Social norms and values ​​concept types. Social values ​​and their characteristic features

social values

As already mentioned, the individual becomes a person in the course of socialization, i.e., the acquisition of elements of contemporary culture, incl. ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ values ​​and norms of behavior. The spectrum of social values ​​is quite diverse: ϶ᴛᴏ values ​​are moral and data, ideological, political, religious, economic, aesthetic, etc. Values ​​are directly related to social ideals. Values ​​- ϶ᴛᴏ not something that can be bought or sold, ϶ᴛᴏ something that is worth living for. It should not be forgotten that the most important function of social values ​​is to play the role of criteria for choosing from alternative courses of action. The values ​​of any society interact with each other, being a fundamental content element of this culture.

The relationship between culturally predetermined values ​​is characterized by the following two features. First of all, according to the degree of their social significance, values ​​are formed into a certain hierarchical structure, subdivided into values ​​of a higher or lower order, more preferred and less preferred. Secondly, the relationship between these values ​​can be both harmonious, mutually reinforcing, and neutral, even antagonistic, mutually exclusive. These relations between social values, developing historically, fill the culture of this type with concrete content.

The main function of social values- to be a measure of assessments - leads to the fact that in any system of values ​​it is possible to distinguish:

• what is most preferred (acts of behavior approaching the social ideal - what is admired) Do not forget that the most important element of the value system will be the zone of higher values, the value of which does not need any justification (that which is higher than everything that is inviolable, sacred and cannot be violated under any circumstances);
• what is considered normal, correct (as they do in most cases);
• what is not approved is condemned and - at the extreme pole of the value system - appears as an absolute, self-evident evil that is not allowed under any circumstances.

The formed system of values ​​structures, arranges for the individual a picture of the world. It should not be forgotten that an important feature of social values ​​is essentially that, due to their universal recognition, they are perceived by members of society as a matter of course, values ​​are spontaneously realized, reproduced in socially significant actions of people. With all the variety of content characteristics of social values, it is possible to single out certain objects that are inevitably associated with the formation of a value system. Among them:

• definition of human nature, the ideal of personality;
• picture of the world, the universe, perception and understanding of nature;
• the place of man, his role in the system of the universe, the relationship of man to nature;
• relation of man to man;
• the nature of society, the ideal of social order.

social norms

In a situation where the system of social values ​​is characterized by stability, reproducibility over time and prevalence within a given society, this system is formalized, concretized in the form of social norms. Attention should be paid to the dual definition of the concept of "norm". According to its first use norm - an abstractly formulated rule, prescription. It is known, however, that the concept of "norm" in relation to any series of phenomena, processes also denotes that set of phenomena or signs of a process, which serve as their predominant characteristic, are constantly renewed, steadily manifesting themselves in a given series of phenomena (then they talk about a normal phenomenon, a normal process, about the presence of an objective (real) norm) In social life, there are ordinary, repetitive relationships between members of society. These relationships fall under the concept objective(real) norms in human behavior. The set of acts of action, characterized by a high degree of uniformity and repetition, is objective social norm.

Objective social norm

This is a characteristic of existing phenomena or processes (or acts of command), therefore, its presence and content can only be established by analyzing social reality; the content of social norms is derived from the actual behavior of individuals and social groups. It is here that social norms are reproduced from day to day, often showing their action spontaneously, not always being reflected in the minds of people. If in law the sphere of social obligation is expressed in the form of rationally conscious and logically formulated rules (prohibitions or commands), where the means are subordinate to the goals, and the immediate goals are subordinate to the remote ones, then social norms are not divided in the public consciousness into goals and means, they exist in in the form of stereotypes (standards of behavior), as something implied, are perceived as such and reproduced in command without their mandatory conscious evaluation.

Social norms, spontaneously ordering people's behavior, regulate the most diverse types of social relations, forming a certain hierarchy of norms, distributed according to the degree of social significance. It is worth saying that political norms that are directly related to the system of ideological values ​​affect the norms of an economic nature, the latter - on technical norms, etc. The norms of everyday behavior, professional data, family relations and morality as a whole cover, in essence, the entire set of social significant acts of behavior.

