidated.

9.5. Police and punitive authorities

In 1802, the Ministry of the Interior was formed, from which the Ministry of Police was later allocated to manage the police. After the Decembrist uprising, the punitive apparatus intensified. The Third Branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery was created, which was engaged in investigating political cases, expelling suspicious people, and monitoring foreign citizens living in Russia. He had at his disposal numerous agents of informers and informers.

At the beginning of the XIX century. gendarmerie units were created, which in 1826 were merged into a separate corps of gendarmes. In 1837, in connection with the division of counties into stans, the positions of bailiffs appeared, who worked in close connection with the rural and patrimonial police. Punitive functions were performed by all links of the state apparatus.

9.6. Law codification

At the beginning of the XIX century. there is a need to codify the archaic and confusing Russian legislation. By this time, a huge amount of regulatory and legal material had accumulated. The Council Code, the legislation of Peter I and his successors continued to operate. In a number of cases, the normative documents came into conflict with each other. The current situation gave rise to the creation of a codification commission under the leadership of M.M. Speransky - a prominent lawyer and public figure, an outstanding and highly educated person. The complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, which consisted of 45 volumes, was prepared and printed in 1830. It included 330,920 normative acts and 6 volumes of applications. The Complete Collection of Laws were placed in chronological order both normative legal documents that were in force and have lost their force, starting with the Cathedral Code and ending with the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas I.

Based on the prepared material by M.M. Speransky compiled the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire in 15 volumes, which was published in 1832, and on January 1, 1835 came into force. The Code includes only existing laws arranged according to a special system developed by M.M. Speransky: laws on authorities, administration and public service; statutes on duties; statutes of state administration; estate laws; civil law; statutes of state improvement; statutes of deanery; criminal laws. The Code system remained unchanged until the October Revolution of 1917, only in 1885 the Code was supplemented by procedural legislation.

An important monument of Russian law in the first half of the 19th century. is the Code of Punishment of Criminal and Correctional, adopted in 1845.

The codification of the laws of the Russian Empire was of great importance. Speransky managed to systematize the current legislation for 176 years, which facilitated its study and practical application.

9.7. Civil law relations according to the Code of Laws

The current civil legislation was systematized in the 9th, 10th and 11th volumes of the Code of Laws. For the first time in Russian legislation, the content of the owner's powers over his movable and immovable property is disclosed in detail.

Land, villages, houses, factories, factories, shops, any buildings and empty courtyards were considered real estate. Real estate could be acquired or ancestral.

Movable property included seagoing and river vessels, books, manuscripts, paintings and other items related to science and art, household items, carriages, implements of land production, tools, horses and other livestock, compressed and threshed bread, factory-made products, metals. , minerals and other minerals.

There were two types of property - private and public. An intermediate position was occupied by the property of the persons of the imperial house.

For the first time, the right of ownership to the results of intellectual creativity was established, which later served as the basis for the formation of copyright and patent law. The terms of use and the procedure for resolving disputes on this type of property are stipulated in the Charter on Censorship and in the Laws on Civil Procedure.

The code of laws distinguishes between full and incomplete private ownership of land and property. By the right of full ownership, the owner had the right not only to the land, but also "to everything that was in its bowels, to the waters located within it." Article 430 stated that even the treasure belonged to the owner of the land and without his permission could not be "searched" either by private individuals or by local authorities. But if someone accidentally found a treasure in a foreign land, then the treasure was divided in half.

Chapter 2 (Article 432) defines partial ownership. The right of ownership is considered incomplete when it is limited by the rights of other persons to use the same objects of ownership:

the right to participate in the use and receive benefits from someone else's property:

land rights in other people's possessions:

ownership of reserved hereditary estates: ownership of estates that complained about the right of majorates in the western provinces.

The right to participate in the use and benefit from someone else's property was of two types - general and private.

The right of passage and travel along the main roads and waterways was secured for everyone, no matter whose possessions they were located. The owners of land adjacent to the main road did not have the right to mow and etch the grass growing along the road in order to leave pasture for driven cattle. The owners of land adjacent to waterways were forbidden to build insufficiently reliable bridges across navigable rivers; on navigable rivers it was not allowed to build mills, dams and other barriers to navigation. They were obliged to "allow" the passage and passage of people engaged in lifting lever vessels and fishing.

Under the right of private participation (Article 442), the owner, whose land lay in the upper reaches of the river, could demand that the neighbor not raise the water level with dams so as not to flood his meadows. Article 445 stipulated the rights of the owner of the house, who could demand that the neighbor not attach kitchens and stoves to the wall of his house, do not pour water and sweep garbage on his house, do not pitch the roof on his yard, etc.

Articles 543 and 544 define common ownership. The right of common ownership referred to property that was indivisible, or to property subject to division. Incomes in such estates were distributed among "all accomplices according to the proportionality of parts."

The right to full disposal of property arose from the age of 21. Persons who received an inheritance could manage their property from the age of 17, but they could manage capital only with the consent of the trustees.

A number of restrictions were set for subjects of other states, non-believers, women, peasants and townspeople. In particular, for the Jews the Pale of Settlement was established, they were forbidden to acquire immovable property outside this Pale.

Peasants who received freedom were forbidden to stand out from the community. Peasants who did not have trade certificates and did not own real estate could not accept bills of exchange obligations.

The pledge right was regulated in detail. It was possible to pledge both movable and immovable property. For bail real estate it was necessary to conclude an agreement with the fulfillment of certain requirements and certification in official bodies. The mortgagee had the right to receive income from real estate. The pledgor was given the right to redeem the mortgaged estate within six months. After this period, the estate was assigned for public sale. Mortgage of movable property was made in writing by private or home order. Only persons who could legally alienate them could pledge things, and only those who could own them on property rights could take things as pledge. Pledged items could not be re-pledged. Collateral became widely practiced in credit institutions.

Obligation law. A contract concluded in writing was considered valid, but in some cases an oral form was allowed.

According to the legislation of the beginning of the XIX century. barter, purchase and sale, sale contracts are known, i.e. preliminary sale with the payment of a cash deposit and the conclusion subsequently of a contract of sale, donation, contract, supply, loan, insurance, personal and property hire, luggage, transportation, partnership.

There were four types of partnerships: complete, when all participants are responsible for transactions with their property, by faith or by contributions, a joint-stock company ("by plots") and an artel, when all participants have a common account. To create a partnership, only registration was required, and to create a joint-stock company, government permission was required.

Real estate could be rented out for up to 12 years. At the same time, the new owner had the right to unilaterally terminate the lease agreement concluded by his predecessor.

The law established interest (6%) on loans in the event that they were not specified in the contract. Loan letters could be transferred to third parties, assuming obligations to pay the debt and the right to foreclose on the debtor.

The sold family estate within three years could be redeemed by members of this family or clan.

The contract of personal employment was drawn up on stamped paper and entered in the broker's book. Parents had the right to send their children without their consent to learn a craft. Peasants and philistines who did not pay fines were given to forced labor.

The deposit agreement was drawn up in writing, and if the property was stolen along with the property of the receiver or burned down in a fire, then no one was responsible for the safety of this property. In the event of the insolvency of the person who handed over the things for storage, the receiver was obliged to report on the location of his property.

Family law. Family and marriage relations have always been a sedentary, conservative area of ​​law and have been strongly influenced by the church. According to the law, only church marriage was recognized. Persons of the Orthodox Christian denomination could not marry persons of other denominations. The subordinate position of women in the family was still preserved. The law allowed the husband to punish his wife. A passport to a wife could be issued only with the permission of her husband. The wife had to follow her husband in the event of a change of residence by the latter. The marriageable age for boys was set at 18, for girls - from 16. At the same time, bishops, in some cases, were given the right to reduce the marriageable age. It was forbidden to marry men over 80, women over 60. Marriage required not only the consent of the spouses, but also their parents or guardians. For the military, the consent of the higher authorities was required, for the landlord peasants - the consent of the landowner.

The spouses had separate property rights. The wife's dowry and property received as a gift or inheritance, as well as acquired personally during marriage, were considered her separate property. Spouses could independently dispose of their property. The spouses were not responsible for each other's debts.

The father had authority over the children. From children, no complaints against parents were accepted in court, and parents had the right to apply to the court with a request to place their children in custody for two to four months. If adult children lived with their parents, they did not have the right to enter into any property transactions. Children separated from their parents had the right to dispose of their property at their own discretion. Illegitimate children did not have the right to the father's surname and to inherit his property.