The social norm embodies the vast majority of ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ phenomena (acts of behavior). It can denote what is usually, naturally, typical in a given area of ​​social reality, which characterizes its main social ϲʙᴏ property at the moment. These are the majority of precisely homogeneous, more or less identical acts of behavior. Relative homogeneity makes it possible to summarize them, to separate them from other acts of behavior that constitute deviations, exceptions, anomalies. The norm will be a synthetic generalization of the mass social practice of people. In social norms, i.e., stable, most typical types and methods of behavior in specific areas of social practice, the objective laws of social development will come into play. Socially normal will be what is necessary, what naturally exists in a given way of society.

The social norm in the field of human behavior in relation to specific acts can be characterized by two main series of quantitative indicators. This is, firstly, the relative number of acts of behavior of the ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙof the prevailing type and, secondly, the degree of their ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙand some average pattern. The objective basis of the social norm will be in the fact that the functioning, development of social phenomena and processes takes place within ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙlimiting qualitative and quantitative limits. The totality of actual acts of action that form social norms is made up of homogeneous, but not identical, elements. These acts of action inevitably differ among themselves in the degree of ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ and the average sample of social norm. These actions, therefore, are located along a certain continuum: from the complete ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙiya to the pattern through cases of partial deviation up to a complete departure from the limits of the objective social norm. In qualitative certainty, in the content, sense and significance of the qualitative characteristics of social norms, in real behavior, the dominant system of social values ​​will eventually awaken.

The total number of homogeneous (that is, more or less ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ corresponding to a certain characteristic) acts of behavior is the first quantitative indicator of a given set of acts. The difference between similar homogeneous acts is due to the fact that the indicated qualitative feature in each specific case can be expressed to a different degree, i.e. acts of behavior can have different frequency characteristics from the standpoint of the manifestation of the ϶ᴛᴏth feature in them. This is the second quantitative parameter of this population. Deviations from the average pattern of behavior to some level fit within the framework of what can be considered an objective social norm. Upon reaching a certain limit, the degree of deviation will be so high that such acts will be classified as anomalies, antisocial, dangerous, criminal acts.

Going beyond the objective social norm is possible in two directions: with a minus sign (negative value) and with a plus sign (positive value). It is this system that not only provides social norms with their qualitative characteristics, but also determines the polar meanings of cases of going beyond the limits of these norms. With ϶ᴛᴏm, a regularity is essential: the higher the degree of ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙia of a given act to the average sample of a social norm, the more such acts, and the lower the degree of ϶ᴛᴏgo ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙia, the smaller the relative number of such acts.

It is worth saying that it is useful to resort to a schematic, graphical representation of the ϶ᴛᴏth ratio (see Fig. 2) ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙiya to the average sample (with both plus and minus signs)

In the above graph, in the zones "c" and "c1" there are acts of actions that fit within the limits of an objective social norm, ϶ᴛᴏ how they usually act. Zone "a1" - ϶ᴛᴏ deviations that go beyond the limits of an objective social norm. These are actions that differ from the average norm, that which is condemned. In zone "a" actions are placed that deviate even more from the framework of the social norm (maximum deviations), ϶ᴛᴏ actions condemned by the majority, assessed as unacceptable, criminal. In the "c" zone are actions that go beyond the average sample of social norm towards social ideals, ϶ᴛᴏ those actions that are admired (although rarely followed)

Figure No. 2. Graph of the ratio of social norms and deviations

The quantitative and qualitative characteristics of social norms are extremely indicative from the standpoint of the level of dynamics of social changes and their content. A situation is possible when those acts of behavior that were in the minority grow to such an extent that they begin to move from the category of deviations, exceptions to the stage of formation of a new model of social norm. Usually, ϶ᴛᴏ marks a radical transformation of the social value system of a given society

Under the social values ​​and norms understand the rules established in society, patterns, standards of human behavior that regulate social life. They define the boundaries of acceptable behavior of people in relation to the specific conditions of their life.