The power over the children passed to the mother in the event of the death of the father or deprivation of his status by the court.

Inheritance law. The property was transferred to the heirs by law and by will. According to the law, sons were considered the heirs of the first stage, then grandchildren and great-grandchildren.

In the absence of male heirs, the daughters, granddaughters and great-granddaughters of the deceased became heirs. If there were no direct heirs, then the inheritance was transferred to relatives along the side line. The property of a deceased childless son or daughter, received from the parents, was returned to the parents. The surviving spouse received 1/7 of the real estate and 1/4 of the movable. Sisters with living brothers received 1/14 of real estate and 1/8 of movable property.

At one's discretion, one could bequeath only acquired property. Family property could be bequeathed only in cases where the testator was childless, and only to a surviving spouse for life use or to a close relative.

The heirs were obliged to pay all the debts of the deceased, even if the inheritance property was not enough.

The inheritance was considered escheated and entered the treasury if there were no heirs at all or none of them appeared within 10 years to receive the inheritance.

9.8. Criminal law

Criminal law was also codified and included in the Code of Laws, but it did not suit Nicholas I, therefore, in 1845, the Code on Penal and Correctional Punishments was prepared. The code established the forms of guilt, the stages of the commission of a crime, the types of complicity, mitigating or aggravating circumstances. Criminal liability came from the age of 7. The Code applied to all Russian subjects. Ignorance of the law did not exempt from punishment. Any violation of the law was considered a crime. A misdemeanor was understood as a violation of the rules prescribed for the protection of rights defined by law and personal safety. Crimes and misdemeanors were divided into intentional, i.e. premeditated, and unintentional, committed by "sudden prompting." Complicity in a crime was determined, the main perpetrators and participants in the crime were singled out. The accomplices of the crime were divided into: the instigators who controlled the actions during the commission of the crime; accomplices who took part in the crime; conspirators or instigators who persuaded others to commit a crime; accomplices who themselves did not participate in the commission of the crime, but helped to commit it; connivances who had the opportunity to prevent the crime, but allowed it; the hiders who hid the stolen things and the criminals themselves. Persons who knew about the crime and did not inform about it were recognized as "touched" by the crime.

The most serious crimes were actions directed against the church and state crimes: treason, rebellion, encroachment on the life of "the emperor and members of the imperial court." Crimes against the order of management and malfeasance are specially highlighted. Such crimes included forgery of documents, embezzlement of public funds, disobedience to the authorities, disclosure of official secrets. New norms "On disobedience of factory and factory people" appeared in the Code. Punishment for strikers was envisaged. The instigators were arrested for up to three months, the participants - from seven days to three weeks.

The most serious crime against citizens was considered murder, which was divided into qualified, intentional and unintentional. Qualified murder included the murder of parents, boss, master, priest, master, as well as murder committed in a way that was painful for the victim. A qualified murder was punishable by the deprivation of all rights of the state and a link to hard labor.

Property crimes, arson and horse theft were punishable by imprisonment or hard labor for different dates.

Crimes against the family and morality included: forced marriage, polygamy, adultery and rape. For such crimes, they were sent to correctional prison departments or hard labor for various periods. Chapter two of the Code lists all types of punishment: the death penalty, exile to hard labor or to a settlement in Siberia and the Caucasus, public corporal punishment with whips, deprivation of property rights, loss of family rights, temporary imprisonment in a fortress (in a strait house or in prison) , short-term arrest, monetary penalties, remarks and suggestions. The death penalty sometimes replaced by political "death", followed by a link to hard labor. The deprivation of all the rights of the state was always accompanied by the deprivation of all titles, ranks and orders. The deprivation of the rights of the state did not extend to the wife and children of the convict. Men over the age of 70 and women were exempted from branding.

Nobles, clerics and merchants were subjected to such a measure of punishment as deprivation of the nobility, ranks, the right to enter the state service, deprivation of a spiritual title, merchants were forbidden to enroll in merchant guilds. In addition to the main punishments, additional ones were also used: church repentance, confiscation of property, police supervision.

The Code provided for a class approach to criminals. Nobles, clergy, merchants of the first and second guilds were exempted from branding, shackling, and whipping. They could serve a short arrest at home, while others - in police stations.

9.9. Trial

The litigation during the period under review had the following features. The decree of 1801 forbade torture during the investigation, but in practice they were used. The investigation and execution of the sentence were carried out by the police. Supervision of the investigation was carried out by the prosecutor and solicitors. After the end of the investigation, the case went to court. Court hearings were held behind closed doors. The cases were considered only on the basis of written testimony. Parties and witnesses were not admitted to court. The main evidence of guilt was the written confession of the accused, which was often torn out by torture. The verdict was passed on formal grounds: how much - "for", how much - "against". Due to the unprovability of guilt, the case was terminated, but then the person remained "in suspicion" for life. The verdict was almost impossible to appeal. There was no lawyer. Cases were conducted very slowly, and bribery and abuse flourished in court. The educational level of the judges was very low.

On the whole, the Complete Collection of Laws and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire were of great political and legal significance. The created system of law operated almost until the end of the existence of the empire.

9.10. Socio-political movements

First half of the 19th century characterized by the rise of popular consciousness, as a result of which the socio-political movement became more active. Progressive-minded representatives of different strata of society felt the need for fundamental changes, developed their own programs to change the socio-political system of the country. The Patriotic War of 1812 contributed to the formation of a revolutionary worldview among the advanced part of the nobility. Secret societies in the form of officer associations are evidence of this. In 1816, a secret society of future Decembrists, the Union of Salvation, arose, which developed a program and constitutional drafts. The author of the draft "Constitution" was N.M. Muravyov, the author of "Russian Truth" - P.I. Pestel.

N.M. Muravyov was a supporter of the constitutional monarchy. Legislative power, in his opinion, should belong to the people's council, and the executive - to the emperor. The emperor commanded the troops, but did not have the right to start a war and make peace. The emperor could not leave the territory of the empire, otherwise he would lose his imperial rank. He was assigned a salary in the amount of 8 million rubles. annually. He could support the court staff at his own expense.

The electoral rights of citizens were limited by educational and property qualifications. According to N. Muravyov's constitution, serfdom was to be abolished and military settlements liquidated. The Table of Ranks, estates and nationalities were cancelled. The concept of a citizen of the Russian state was introduced. All Russians are equal before the law. The future Russia was presented as a federal state. The empire was divided into 15 powers. Each state had its own capital. Nizhny Novgorod should become the capital of the federation.

P.I. Pestel was a supporter of republican rule. Autocracy in Russia, according to Pestel's Russkaya Pravda, must be destroyed. The royal family was physically exterminated. In his opinion, all estates in the state should be merged "into a single civil estate." All Russians were declared equally noble. All were declared equal before the law. Civil age came at the age of 20 years. All male citizens were given the right to vote. Women, both under the Muravyov project and under the Pestel project, did not have voting rights.

The Republic of Pestel was divided into provinces, provinces - into counties, counties - into volosts. The People's Council should become the legislative body. The executive power in the state was handed over to the State Duma. In addition to the legislative and executive power, there was also a supervisory power. Nizhny Novgorod should become the capital of the republic.

Russkaya Pravda by Pestel is a revolutionary project for the bourgeois reconstruction of serfdom in Russia.

As you know, the Decembrists were defeated, but social movement became even more active, the delimitation of three ideological directions began: conservative, liberal, radical.

A conservative position was formulated by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov, who created the theory of official nationality, which consisted in a voluntary union of the sovereign and the people. Autocracy was recognized as the only form of government. The uselessness of social changes and the need to strengthen the autocracy and serfdom were substantiated.

This theory has drawn sharp criticism from both radicals and liberals. Of the radicals, P.Ya. Chaadaev with his Philosophical Letters, in which he sharply criticized serfdom and autocracy. In his opinion, neither in the past nor in the present, the Russian people have anything bright. main reason he saw the backwardness and stagnant existence of Russia in the absence of progressive social and cultural traditions. He saw the salvation of Russia in the unification of all Christian countries into a new community that would ensure the spiritual freedom and progress of all peoples.

Chaadaev's ideas about the role and fate of church life were picked up and continued by Vl. Solovyov and A. Herzen.

Among the noble intelligentsia at the turn of the 30s - 40s, two currents developed - Slavophiles and Westerners.