Signs of social values:

• 1) They are general rules for members of the society.
• 2) They do not have a specific addressee and operate continuously in time.
• 3) They are directed to the regulation of social relations.
• 4) Arise in connection with the volitional, conscious activity of people.
• 5) Arise in the process of historical development.
• 6) Their content corresponds to the type of culture and the nature of the social organization of society.

Ways to regulate people's behavior by social values:

• 1) Permission - an indication of behaviors that are desirable, but not required.
• 2) Prescription - an indication of the required action.
• 3) Prohibition - an indication of actions that should not be performed.

Any classification of values ​​by type and level is invariably

conditional due to the fact that social and cultural values ​​are introduced into it. In addition, it is difficult to insert one or another value that has its own ambiguity (for example, family) in a certain column. Nevertheless, we can give the following conditionally ordered classification of social values.

Vital: life, health, physicality, security, well-being, human condition (satiety, peace, cheerfulness), strength, endurance, quality of life, natural environment (environmental values), practicality, consumption, etc.

Social: social status, diligence, wealth, work, family, unity, patriotism, tolerance, discipline, enterprise, risk-taking, social equality, gender equality, ability to achieve, personal independence, professionalism, active participation in society, focus on past or future, extralocal or compatriotic orientation, level of consumption.

Political: freedom of speech, civil liberties, good ruler, law, order, constitution, civil peace.

Moral: good, good, love, friendship, duty, honor, honesty, disinterestedness, decency, fidelity, mutual assistance, justice, respect for elders and love for children.

Religious: God, divine law, faith, salvation, grace, ritual, Scripture and Tradition.

Aesthetic: beauty (or, conversely, the aesthetics of the ugly), style, harmony, adherence to tradition or novelty, cultural identity or imitation.

Let us consider some of them in more detail, assuming that the division into these categories is conditional and the same values ​​can be accepted in different areas.

Family, relatives, older generation. In all cultures, there is a greater or lesser degree of respect for these social elements, which is expressed both in the behavior of people (respect of the younger for the elders) and in the forms of address.

In Asian and African cultures, age is usually revered as a sign of wisdom and experience and sometimes becomes one of the cores of culture. The identification of an individual is carried out in his identification with his ancestors, although there is wide variability in the solution of this issue for different cultures. If a number of nomadic peoples consider it a matter of honor to remember about 9-12 previous generations in different branches, then in a modern industrial society a person rarely keeps the memory of more than two generations of ancestors in a straight line.

Interpersonal relationships. The attitude towards equality or hierarchy in relations with other people is one of the criteria for the difference between cultures. What a European perceives as humility, obedience, a person's renunciation of his freedom, for other cultures means recognition of the right of a respected and influential person to lead. Orientation towards individualism or solidarity in many ways distinguishes the West and Eastern cultures, which will be discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters.

Wealth. Material wealth as a value is inherent, it would seem, in all cultures. However, in reality, the attitude towards it is very different, and the very object of wealth depends on the nature of the economy. For nomadic peoples, the most important wealth is cattle, for a settled peasant, land; in a feudal society, the status of an individual was directly related to the wealth demonstrated in the way of life.

The attitude to wealth depends largely on the dominant factor of sociality. In pre-industrial society, conspicuous wealth played an important role, as it was the most obvious evidence of the power and influence of its owners, their belonging to the upper class. The accumulation of wealth, so necessary in any society, lowered the status of the owner, unless it was intended for later distribution or use for the common good. The estates possessing monetary wealth - merchants and usurers - enjoyed for the most part low prestige, and especially usurers as people who benefit from the difficulties of other people.

The situation changes radically in industrial society. As capitalism grows, it is the accumulated and hidden capital put into circulation that acquires the greatest value in the public mind. The influence and power of the owner depend on the movement of capital through invisible financial channels, even if the owner himself led a relatively modest lifestyle. At a later stage, during the period of mass production, a new turn occurs, expanded consumption grows, turning into conspicuous consumption, in which goods and services are purchased not because of their own properties, but because they are expensive, that is, accessible only to wealthy people . Turning to conspicuous consumption not only brings satisfaction, but also raises the status of the rich in the opinion and attitude of others. This tendency is penetrating into other strata, who may feel the satisfaction of sharing in prestigious extravagance.

Labor as a value. Labor has by no means only economic significance or serves as a factor determining social relations. Labor is also an important cultural value. This is always present both in folk wisdom and in more complex systems of morality or ideology. So, in many languages ​​there are similar proverbs: “Patience and work will grind everything” (and vice versa: “Water does not flow under a lying stone”). In fiction, Voltaire elegantly expressed his attitude to work: "Labor eliminates three great misfortunes from us: boredom, vice and need." True, in the spirit of his aristocratic circle, he put boredom in the first place.

Of course, the attitude to work, as well as to other values, is determined not only by spiritual or moral criteria, but turns out to be contradictory, depending largely on other factors, among which the following should be highlighted: a) production, i.e.

the class status of a person and his attitude to property, since assessments of his position for an entrepreneur and a hired worker can differ sharply; b) professional, covering the prestige of a particular profession; c) technological, that is, the attitude of a person to one or another side of production (machine, conveyor, computer), which can vary from high interest to indifference and even hostility.

According to the listed parameters, obviously, the attitude towards work can be negative as a source of oppression, dependence, as a factor that hinders personal development and suppresses vitality. Even in ancient Greece, a myth arose about Sisyphus, doomed to perform hard and meaningless work. In a Christian or Muslim paradise, a person was forever freed from labor and could only indulge in sensual or spiritual joys. In folk tales, often the lazy fool, devoid of greed, but possessing a good heart, succeeds more than the constantly preoccupied and tight-fisted hoarder.

In any class-differentiated system, the subjective disinterest of workers in their work is replaced by coercion, which can be in the form of direct coercion (work "under pressure", under threat of punishment) or purely economic necessity, i.e., physical survival, in maintaining their families.

Of course, there is both socially useless and harmful labor activity and what is in the interests of an individual, group or collective, but may diverge from the interests of society as a whole. Therefore, the regulation of labor activity requires the combination of labor orientations with moral motives.

In addition, there are universal, national, class, group, interpersonal norms.

Thus, values ​​are not something that can be bought or sold, they are something that is worth living for. The most important function of social values ​​is to play the role of selection criteria from alternative courses of action. The values ​​of any society interact with each other, being a fundamental content element of this culture.

The relationship between culturally predetermined values ​​is characterized by the following two features. Firstly, according to the degree of their social significance, values ​​are formed into a certain hierarchical structure, subdivided into values ​​of a higher and lower order, more preferred and less preferred. Secondly, the relationship between these values ​​can be both harmonious, mutually reinforcing, and neutral, even antagonistic, mutually exclusive. These relations between social values, developing historically, fill the culture of this type with concrete content.

The main function of social values ​​- to be a measure of assessments - leads to the fact that in any system of values ​​it is possible to distinguish:

what is most preferred (acts of behavior approaching the social ideal - what is admired). The most important element of the value system is the zone of higher values, the value of which does not need any justification (what is above all, what is inviolable, sacred and cannot be violated under any circumstances);

• what is considered normal, correct (as they do in most cases);
• what is not approved is condemned and - at the extreme pole of the value system - appears as an absolute, self-evident evil that is not allowed under any circumstances.

The formed system of values ​​structures, arranges for the individual a picture of the world. An important feature of social values ​​is that, due to their universal recognition, they are perceived by members of society as something taken for granted, values ​​are spontaneously realized, reproduced in socially significant actions of people. With all the variety of substantive characteristics of social values, it is possible to single out some objects that are inevitably associated with the formation of a value system. Among them:

• definition of human nature, the ideal of personality;
• picture of the world, the universe, perception and understanding of nature;
• the place of man, his role in the system of the universe, the relationship of man to nature;
• relation of man to man;
• the nature of society, the ideal of social order.