The Slavophiles considered it necessary to re-evaluate the experience of pre-Petrine Russia on the importance of the peasant community, local self-government, the role of the state principle and the relationship between law and custom. They considered Orthodoxy the only true and deeply moral religion. The Slavophiles fought against servility to the West.

The Westerners believed that Russia should develop according to the Western model. They advocated a broad education of the people, criticized the feudal system.

Numerous educational circles arose during the period under review. Their members shared the ideology of the Decembrists, read the famous message of A.S. Pushkin to Siberia and the response of the Decembrists. According to V.I. Lenin, the Decembrists woke up Herzen, and Herzen woke up the Narodniks.

Chapter 10. STATE AND LAW OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Russia in the first half of the 19th century was one of the greatest powers in the world. However, during this period in its history, it is not difficult to notice a combination of contradictory phenomena and trends, which as a result led to an intensification of the revolutionary struggle and violent upheavals at the beginning of the twentieth century.
The conditionally described period can be limited to the reign of two emperors: Alexander I (1801-1825) and Nicholas I (1825-1855). If the second of them openly and consistently was an adherent of cane discipline (for which he was nicknamed Nikolai Palkin in the army), then the first made attempts to play liberal. Examples of the “democratic” innovations of this tsar are the abolition of corporal punishment for nobles and merchants, the permission for Russians to travel abroad without special permission, the creation of an “Indispensable Council” to “supervise the observance of the rule of law” and the adoption of a decree on free cultivators (1803). But next to all this, there was a regime of total surveillance and barracks rules, which was associated with the name of General Arakcheev. But Arakcheev acted with the full approval of the king!
The Russian economy in the first half of the 19th century showed a significant step forward. The first signs of the industrial revolution appeared (including the railway). The number of industrial enterprises and workers on them grew (more than three times in 50 years). Highways appeared in the central part of the country. But at the same time, a backward serf system was preserved, and this despite the fact that the peasants made up about 80% of the population. In the first half of the 19th century, even in industry, it was mainly serfs who were “assigned” to enterprises that worked. Of course, in this case it was impossible to speak of the emergence of a stratum of skilled, conscious workers. The development of agriculture also slowed down, which could no longer rely on the involuntary labor of serfs. Russia was lagging behind its Western neighbors economically.
The territory of the empire continued to grow, Russia advanced to the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, significant territories in Central Asia, Bessarabia, and the Amur region were annexed. However, the national lands were not at all calm, in order to keep them in the empire, significant efforts were required. In 1830-1831, a powerful uprising broke out in Poland (it also seized Ukrainian and Belarusian lands). For more than 20 years (1834-1859) the highlanders of the Caucasus, led by Imam Shamil, fought against the Russian presence. Even contemporaries called it "war", not "rebellion".
Russian military policy in the first half of the 19th century knew many successes. The wars with Napoleonic France ended in victory (despite sensitive setbacks in the period from 1801 to 1811). Two campaigns against Turkey and a war with Iran (1826-1828) were successfully carried out. But the Crimean War against France and England (1853-1856) brought a rather shameful defeat. The Black Sea military fleet was lost, Russia lost many foreign policy acquisitions acquired earlier. The legendary defense of Sevastopol and the success of military operations in the Caucasus showed that the Russian soldier is still good. But the provision of the army is outdated, and therefore Russia has yielded to technically more advanced countries. In foreign policy, Russian tsarism introduced the fear of any dissent, which turned Russia into the "gendarme of Europe." It was the desire to destroy even a hint of a revolutionary idea that gave rise to the Union of the Three Emperors, which took shape in 1814-1815. Russia was the initiator of this agreement.
At the same time, many Russians did not share this point of view at all. The first half of the century was the era of the birth of Russian revolutionism. by the most bright event was, of course, the Decembrist uprising in 1825. The ideas of the Great French Revolution and the utopian socialists spread throughout the country. In the same period, Alexander Herzen began his activity, becoming the first Russian revolutionary publisher.
The first half of the 19th century should be considered a period of rapid rise in Russian culture. Suffice it to say that this was the era of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Glinka, Bryullov. For the first time, Karamzin made an attempt to systematize information on Russian history on a scientific basis. New universities were opened, including such significant ones as Kharkov (1805) and Kyiv (1834). And at the same time, more than three-quarters of the country's population were people completely or almost illiterate. Theological doctrine was imposed on education, and Nicholas I even believed that people did not need to know anything beyond what they needed for service.
As we can see, the first half of the 19th century singled out and deepened all the main contradictions of Russian life. The crisis of the old state system became obvious, and questions arose about who and how will change this system.

The culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century is a significant stage in the development of the spiritual and moral values ​​of Russian society. It is amazing what scale the creative process has assumed, all the depth of its content and richness of forms. For half a century, the cultural community has risen to a new level: multifaceted, polyphonic, unique.

Prerequisites for the emergence and cultural development of the "golden age"

The development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century was due to a high degree of national interests. Humanitarian education, begun under Catherine II, gave impetus to the development of education, the opening of many educational institutions and the expansion of opportunities for obtaining new knowledge.

The borders of the state were expanded, on the territory of which about 165 different peoples with their customs and mentality. New navigators and discoverers continued the traditions of their predecessors.

The Russian-French war of 1812 influenced the formation of patriotic thought, moral values ​​of the Russian people. In the first half of the 19th century, Russia attracted interest by the national self-consciousness that had become stronger in society.

However, the current political situation within the country did not give complete freedom to implement all ideas in art. The uprising of the Decembrists and the activities of secret societies forced the Russian emperors to prevent the penetration of advanced ideas into any cultural spheres.

The science

The improvement of public education was reflected in the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Briefly, it can be called dual. On the one hand, new educational institutions were opened, on the other hand, strict censorship measures were introduced, for example, philosophy lessons were canceled. In addition, universities and gymnasiums were constantly under the strict supervision of the Ministry of Public Education.

Despite this, Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century is characterized by a big breakthrough in the development of science.

Biology and medicine

The material on the animal and plant world that had accumulated by the beginning of the 19th century required rethinking and developing new theories. This was done by Russian naturalists K.M. Baer, ​​I.A. Dvigubsky, I.E. Dyadkovsky.

The richest collections of plants and animals from different parts of the world were collected. And in 1812, the opening of the Botanical Garden in the Crimea took place.

N.I. made his tangible contribution to the development of medicine. Pirogov. Thanks to his selfless work, the world learned what military field surgery is.

Geology and astronomy

With the beginning of the century, geology also waited in the wings. Its development covered all Russian lands.

A significant achievement was the compilation of the first geological map of Russia in 1840. This was done by the research scientist N.I. Koksharov.

Astronomy required careful and scrupulous calculations and observations. It took a long time. The process was greatly facilitated when the Pulkovo Observatory was established in 1839.

Mathematics and physics

Worldwide discoveries have been made in mathematics. So, N.I. Lobachevsky became famous for his "non-Euclidean geometry". P.L. Chebyshev substantiated the law of large numbers, and M.V. Ostrogradsky studied analytical and celestial mechanics.

The first half of the 19th century can be called a golden time for physics, because the first electromagnetic telegraph was created (P.L. Schilling), the result of an experiment on electric lighting was obtained (V.V. Petrov), an electric motor was invented (E.Kh. Lenz).

Architecture

The artistic culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century attracted considerable public interest. The most important feature of its development was the rapid change of styles, as well as their combination.

Classicism reigned in architecture until the 1840s. The Empire style can be recognized in many buildings of the two capitals, as well as in many regional centers that were previously provincial cities.

This time is characterized by the construction of architectural ensembles. For example, or the Senate in St. Petersburg.

The culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century gave rise to bright representatives of this style. Architecture was expressed in the works of A.D. Zakharova, K.I. Rossi, D.I. Gilardi, O.I. Beauvais.

The Empire style replaced the Russian-Byzantine style, in which the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the Armory were built (architect K.A. Ton).

Painting

This period in painting is characterized by an interest in the personality of an ordinary person. Artists are moving away from traditional biblical and mythological styles.

Among other outstanding sculptors of that time were I.I. Terebenev ("Poltava battle"), V.I. Demut-Malinovsky, B.I. Orlovsky (the figure of an angel on the Alexander Column), etc.