Note that throughout life one system of values ​​can be confirmed, the other can be discarded due to its inconsistency. As a result, a certain hierarchy is formed, which contains concepts that are applicable and relevant to each person. Social values ​​are a concept that is formed individually for everyone, therefore it is difficult to find two people in one society who would have the same system. Very often an individual is faced with the fact that his principles run counter to new systems, or the theoretical foundations do not fit into real life. In this case, multi-layered systems begin to form, in which the proclaimed values ​​often diverge from reality.

Value orientations are the result of the socialization of individuals, that is, their mastery of all existing types of social norms and requirements that apply to individuals or members of a social group. The basis of their formation lies in the interaction of the experience that people have with samples of the existing social culture. On the basis of these concepts, one's own idea of ​​the nature of personal claims is formed. Business relations always contain a value aspect in their structure. It defines explicit and implicit standards of behavior. There is such a thing as the professional values ​​of social work, denoting the stable ideas and beliefs of people about the nature of goals, ways to achieve them and the principles of the future life. These values ​​guide the social worker to the basic principles of his behavior in work and responsibility for his activities. They help an employee of any field to determine the rights and obligations that he has as a professional. Social values ​​begin to form in early childhood. Their main source is the people around the child. In this case, the example of the family plays a fundamental role. Children, watching their parents, begin to imitate them in everything. Therefore, when deciding to have children, future mothers and fathers must understand what responsibility they take on.

social values- in a broad sense - the significance of phenomena and objects of reality in terms of their compliance or non-compliance with the needs of society, social group, individual. in a narrow sense - moral and aesthetic requirements developed by human culture and are products of social consciousness. Social values ​​are the product of the mode of production of material life, which determines the actual social, political, spiritual process of life, they always act as regulators of human society, people's aspirations and their actions. Values ​​certainly line up in a certain hierarchical system, which is always poured concretely - with historical meaning and content. That is why the scale of values ​​and assessments based on them contains a direction not only from minimum to maximum, but also from positive to negative. social norms - prescriptions, requirements, wishes and expectations of appropriate (socially approved) behavior. Social prescriptions - prohibition or permission to do something, addressed to an individual or group and expressed in any form (oral or written, formal or informal). Everything that is valued by society in one way or another is translated into the language of prescriptions. Human life and dignity, attitude towards elders, collective symbols (for example, banner, coat of arms, anthem), religious rites, laws of the state and many other things make a society a cohesive whole and therefore are especially valued and protected. The first type - These are norms that arise and exist only in small groups(companies of friends, family, work teams, youth get-togethers, sports teams). Second type are norms that arise and exist in large groups or in society as a whole. These are customs, traditions, mores, laws, etiquette, manners. Every social group has its own manners, customs and etiquette. There is secular etiquette, there are manners of behavior of young people, as well as national traditions and mores. All social norms can be classified depending on how strictly their implementation is required. For violation of some norms, a mild punishment follows - disapproval, a smirk, an unfriendly look. Violation of other norms can be followed by very strong harsh sanctions - expulsion from the country, imprisonment, even the death penalty. If we arrange all the norms in increasing order, depending on the measure of punishment following their violation, then their sequence will take the following form: customs, manners, etiquette, traditions, group habits, mores, laws, taboos. Violations of taboos and legal laws are punished most severely (for example, killing a person, insulting a deity, disclosing state secrets), and certain types of group habits, in particular family habits (for example, refusing to turn off the light or close the front door) are the mildest. Social norms perform very important functions in society, namely: they regulate the general course of socialization; integrate individuals into groups, and groups into society; control deviant behavior; serve as models, standards of behavior.

social norm (from lat. norma- a rule, a model, a measure) - a rule of behavior established in society that regulates relations between people, social life.

Signs of social norms:

1) They are general rules for members of the society.

2) They do not have a specific addressee and operate continuously in time.

4) Arise in connection with the volitional, conscious activity of people.

5) Arise in the process of historical development.

Ways to regulate people's behavior by social norms:

1) Permission- an indication of behaviors that are desirable, but not required.

2) prescription- an indication of the required action.

3) Ban- an indication of actions that should not be taken.

Types of social norms

In addition, there are rules universal, national, class, group, interpersonal.

According to the degree of obligation, social norms are divided into:

1) encouraging;

4) imperative (from lat. imperatives- imperative).

Functions of social norms:

1) Regulate the general course of socialization.

2) Integrate the personality into the social environment.

3) Serve as models, standards of appropriate behavior.

4) Determine the boundaries of acceptable behavior of people in relation to the specific conditions of their life.

5) Control deviant behavior.

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QUESTIONS:

1. Establish a correspondence between the types of social norms and the signs illustrating them: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second column. Write down the resulting sequence of numbers.

Values ​​in human life: definition, features and their classification

Snezhana Ivanova

The most important role in the life of an individual and society as a whole is played by values ​​and value orientations...

The most important role not only in the life of each individual, but also in the whole society as a whole is played by values ​​and value orientations, which primarily perform an integrative function. It is on the basis of values ​​(while focusing on their approval in society) that each person makes his own choice in life. Values, occupying a central position in the structure of personality, have a significant impact on the direction of a person and the content of his social activity, behavior and actions, his social position and his general attitude towards the world, towards himself and other people. Therefore, the loss of the meaning of life by a person is always the result of the destruction and rethinking of the old system of values, and in order to regain this meaning again, he needs to create a new system based on universal human experience and using the forms of behavior and activities accepted in society.

Values ​​are a kind of internal integrator of a person, concentrating around themselves all his needs, interests, ideals, attitudes and beliefs. Thus, the value system in a person's life takes the form of the inner core of his entire personality, and the same system in society is the core of its culture. Value systems, functioning both at the level of the individual and at the level of society, create a kind of unity. This is due to the fact that the personal value system is always formed based on the values ​​that are dominant in a particular society, and they, in turn, influence the choice of the individual goal of each individual and determine the ways to achieve it.

Values ​​in a person's life are the basis for choosing the goals, methods and conditions of activity, and also help him answer the question, why does he perform this or that activity? In addition, values ​​are the system-forming core of the idea (or program), human activity and his inner spiritual life, because spiritual principles, intentions and humanity no longer relate to activity, but to values ​​and value orientations.

The role of values ​​in human life: theoretical approaches to the problem

Modern human values- the most urgent problem of both theoretical and applied psychology, since they influence the formation and are the integrative basis of the activity of not only a single individual, but also a social group (large or small), a team, an ethnic group, a nation and all of humanity. It is difficult to overestimate the role of values ​​in a person's life, because they illuminate his life, filling it with harmony and simplicity, which determines a person's desire for free will, for the will of creative possibilities.

The problem of human values ​​in life is studied by the science of axiology ( in lane from Greek axia / axio - value, logos / logos - a reasonable word, teaching, study), more precisely, a separate branch of scientific knowledge of philosophy, sociology, psychology and pedagogy. In psychology, values ​​are usually understood as something significant for the person himself, something that gives an answer to his actual, personal meanings. Values ​​are also seen as a concept that denotes objects, phenomena, their properties and abstract ideas that reflect social ideals and therefore are the standard of due.

It should be noted that the special importance and significance of values ​​in human life arises only in comparison with the opposite (this is how people strive for good, because evil exists on earth). Values ​​cover the whole life of both a person and the whole of humanity, while they affect absolutely all areas (cognitive, behavioral and emotional-sensory).

The problem of values ​​was of interest to many famous philosophers, sociologists, psychologists and educators, but the beginning of the study of this issue was laid back in ancient times. So, for example, Socrates was one of the first who tried to understand what goodness, virtue and beauty are, and these concepts were separated from things or actions. He believed that the knowledge achieved through the understanding of these concepts is the basis of a person's moral behavior. Here it is also worth referring to the ideas of Protagoras, who believed that each person is already a value as a measure of what exists and what does not exist.

Analyzing the category of “value”, one cannot pass by Aristotle, because it is to him that the term “thymia” (or valued) originated. He believed that values ​​in human life are both the source of things and phenomena and the cause of their diversity. Aristotle identified the following benefits:

• valued (or divine, to which the philosopher attributed the soul and mind);
• praised (impudent praise);
• opportunities (here the philosopher attributed strength, wealth, beauty, power, etc.).