Music

The culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century experienced a huge influence of the heroic past. The music was influenced by folk melodies as well as national themes. These currents are reflected in the opera "Ivan Susanin" by K.A. Kavos, works by A.A. Alyabyeva, A.E. Varlamov.

M.I. Glinka occupied a central place among composers. He approved new traditions and discovered genres never seen before. The opera A Life for the Tsar fully reflects the essence of the musician's entire work.

Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century gave rise to another brilliant composer who introduced the genre of psychological drama into music. This is A.S. Dargomyzhsky and his great opera "Mermaid".

Theatre

The Russian theater opened up space for the imagination, practically abandoning ceremonial performances in the style of classicism. Now romantic motifs, tragic plots of plays prevailed there.

One of the most famous representatives of the theatrical environment was P.S. Mochalov, who played the roles of Hamlet and Ferdinand (according to Shakespeare).

The reformer of Russian acting art M.S. Shchepkin was a native of serfs. He gave completely new ideas, thanks to which his roles were admired, and the Maly Theater of Moscow became the most popular place among the audience.

The realistic style in the theater was generated by the works of A.S. Pushkin, A.S. Griboyedov.

Literature

The most important social problems reflected the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Literature strengthened referring to the historical past of the country. An example of this is N.M. Karamzin.

Romanticism in literature was represented by such prominent figures as V.A. Zhukovsky, A.I. Odoevsky, early A.S. Pushkin. The late stage of Pushkin's work is realism. "Boris Godunov", "The Captain's Daughter", "The Bronze Horseman" are inscribed in this direction. In addition, M.Yu. Lermontov created "A Hero of Our Time", which is an outstanding example of realism literature.

Critical realism became the basis of N.V. Gogol ("Overcoat", "Inspector").

Among other representatives of literature who influenced its formation, one can name A.N. Ostrovsky with his unusually realistic plays, I.S. Turgenev, who paid his attention to the theme of the serf village and nature, as well as D.V. Grigorovich.

Literature has made a significant contribution to the cultural development of Russia. The first half of the 19th century is characterized by the formation of a modern literary language instead of the ponderous and ornate language of the 18th century. The work of writers and poets of this period became a landmark and influenced the further formation of not only Russian, but also world culture.

Having absorbed and rethought the works of Russian and European civilizations, the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century created a solid foundation for the favorable development of science and art in the future.

In the first half of the 19th century

(2 hours)

2.1 Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century Alexander I: from reforms to reaction. First quarter of the 19th century - the reign of Emperor Alexander I, who ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup on March 11, 1801. A favorite of Catherine II, Alexander received an excellent education under the guidance of the Swiss republican F.S. Laharpe, who inspired the young pupil with the high ideals of the philosophy of the Enlightenment (freedom, equality, legality, dignity of the individual). However, in real life, the heir observed something else - the flourishing of serfdom and the corruption of high dignitaries, court intrigues, hostility between grandmother and father. The result was the duality of Alexander's views and policies.

Historical sketch:

The opinions of contemporaries about Alexander I were extremely contradictory. Napoleon, who was ambivalent about Alexander, noted: “Alexander is smart, pleasant, educated, but he cannot be trusted; he is insincere." A.S. Pushkin, noting the "beginning of the days of Alexander", called the emperor "the ruler is weak and crafty." P. A. Vyazemsky, a friend of the poet and a well-known journalist, wrote about him: “... the sphinx, unsolved to the grave, is still arguing about it again.”

Having ascended the throne, Alexander declared that he would rule "according to the laws and the heart", but the need for a new course was clear to the king and his inner circle. The main tasks were seen as the limitation of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom and the comprehensive development of education, designed to prepare the people for the perception of political freedoms. The need to limit the autocracy was determined both by memories of the despotism and arbitrariness of Paul, and by the spread of the ideas of the Great French Revolution, which began to influence Russian society.

In the first years of his reign, an Unspoken Committee was formed around Alexander - a circle of liberal-minded young aristocrats (Count P.A. Stroganov, Count V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev, Prince A. Czartorysky). It was decided to begin the preparation of reforms with the improvement of the administration. The reform of 1802 replaced the obsolete colleges with new central bodies - ministries based on strict unity of command (the minister reported directly to the emperor and received orders from him on the most important issues). Eight ministries were formed: military, maritime, internal affairs, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. The Committee of Ministers was established. The Senate was restored in the rights of the highest administrative-judicial institution.

In the peasant question, the government sought not to infringe on the interests of the landowners, but at the same time to alleviate the lot of the peasants, primarily serfs. The decree of 1801 allowed not only nobles, but also merchants, petty bourgeois, state and appanage peasants to buy land. In 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", which gave the landowners the right to release peasants with land for a ransom. However, the landowners held fast to free peasant labor, they were afraid to go bankrupt during the transition to civilian relations. People from captivity and those taken by recruitment received freedom. Successful business went in the western lands of the empire (the Baltic states), which were distinguished by a higher level of development of commodity-money relations. Here serfdom was abolished in 1804-1819 - the peasants received freedom, but without land.

The new regulation on educational institutions of 1803 introduced an all-estate system of four levels (parochial school - county school - gymnasium - university). It was assumed that any native of the free estates, having started his studies from the lowest level, would be able to reach the university. New universities were opened in St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov, Vilna (now Vilnius, Lithuania) and Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia). The charter of 1804 granted the universities significant autonomy (the right to choose a rector and professors, to independently decide their own affairs). In the same year, a very liberal censorship charter was issued. Such measures Winter Palace tried to win over the sympathy of the enlightened part of society.

In 1808-1812. the preparation of projects for the reorganization of the state management system, which was concentrated in the Ministry of Internal Affairs and was under the leadership of M.M. Speransky.

Speransky Mikhail Mikhailovich (1772-1839)- statesman, closest associate of Alexander I. Developed a plan for constitutional transformation political system Russia (“Introduction to the Code of State Laws”, 1809). Prepared the transformation of ministries (1811) and the establishment of the Council of State (1810). Exiled at the insistence of conservative dignitaries and the upper nobility. During the reign of Nicholas I, he led the codification of legislation, in fact he headed the II department of the Imperial Chancellery. Prepared the publication of the Code of Laws and the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire.

By 1809, Speransky prepared a draft reform called "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." Speransky's project proceeded from the need to "clothe" the monarchy with a constitution, to abolish serfdom, gradually and in stages. Speransky proposed to introduce representative government in Russia based on the separation of powers. The tops of society were to elect deputies to local dumas and State Duma which had legislative functions. Ministries in the center and local governments were the executive power. Courts independent of the administration were to be subordinate to the Senate. The emperor was the center of all authorities, under which the State Council was established to coordinate the management system. The project also provided for social changes: the entire population of the country was divided into three estates (the nobility, the “middle class” and the “working people”), which were endowed with various general civil and political rights.

The implementation of Speransky's project began with the opening of the State Council (1810) and the reorganization of ministries (1811). In an effort to attract a new generation of enlightened and competent officials to the service, Speransky insisted on the publication in 1809 of a decree according to which promotion depended on having a university diploma. In response to Speransky’s project, N. M. Karamzin submitted to the tsar a note “On Ancient and New Russia”, in which he argued that any violation of the autocratic nature of tsarist power would lead Russia to confusion, that Russia’s prosperity would not be brought administrative reforms, but the selection of worthy people for leadership positions. Under pressure from the conservative environment, Alexander was forced in March 1812 to remove Speransky from business and send him into exile. Nevertheless, Alexander did not immediately part with the idea of ​​\u200b\u200breforms. After the end of the Napoleonic wars, at his insistence, Central Poland (the Kingdom of Poland) was included in the Russian Empire, in which a constitutional device was introduced: the parliament (Seim) was endowed with legislature. The executive power was handed over to the emperor, who was represented in the Kingdom by the viceroy. A few years earlier, in 1809, after being incorporated into the Empire, Finland was also granted a constitution.

Opening the meeting of the Polish Sejm in 1818, Alexander announced his intention to grant a constitutional order to all of Russia. N. N. Novosiltsev led the work on the preparation of a new reform. According to his project, called the "State Charter of the Russian Empire", Russia was supposed to introduce basic civil liberties (speech, conscience, movement, etc.), bicameral representation and broad regional autonomy. New projects for the abolition of serfdom were also developed. But the king did not dare to accept them.

In 1816 military settlements were created. This undertaking, designed to reduce the cost of the army, turned out to be one of the most reactionary measures of Alexander's reign, the worst form of serfdom. Military settlements were created in St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kharkov provinces. The settlers (soldiers stationed in the villages and state peasants, transferred to the category of military personnel) had to be engaged in both agriculture and military service. A. Arakcheev became the head of the military settlements. The introduction of military settlements caused stubborn resistance, which was ruthlessly suppressed by armed force.

In 1820, the Guards Semyonovsky Regiment revolted in St. Petersburg, outraged by the cruel treatment of the commanders. Under the influence of uprisings in Russia and new revolutions in the West, Alexander I is increasingly turning to the path of reaction. In 1821, St. Petersburg and Kazan universities were destroyed, the best professors were fired or put on trial.

From the beginning of the 1820s, news reached Alexander about secret anti-government societies of officers, conspiracies, and plans for regicide. Seeing the actual collapse of his policy, Alexander increasingly moved away from state affairs, transferring them to Arakcheev (since 1822 he was the only speaker to the tsar on all issues). The unexpected death of Alexander in Taganrog gave rise to a legend about a secret renunciation of power and leaving "to the people" under the name of the elder Fyodor Kuzmich, but no documentary evidence of this legend was found.

By the beginning of the XIX century. new trends in the socio-political development of Russia necessitated fundamental changes in the spheres of the peasant question, public administration, and the spread of education. However, after the completion of the Napoleonic wars, the reforms were curtailed and the transition to reaction took place. The reason for the failure of the reforms was the weakness of internal prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom, the resistance of conservative circles. The refusal of the government to carry out reforms had a negative impact on the further development of the country and became one of the most important prerequisites for the emergence of a revolutionary movement (Decembrists) in the country.

2.2 Defeated Napoleon and the beginning of the Caucasian wars. Finished by the end of the XVIII century. access to natural borders (the Black Sea and the foothills of the Caucasus), Russia met with strong opponents - Ottoman Empire and Persia. Traditional for Russian foreign policy was the slogan of protecting the Christians of the Balkans and Transcaucasia from the oppression of the Muslim powers. Following Eastern Georgia (Kartli - Kakheti) (1801), by 1804, the Georgian principalities of Guria, Imeretia, Megrelia became part of Russia. Iran refused to recognize the accession of Georgia to Russia and opened hostilities in the Transcaucasus. As a result Russian-Iranian war 1804-1813, victorious for Russia, the Gulistan peace was concluded (Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan became part of Russia). In 1806 began Russian-Turkish war, the reason for which was the removal by the Sultan from power of the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia. According to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812, Bessarabia and a section of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus with the city of Sukhum became part of Russia, the autonomy of Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia was confirmed, and Russia's right to patronage the Balkan Christians.

The core of international contradictions in the first quarter of the XIX century. was the confrontation between Napoleonic France and the European powers, primarily England, France's rival in colonial and commercial affairs. Alexander I concluded peace treaties with both England and France, but the unstable balance could not last long. In 1805, Russia, together with England, Austria and Sweden, became part of the 3rd anti-Napoleonic coalition, which disintegrated after the defeat of the allied armies in November 1805 near Austerlitz.

In 1806, an anti-Napoleonic coalition was formed (England, Prussia, Russia). Almost immediately after entering the war, Prussia was defeated by Napoleonic troops, and Berlin was taken. Near Friedland (East Prussia), the Russian army suffered a heavy defeat. In 1807, the Treaty of Tilsit was signed between Russia and France. Russia and France delimited spheres of influence. Napoleon recognized Russia's right to Bessarabia, Russia got the opportunity to enter the war with Sweden for Finland and secure its northwestern borders (according to the Friedrichsgam peace of 1809). At the request of Napoleon, Russia was forced to participate in the continental blockade of England, which undermined the Russian economy.

Despite assurances of peacefulness, the parties understood the temporary nature of the truce. The threat to Russia was the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon, which became a springboard for French troops. Since 1811, the parties began to prepare for a new war. The reasons for the war were: the clash of Napoleon's claims to world domination with the desire of Alexander I to lead European politics, the conflict between France and Russia due to non-compliance with the continental blockade, the Polish question, the German problem (Napoleon annexed the duchy of Oldenburg to France, which belonged to Alexander's uncle).

On June 12 (24), about 450 thousand Napoleon's soldiers (French, Polish, German, Spanish, Portuguese troops), crossing the Neman River, invaded Russia. The Russian army numbered more than 220 thousand people. Napoleon's plan was to defeat the Russian armies one by one, without going deep into Russian territory. In an effort to avoid defeat, the armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration (covering the St. Petersburg and Moscow directions) began to retreat inland. After the outbreak of hostilities, a guerrilla war unfolded, the population left along with the retreating troops. The war took on the character of a Patriotic war, that is, a nationwide war based on the broad participation of the civilian population in the hostilities.

The Russian armies managed to break away from the enemy and unite on August 2 (14) near Smolensk. The question of unity of command arose, and at the insistence of his closest advisers, Alexander I appointed M. I. Kutuzov, who was popular in the army and among the people, as commander-in-chief. In an effort to raise the morale of the troops, recognizing the impossibility of surrendering Moscow without a fight, Kutuzov decides to give a general battle to Napoleon near the village. Borodino near Mozhaisk. Kutuzov's task was to stop the advance of the enemy, undermine his military power and, if successful, go on the counteroffensive. Napoleon, on the other hand, hoped to destroy the Russian army and dictate the terms of peace from Moscow. The battle took place on August 26 (September 7). Both sides suffered colossal losses, but for the Napoleonic army, the consequences of the battle were more severe. The halo of invincibility of the great commander was undermined. At the same time, the Russian army did not have the strength for the second general battle, it was decided to leave Moscow. On September 2 (14), Napoleon entered the city devastated by fire and depopulated. Leaving Moscow along the Ryazan road, the Russian army, having carried out a march maneuver, crossed to the Kaluga road and camped near the village of Tarutino. This made it possible to cover south direction to Ukraine and to the Tula arms factories. On October 7 (19), Napoleon withdrew his army from Moscow, and after a fierce battle near Maloyaroslavets, the French emperor gave the order to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road.

The growing partisan movement involved both spontaneous peasant detachments and army battle groups. Hussar Lieutenant Colonel D.V. Davydov, soldier Yermolai Chetvertakov, peasants Gerasim Kurin, Vasilisa Kozhina and others were especially famous among the partisan commanders. no more than 30 thousand French soldiers crossed.

However, Napoleon retained the backbone of the army, kept all of Europe in subjection and prepared to resume the war. Russia transferred hostilities to Europe, calling on its peoples to rise up against Napoleonic rule. An alliance was formed between Russia, Prussia and Austria. Napoleon, meanwhile, managed to inflict a series of serious defeats on the allies. However, in October 1813, the allied forces delivered a decisive blow to Napoleon near Leipzig (“Battle of the Nations”). Soon France capitulated. Patriotic war of 1812 and foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. became the largest milestone in the history of Russia, they sharply increased its international significance, provided it with a leading role in European affairs. The war contributed to the colossal growth of national self-consciousness.

The results of the Napoleonic wars were summed up at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). Napoleon was deprived of the throne, exiled to the island of Elba, and then, after an attempt to return to power ("one hundred days") - to St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean. France was returning to pre-revolutionary borders. On the thrones of France, Spain, the Italian states, the old royal dynasties were restored. Russia included the Duchy of Warsaw in its composition, granting it a constitutional structure. Alexander I invited the monarchs of Austria and Prussia to conclude a Holy Alliance - an agreement on Christian friendship and love, which were supposed to bind the rulers of Europe with each other and with their subjects. Russia's participation in the Holy Alliance, its active role in organizing counter-revolutionary interventions provoked sharp protests in the liberal circles of Russian society and contributed to the resumption of the opposition movement in Russia.

In connection with the inclusion of Transcaucasia into Russia, the question arose of subordinating the North Caucasus. By the beginning of the century, about 100 nationalities lived in the North Caucasus, the population numbered approximately 1.5 million people. The way of life of the highlanders intertwined tribal, slaveholding and feudal relations. Some regions of the Caucasus (Ossetia, Kabarda) voluntarily accepted Russian citizenship, others (Adygea, Cherkessia, Chechnya) resisted the Russian troops. Since 1817, under the leadership of General A.P. Yermolov, the advance of Russian troops in the North Caucasus began. This caused a movement of murids, fighters for the faith, among the mountaineers-Muslims. Under the leadership of the spiritual leader (imam), the murids waged a holy war against the "infidels" (Christians) - ghazavat, which lasted until 1864.