Philosophers of modern times made a significant contribution to the development of questions about the nature of values. Among the most significant figures of that era, it is worth highlighting I. Kant, who called the will the central category that could help in solving the problems of the human value sphere. And the most detailed explanation of the process of formation of values ​​belongs to G. Hegel, who described the changes in values, their connections and structure in the three stages of the existence of activity (they are described in more detail below in the table).

Features of changing values ​​in the process of activity (according to G. Hegel)

The problem of human values ​​in life has been deeply studied by foreign psychologists, among which it is worth noting the works of V. Frankl. He said that the meaning of human life as its basic education finds its manifestation in the system of values. Under the values ​​themselves, he understood the meanings (he called them “universals of meanings”), which are characteristic of a greater number of representatives not only of a particular society, but of humanity as a whole throughout the entire path of its development (historical). Viktor Frankl focused on the subjective significance of values, which is accompanied, first of all, by a person taking responsibility for its implementation.

In the second half of the last century, values ​​were often considered by scientists through the prism of the concepts of "value orientations" and "personal values". The greatest attention was paid to the study of the value orientations of the individual, which was understood both as an ideological, political, moral and ethical basis for a person's assessment of the surrounding reality, and as a way of differentiating objects according to their significance for the individual. The main thing that almost all scientists paid attention to was that value orientations are formed only thanks to the assimilation of social experience by a person, and they find their manifestation in goals, ideals, and other manifestations of personality. In turn, the system of values ​​in human life is the basis of the content side of the orientation of the individual and reflects its internal attitude in the surrounding reality.

Thus, value orientations in psychology were considered as a complex socio-psychological phenomenon that characterized the orientation of the personality and the content side of its activity, which determined the general approach of a person to himself, other people and to the world as a whole, and also gave meaning and direction to his personality. behavior and activities.

Forms of existence of values, their signs and features

Throughout its history of development, humankind has developed universal or universal values ​​that have not changed their meaning or diminished their significance for many generations. These are such values ​​as truth, beauty, goodness, freedom, justice and many others. These and many other values ​​in a person's life are associated with the motivational-need sphere and are an important regulatory factor in his life.

Values ​​in psychological understanding can be represented in two meanings:

• in the form of objectively existing ideas, objects, phenomena, actions, properties of products (both material and spiritual);
• as their significance for a person (value system).

Among the forms of existence of values, there are: social, subject and personal (they are presented in more detail in the table).

Forms of existence of values ​​according to O.V. Sukhomlinsky

Of particular importance in the study of values ​​and value orientations were the studies of M. Rokeach. He understood by values ​​positive or negative ideas (and abstract ones), which are in no way connected with any particular object or situation, but are only an expression of human beliefs about types of behavior and prevailing goals. According to the researcher, all values ​​have the following features:

• the total number of values ​​(significant and motivated) is small;
• all values ​​in people are similar (only the steps of their significance are different);
• all values ​​are organized into systems;
• the sources of values ​​are culture, society and social institutions;
• values ​​have an impact on a large number of phenomena that are studied by a variety of sciences.

In addition, M. Rokeach established a direct dependence of a person's value orientations on many factors, such as his level of income, gender, age, race, nationality, level of education and upbringing, religious orientation, political beliefs, etc.

Some signs of values ​​were also proposed by S. Schwartz and W. Bilisky, namely:

• values ​​are understood as either a concept or a belief;
• they refer to the desired end states of the individual or to his behavior;
• they have a supra-situational character;
• guided by the choice, as well as the assessment of human behavior and actions;
• they are ordered by importance.

Classification of values

Today in psychology there is a huge number of very different classifications of values ​​and value orientations. Such diversity appeared due to the fact that values ​​are classified according to various criteria. So they can be combined into certain groups and classes, depending on what types of needs these values ​​satisfy, what role they play in a person's life and in what area they are applied. The table below shows the most generalized classification of values.