2.3 Decembrist movement. At the beginning of the century, the social movement gradually split into two currents: government and opposition. At the origins of the first of them was a remarkable historian, writer, publicist N. M. Karamzin. He considered the only acceptable path of evolutionary development under the state system, which is characteristic of every nation. In his opinion, the monarchical form of government most fully corresponded to the level of morality and enlightenment of the Russian people, at the same time, the country should be governed on the basis of firm and clear laws. Karamzin outlined his views in a note "On ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations."

The 1810s-1820s were marked by the birth and development of the revolutionary movement of the Decembrists in Russia. Unlike the countries of Western, Central and Southern Europe, which went through a period of bourgeois revolutions, the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. was represented almost exclusively by the nobility. This was explained by the peculiarities of the country's social structure: the weakness and lack of independence of the bourgeoisie, which had barely begun to emerge in the 18th century, and the leading social role of the nobility.

The participants of the Decembrist societies were young nobles, officers who realized negative impact autocracy and serfdom on the development of the country, who dreamed of putting an end to Russia's lagging behind the advanced countries of Europe. A huge incentive was the foreign campaigns of 1813-1814, during which the officers became closely acquainted with the way of Europe and felt the contrast with the order that prevailed in Russia. The ideology of the Decembrists was based both on the concepts of the French philosophers of the Enlightenment (Rousseau, Diderot, Voltaire), and on the ideas of Russian freethinkers (N. I. Novikova, A. N. Radishcheva). One of the main sources of Decembrism was the Patriotic War against Napoleonic France. The active participation in the war of the people, their heroism came into sharp conflict with the serfdom and class system that prevailed in Russia. Finally, revolutionary uprisings in European countries (the revolutions of the early 1820s in Spain and the states of Italy) served as an example for the Decembrists.

The first political organization was founded in 1816 in St. Petersburg " Salvation Union, the founders of which were A.N. Muravyov, N.M. Muravyov, brothers M.I. and S.I. Muravyov-Apostles, S. P. Trubetskoy, P. I. Pestel. A small and closed (up to 30 people) society was of a conspiratorial nature and did not have a well-thought-out tactic. At the time of the change of reign, it was supposed to “pull out” the constitution from the new king, refusing to take an oath to him, thoughts of regicide were nurtured. The search for a different tactic led to the creation in 1818 new (up to 200 people) organizations - "Union of Prosperity". The main task of the "Union" was declared to influence public opinion, to help the government in carrying out reforms. Books and literary almanacs were published, schools for the people were established, propaganda was carried out in the salons against serfdom and cruel orders in the army.

The government's turn to reaction, differences among the Decembrists led to the elimination of 1821 of the "Union of Welfare" and the emergence Northern and Southern Societies. The northern society with its center in St. Petersburg was headed by N. M. Muravyov, S. P. Trubetskoy, and K. F. Ryleev. In Ukraine, at the points of deployment of army formations, the Southern Society arose, the leader of which was P.I. Pestel.

Pestel Pavel Ivanovich(1793-1826) - one of the leaders of the Decembrist movement, a member of the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare, leader of the Southern Society. The son of the Siberian governor-general, colonel, commander of the Vyatka infantry regiment, hero of Borodin and Leipzig. Everyone who knew Pestel admired his mind and willpower, although they feared his colossal ambition, finding in him, even outwardly, a resemblance to Napoleon. Author of Russkaya Pravda (a radical version of the Decembrists' program). A supporter of the republican structure, strict state centralization, partial confiscation of landowners' lands. Executed after the suppression of the Decembrist uprising.

Both societies considered themselves as a single whole, there were constant contacts between them. The main program documents of Decembrism were drawn up - the "Constitution" N.M. Muravyov and Russkaya Pravda by Pestel.

Muravyov Nikita Mikhailovich(1796-1843) - one of the leaders of the Decembrist movement, a member of the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare, leader of the Northern Society. He had a fortune of a million, was excellently educated, spoke 7 languages, and a brilliant military or scientific career opened up before him. However, N. Muravyov gave up everything for the sake of fighting for the transformation of Russia. Author of the "Constitution" (a moderate version of the Decembrists' program). Supporter of the constitutional monarchy, federalism, landless liberation of the peasants.

Both programs assumed the elimination of autocracy and serfdom, the abolition of class restrictions, the introduction of personal immunity and basic civil liberties (speech, conscience, movement, etc.). Both documents were inspired by the ideals of the philosophy of the Enlightenment and the slogans of the European revolutions (“freedom, equality, fraternity”), but the emphasis in them was placed differently. According to the "Constitution", Russia became a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament (People's Council), but the right to participate in elections was limited by a high property qualification. A federal structure was assumed: Russia was divided into 14 regions - "powers" with broad autonomy. To carry out the planned transformations, according to Muravyov, the Constituent Assembly elected by the society should have been. Serfdom was abolished, but the peasants were released with an insignificant allotment of 2 acres.

According to the project of P.I. Pestel, all Russian citizens were endowed with voting rights, regardless of their property status. Russia was declared a republic with a unicameral People's Council, the executive power was entrusted to the Sovereign Duma - a council of five people. All land in the state was divided into two parts: private and public, and each citizen could demand an allotment from the public fund. To create a public fund, partial confiscation of landed estates was allowed. Defending the principle of equality, Pestel at the same time demanded the restriction of a number of public freedoms: he strongly opposed political unions independent of the government, and was an enemy of federalism. According to his project, "all the various tribes that make up Russian state, are recognized as Russians and, composing their various names, constitute one Russian people. To carry out the transformations outlined by Pestel, a military dictatorship established for 10 years was supposed to.

The signal for the Decembrists to act was the unexpected death of Alexander I in Taganrog and the two-week interregnum that followed. Alexander died childless, and the throne, according to the law, was to pass to his brother Konstantin, the governor of the Kingdom of Poland. The troops and dignitaries swore allegiance to Constantine, but he refused the throne. A new oath was appointed to Nicholas, the next in seniority to the son of Paul. The Decembrists decided to take advantage of the good moment and declare their demands. It was planned on the morning of the day of the oath (December 14) to withdraw troops to the Senate Square, prevent the oath to Nicholas and force the Senate to publish the "Manifesto to the Russian people", which contained the main slogans of the Decembrists. The Decembrist officers brought to the square the Moscow Life Guards Regiment, the Guards Naval Crew and some other units, elected "dictator" (leader) of the uprising S.P. Trubetskoy did not appear on the square. Nicholas, not confident in his abilities, sent parliamentarians to the rebels, but the Decembrist P.G. Kakhovsky mortally wounded one of the envoys of the hero of the war of 1812, the St. Petersburg Governor-General M.A. Miloradovich. The rebels were scattered by volleys of buckshot. On December 29, the Chernigov regiment led by members of the Southern Society S.I. Muravyov-Apostol and M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin (Pestel had already been arrested by this time), but the command managed to isolate the regiment and suppress the uprising. After the defeat of the Decembrists, an investigation and trial were organized, as a result of which 131 people were sentenced to various punishments. Five of them - P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I. Muraviev-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P.G. Kakhovsky - were executed.

The reasons for the defeat of the Decembrists were an extremely narrow social base, the lack of support from broad public circles, and the contradictions between the participants in the movement. Nevertheless, the Decembrist movement is of unquestionable importance in the history of Russia as one of the first attempts by representatives of society to change the social and political system of the country.

2.2 Reign of Nicholas I. Nicholas I came to the throne in 1825 and ruled Russia for thirty years. His time is the apogee of autocracy in Russia. The new tsar happened to rule in an era of revolutionary upheavals in the West, the reign of his predecessor Alexander I, abundant in liberal undertakings, ended with the Decembrist uprising. To ensure the welfare of the country, according to Nicholas, the strict fulfillment of all their duties, the regulation of all public life, and all-encompassing control from above should have been.

Hoping for the effectiveness of measures taken "from above", Nikolai established on December 6, 1826 a secret Committee, designed to prepare the transformation of state administration. In the same year, the transformation of the Tsar's Own Chancellery into the most important body of state administration began. The 1st department of the office was in charge of the papers received in the name of the king, and carried out his personal orders and instructions. In the second department, work was concentrated on the codification (streamlining) of laws. This work was supervised by M. M. Speransky. The Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire (1828-1830) was prepared and published, which included all Russian legislation, starting with the Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (1833), which contained the current legal norms. According to Speransky, the "Assembly" and the "Code of Laws" were to become the basis for the creation of a new Code. The third department was given the affairs of the highest secret police (for this it was attached to the corps of gendarmes), political investigation and, in fact, supervision of all spheres of society. Section III was supposed to eliminate abuses in the management system. At the head of the department stood Count A. Kh. Benckendorff, close to Nicholas. Section IV dealt with educational and charitable institutions. In Section V, preparations were made for the reform of the state village, and in 1837 this section was transformed into the Ministry of State Property. Section VI worked temporarily and was in charge of the affairs of the Transcaucasian territories annexed to Russia. These transformations in the management system led to a narrowing of the powers and rights of the Senate and the State Council. The over-centralization of management resulted in the fact that the highest authorities were overwhelmed with papers and lost control over the state of affairs on the ground. Petty regulation led to red tape and abuse. “Russia is not ruled by me, it is ruled by head clerks,” Nikolai admitted in a moment of frankness.

During his reign, nine secret committees on the peasant question worked and about 100 decrees were issued. The general direction of policy on this issue consisted in the desire to somewhat weaken the dependence of the peasants on the landlords and to strengthen government guardianship over the life of the countryside. In 1933, a ban was introduced on the sale of peasants without land and with the division of the family, on the compensation of frequent debts by peasants. In 1837–1841 the state village was reformed P.D. Kiseleva. State peasants became legally free landowners, peasant self-government was introduced, the apparatus for managing the state village was streamlined, headed by the Ministry of State Property, and the allotments of the peasants were increased. Similar transformations took place in the specific village, but the position of the landlord peasants did not improve. In 1842, a decree on obligated peasants was adopted, which allowed landowners to release peasants into the wild, transferring land to them not for ownership (as provided for by the law on “free cultivators” of 1803), but for use. By decree of 1847, serfs, when selling a landowner's estate for debts, could redeem themselves and be included in the category of state peasants. In 1847, inventory rules were introduced, i.e., regulation by the state of the size of peasant allotments and duties that could not be changed by the landowner (Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine). The government took this measure in an effort to undermine the influence of the local (mostly Polish) nobility, which was in opposition to Russia.

Kiselev Pavel Dmitrievich(1788-1872) - statesman, one of the associates of Nicholas I. Supporter of the abolition of serfdom. He prepared the reform of the state village and the decree on obligated peasants (1842). Headed the Ministry of State Property.

Trying to reduce the influx of representatives of the lower classes into the ranks of the nobility, the authorities in 1845 raised the ranks that gave (according to the Table of Ranks) the right to hereditary nobility. By the decree “On the procedure for acquiring the nobility”, hereditary nobility was given from the 5th civil rank, personal nobility - from the 9th rank. For the bourgeoisie and in order to limit the influx of non-nobles into the nobility, a new estate category of honorary citizens (hereditary and personal) was introduced, which provided a number of privileges (freedom from the poll tax, recruitment duty and corporal punishment).

Control over the minds and souls of subjects was the most important direction of the policy of the Nikolaev government. The Minister of Public Education, Count S.S. Uvarov. The main guideline for the spiritual development of Russia, according to Uvarov, was to be the triad "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality" (the theory of official nationality). Emphasizing the sacred character of the autocracy, this formula connected it both with the national character of Russia (opposite in spirit to the Western European way of life) and with the aspirations of the bulk of the people.

Uvarov Sergey Semenovich(1786-1855) - statesman, one of the associates of Nicholas I. Minister of Public Education. He prepared the adoption of the censorship and school charters (1828), the university charter (1835). He developed and tried to introduce the theory of official nationality (“Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”) into the ideological life of the country. Dismissed with the beginning of the government reaction.

To control public sentiment in 1826, a new censorship charter was introduced, nicknamed "cast iron" by contemporaries. In 1828, a reform of secondary and lower educational institutions was carried out: one-class parish schools - for peasants, three-class county schools - for the townspeople and merchants, seven-class gymnasiums that prepared for entering the university - for children of nobles and officials. The new university charter of 1835 limited the autonomy of the universities, and introduced strict police supervision of the mentality and behavior of students.

The last stage of Nicholas's reign was the "Gloomy Seven Years" of 1848-1855. - was, in fact, the agony of the system of Nicholas I. The main part of the problems facing the country (the abolition of serfdom, the improvement of the management system, the further development of education) was not resolved. Nevertheless, many of the measures taken under Nicholas formed the basis of the reforms of Alexander II in the 1860s and 1870s.

Socio-political thought and movement in the 30-50s of the XIX century. The reaction to the failure of the reforms of Alexander I and the defeat of the Decembrists was the growth of conservative tendencies in Russian society. It was on them that the Minister of Public Education, Count S.S., relied. Uvarov, putting forward his theory of official nationality. The mouthpieces of government ideology were the popular journalists F.V. Bulgarin and N. I. Grech, who published the newspaper "Northern Bee". The ideological substantiation of the government concept of the professor of Moscow University M.P. Pogodin and S.P. Shevyrev. They sharply contrasted Russia with the "decaying West": the West is shaken by revolutions, while calm reigns in Russia. This was connected, in their opinion, with the beneficial influence of the autocracy and the power of the landowner over the peasants, who ensured social peace in Russia.

A sharp reaction to government ideology was the speech P.Ya. Chaadaev. In 1836, he published his "Philosophical Letter" in the Telescope magazine, in which he expressed thoughts contrary to the official ones. “Lonely in the world,” he wrote. Chaadaev, “we gave nothing to the world ... we did not contribute to the progress of the human mind, and we distorted everything that we got from this progress.” The reason for this, Chaadaev believed, was the separation of Russia from the rest of Europe and, in particular, the Orthodox worldview. The relative stability of the Russian way of life was, in his eyes, evidence of the inertia and passivity of social forces. For his speech, Chaadaev, by order of the tsar, was declared insane and placed under house arrest. Chaadaev's speech touched on the problem that occupied the best minds of Russia and contributed to the formation of new ideological trends.

Chaadaev Petr Yakovlevich(1794–1856) – public figure, publicist. A brilliant hussar officer in the past, a participant in the Patriotic War of 1812, a friend of Pushkin and the Decembrists, put forward the thesis about the fundamental difference between the development paths of Russia and Western Europe, the superiority of Western civilization (“Philosophical Letter”, 1836). Chaadaev's speech contributed to a clearer formulation of the ideological positions of the Westernizers and Slavophiles.

In the late 1820s and early 1830s, the police defeated a number of secret circles at Moscow University (the Kritsky brothers, N.P. Sungurov, A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev), who were trying to continue the traditions of the Decembrists. The centers of ideological life in the 1830s and 1840s were secular salons, university departments, and editorial offices of magazines.

By the end of the 1830s, movements of Westerners and Slavophiles had developed in Russian society. Westerners (historians T.N. Granovsky and S.M. Solovyov, lawyers K.D. Kavelin and B.N. Chicherin, writers V.G. Belinsky, V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov) proceeded from the idea of ​​the unity of the historical development of mankind, and, consequently, of the unity of the historical paths of Russia and Western Europe.

Granovsky Timofey Nikolaevich (1813-1855)- historian and public figure, head of the Westerners movement, professor at Moscow University. He considered inevitable the establishment in Russia of Western European principles (freedom of the individual, the development of private initiative and entrepreneurship, the introduction of civil liberties and a parliamentary monarchy). A supporter of gradual reforms while relying on strong state power.

Kavelin Konstantin Dmitrievich(1818-1885) - historian and lawyer, professor at Moscow University, representative of the moderate (liberal) wing of the Westerners. He took part in the preparation of the abolition of serfdom. A supporter of gradual reforms while relying on strong state power.

Over time, Westerners believed, Western European orders should be established in Russia: political freedoms, a parliamentary structure, an economy based on the principle of free competition. The peaceful introduction of these principles into Russian life is called upon to government, thus preventing a repetition of the Western European revolutions in Russia.