Classification of values

From the point of view of the psychological characteristics of human values, the classification proposed by K. Khabibulin is interesting. Their values ​​were divided as follows:

• depending on the subject of activity, values ​​can be individual or act as values ​​of a group, class, society;
• according to the object of activity, the scientist singled out material values ​​in human life (or vital) and sociogenic (or spiritual);
• depending on the type of human activity, values ​​can be cognitive, labor, educational and socio-political;
• the last group consists of values ​​according to the way of performing activities.

There is also a classification based on the allocation of vital (human ideas about good, evil, happiness and sorrow) and universal values. This classification was proposed at the end of the last century by T.V. Butkovskaya. Universal values, according to the scientist, are:

• vital (life, family, health);
• social recognition (values ​​such as social status and ability to work);
• interpersonal recognition (exhibition and honesty);
• democratic (freedom of expression or freedom of speech);
• particular (belonging to a family);
• transcendental (manifestation of faith in God).

It is also worth dwelling separately on the classification of values ​​according to M. Rokeach, the author of the most famous method in the world, the main purpose of which is to determine the hierarchy of a person's value orientations. M. Rokeach divided all human values ​​into two broad categories:

• terminal (or value-goals) - the person's conviction that the ultimate goal is worth all the effort to achieve it;
• instrumental (or value-methods) - a person's conviction that a certain way of behavior and actions is the most successful for achieving the goal.

There are still a huge number of different classifications of values, a summary of which is given in the table below.

Value classifications

Analyzing the presented classification, the question arises, what are the main values ​​in human life? In fact, there are a lot of such values, but the most important are common (or universal) values, which, according to V. Frankl, are based on three main human existentials - spirituality, freedom and responsibility. The psychologist identified the following groups of values ​​("eternal values"):

• creativity that allows people to understand what they can give to a given society;
• experiences, thanks to which a person realizes what he receives from society and society;
• relationships that enable people to realize their place (position) in relation to those factors that in any way limit their lives.

It should also be noted that the most important place is occupied by moral values ​​in human life, because they play a leading role in people's decisions related to morality and moral standards, and this in turn indicates the level of development of their personality and humanistic orientation.

The system of values ​​in human life

The problem of human values ​​in life occupies a leading position in psychological research, because they are the core of the personality and determine its direction. In solving this problem, a significant role belongs to the study of the value system, and here the research of S. Bubnova, who, based on the works of M. Rokeach, created her own model of the system of value orientations (it is hierarchical and consists of three levels), had a serious impact. The system of values ​​in human life, in her opinion, consists of:

• values-ideals, which are the most general and abstract (this includes spiritual and social values);
• values-properties that are fixed in the process of human life;
• values-modes of activity and behavior.

Any system of values ​​will always combine two categories of values: values-goals (or terminal) and values-methods (or instrumental). Terminal includes the ideals and goals of a person, group and society, and instrumental - ways to achieve goals that are accepted and approved in a given society. Values-goals are more stable than values-methods, therefore they act as a system-forming factor in various social and cultural systems.

To the specific system of values ​​that exists in society, each person shows his own attitude. In psychology, there are five types of human relations in the value system (according to J. Gudechek):

• active, which is expressed in a high degree of internalization of this system;
• comfortable, that is, externally accepted, but at the same time a person does not identify himself with this system of values;
• indifferent, which consists in the manifestation of indifference and complete lack of interest in this system;
• disagreement or rejection, manifested in a critical attitude and condemnation of the value system, with the intention of changing it;
• opposition, which manifests itself both in internal and external contradiction with this system.

It should be noted that the system of values ​​in human life is the most important component in the structure of the personality, while it occupies a borderline position - on the one hand, it is a system of personal meanings of a person, on the other, its motivational-need sphere. Values ​​and value orientations of a person act as the leading quality of a person, emphasizing its uniqueness and individuality.

Values ​​are the most powerful regulator of human life. They guide a person on the path of his development and determine his behavior and activities. In addition, the focus of a person on certain values ​​and value orientations will certainly have an impact on the process of formation of society as a whole.