Other views were held Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin, Prince V.A. Cherkassky). They believed that every nation has its own destiny, and Russia is developing along a path different from that of Western Europe. This, however, did not make the Slavophiles supporters of the government ideology. They were resolute opponents of serfdom, criticized the despotism and bureaucracy with which the autocracy of Nicholas I was associated. The power of the tsar should remain unlimited, the Slavophils believed, but the people should at the same time receive freedom of conscience, the right to freely express their opinion in the press and at Zemsky Sobors. Such a combination, according to the Slavophiles, corresponded to the original Russian principles: the Russian people never claimed to participate in political life, leaving this sphere to the state, and the state did not interfere in the spiritual life of the people and listened to their opinion. The basis of Russian life, according to the Slavophiles, was the communal principle and the principle of consent (in contrast to the Western European orders based on formal legality and confrontation between individualistic principles). Deeply close to the Russian national character was, according to the Slavophiles, the Orthodox faith, which puts the general above the particular, calling for spiritual perfection, and not for the transformation of the external world. The harmonious way of Russian life was, according to the Slavophiles, destroyed by the reforms of Peter I.

Table 9 - Ideological differences between Westerners and Slavophiles

A.I. Herzen compared the Slavophiles and the Westernizers to the two-faced Janus or the two-headed eagle: they looked in different directions, but they had one heart beating in their chest. Indeed, the Westerners and Slavophiles were brought together by the defense of individual rights, public freedom, protest against despotism and bureaucracy, and serfdom. Common to Westernizers and Slavophiles was a resolute rejection of the revolution. The similarities between Slavophilism and Westernism allow us to consider them varieties of the liberal movement. In the process of evolution of social thought, the direction represented by the names of V.G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N.P. Ogaryov.

Herzen Alexander Ivanovich(1812-1870) - a representative of the radical wing of the Westerners. In the early 1830s, one of the leaders of the student circle at Moscow University was sent into exile. Since 1847 in exile. One of the leaders of the Free Russian Printing House in London. He played a decisive role in the development of the doctrine of "Russian socialism" (Russia will come to socialism earlier than the West, relying on the peasant community).

Occupying radical positions in the Western camp, they gradually came to a denial of the way of contemporary Europe: by granting citizens formal political rights and freedoms, this way of life did not save thousands of people from poverty. Belinsky, Herzen and their like-minded people saw salvation in socialism - fair, in their opinion, social order in which private property and the exploitation of man by man must be abolished.

A major event in public life was Belinsky's letter to N.V. Gogol (1847), which sharply denounced the path of spiritual improvement proposed by the writer within the framework of the existing system. Inspired by the ideas of Western European thinkers (A. Saint-Simon and C. Fourier), Russian supporters of socialism gradually moved towards the development of their own theory. The foundations of such a theory were first outlined in the works of Herzen, who emigrated to the West in 1847 and launched a struggle against the Russian government. According to Herzen, the first to come to socialism is not Western Europe, too deeply mired in the bourgeois element, but Russia, to which bourgeois relations are still alien. The peasant community will become the backbone of socialism in Russia. IN historical literature the doctrine founded by Herzen was called "Russian" or "peasant socialism".

Socialist ideas were actively discussed at meetings of the circle of M. V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky in St. Petersburg, which consisted of writers, students, high school students, journalists, and petty officials.

Petrashevsky (Butashevich-Petrashevsky) Mikhail Vasilyevich(1821–1866) - public figure, leader of the Petrashevsky circle in St. Petersburg (united representatives of the Raznochinsk intelligentsia who were interested in the socio-political life of Western Europe). A supporter of Western European socialist teachings (Fourier and others). After the defeat of the mug by the police (1848), he was sent to hard labor.

Most of the Petrashevites advocated a republican system, the complete liberation of the peasants with land without redemption, some put forward the slogan of a peasant uprising. The police crushed the Petrashevists' society and persecuted their followers. The "gloomy seven years" came - a time of unrestrained reaction, which from 1855 was replaced by a new upsurge in the social movement.

Thus, in the 1830s and 1840s, the main directions of Russian social thought were formed: protective, revolutionary socialist and liberal (the latter is represented by the currents of Westerners and Slavophiles). During the discussions, the problems of Russia's identity, its relations with Western Europe, peaceful and violent (revolutionary) ways of transformation.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second quarter of the XIX century. Russian foreign policy still faced serious problems in the southern and western (European) direction. Turkey and Iran did not leave hopes for revenge. Unfolded in 1826-1828. the war with Iran culminated in the signing of the Turkmenchay peace, according to which Eastern Armenia (the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates) went to Russia. War with Turkey 1828-1829 ended with the Peace of Adrianople, which transferred to Russia a significant part of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus (from Anapa to Poti). As a result of the wars of the 1820s, the accession of Transcaucasia to Russia was basically completed. The war that began in 1817 continued in the North Caucasus. In 1834, Shamil was proclaimed imam, who created a strong theocratic state on the territory of Dagestan and Chechnya. In the 1830-1840s, Shamil managed to inflict a number of heavy defeats on the Russian troops. In 1859, Shamil's troops were finally defeated, and he himself was taken prisoner. In 1864, the last center of resistance of the highlanders-Circassians in the western part of the North Caucasus was liquidated. The accession of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia to Russia is one of the most dramatic and controversial pages of history. The inclusion of the region into Russia led to the elimination of civil strife and the slave trade, the cessation of mountaineer raids on the lowland areas, and contributed to the spread of advanced culture in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. European culture(foundation of schools, theaters, libraries, publication of literature, construction railways, factories and plants). However, the accession was carried out by armed, violent means, accompanied by heavy losses for both the Russian army and the highlanders. A knot of contradictions was tied in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, which became the most acute international and interethnic problem for decades.

The revolutions of 1830 in France and Belgium, the revolutionary wave of 1848 in a number of European countries caused Nicholas I to think about a military campaign to the West, but Russia's allies (Austria and Prussia), not interested in further strengthening Russia's influence in Europe, disrupted the organization "crusade". In 1849, Russian troops, at the call of the Austrian emperor, suppressed the uprising in Hungary. IN 1830 the uprising began in Poland. The leaders of the uprising - the Polish nobles - demanded the independence of Poland, formed the Provisional Revolutionary Government. At the beginning 1831 The uprising was suppressed by Russian troops, after which the constitution of 1815 and the Sejm were abolished, military administration was introduced in Poland.

By the end of the 1840s, the center of Russian foreign policy was increasingly shifting to the Balkans due to the aggravation eastern question.

Eastern Question- the question of the fate of the Black Sea straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles), the fate of the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula under Turkish rule, as well as the rivalry of the great powers in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East. Exacerbated at the end of the XVIII century. due to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire.

The strengthening of Russia's position aroused dissatisfaction with the Western powers, which had their own interests in the Balkans. The contradictions between Russia, on the one hand, Turkey and the European powers, on the other, began to grow uncontrollably, ending with the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Causes of the war: Russia's desire for control over the Black Sea straits and increased influence in the Balkans; division of influence in the region between Russia, England and France. The reason for the start of the war was the dispute between Russia and France regarding control over the Holy Places in Jerusalem (Russia in this dispute supported the Orthodox clergy, France supported the Catholic). In 1853, Turkey, relying on the support of England and France, rejected Russia's ultimatum regarding the Holy Places. Russian troops entered Moldavia and Wallachia; The Sultan declared war on Russia.

Table 10 - Crimean War 1853-1856

date of	Development of events
October 20, 1853	Nicholas I's declaration of war on Turkey
November 1853	The Russian squadron under the command of P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay. At the request of Austria, Russia was forced to withdraw troops from Moldavia and Wallachia
March-July 1854	The siege of the Turkish fortress of Silistria by Russian troops
March 1854	Declaration of war by England and France on Russia
September 1854 - August 1855	Heroic defense of Sevastopol. The death of admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin. Battles on the river Alie, near Inkerman, attack on Evpatoria, battle on the Black River
November 1855	The capture of Kars by Russian troops

According to the Treaty of Paris in 1856, the neutralization of the Black Sea was proclaimed, Russia and Turkey were forbidden to have a navy, arsenals and fortresses here. Russia was deprived of the southern part of Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia. The Crimean War was the result of the entire reign of Nicholas. The fundamental socio-economic problems were not resolved, and Russia turned out to be virtually defenseless in the face of Western states: since it did not have a railway network to transfer troops to the theater of operations, there was no developed modern industry to supply the army with rifled guns, the navy with steam-propelled ships. Centralization and regulation fettered the initiative of military leaders and administrators. Shaken by the collapse of his policy, Nicholas I died at the height of the Crimean War in February 1855.