Sometimes scientific or other specific concepts are used in areas not related to the original. This happened with the geodetic term "reference point". According to the definition, a geodetic benchmark is a mark or sign fixed at a specific point on the earth's surface. The coordinates and height of this place are calculated by leveling relative to a known and generally accepted value.

Height level systems

In Russia and some countries former USSR The Kronstadt footstock is considered to be the zero mark for reading the surface level. All geodetic signs indicated on the maps of these countries are calculated according to the Baltic system of heights adopted in 1977. In the regions of the Far East, calculations are carried out according to the Okhotsk system of heights. Its error relative to the BSV is less than one meter.

Footstock is a rail with divisions for determining the water level in a river or other body of water. Sometimes permanently installed footstocks, as reference points and reference points in geodesy, are used by scientists to observe changes in the water level in the seas, for the movements of the layers of the earth's surface along the vertical.

About the Kronstadt footstock and determination of the sea level

Initially, the change in the height of the Gulf of Finland was marked by horizontal notches on the walls of channels and basins, on the surfaces of locks. When a special service was organized in Kronstadt in 1777, water observations were carried out according to the marks of the footstock from the bottom

Long-term (since 1731) and regular notes, observations of fluctuations in the water levels of the Gulf of Finland were processed by the hydrographer M.F. Reinecke in 1840. Based on the averaged readings calculated by him, a horizontal line was carved on the stone support of one of the bridges across the Obvodny Canal. A few decades later, a metal plate with a horizontal mark was fixed at this level, practically coinciding with the zero reading of the foot rod.

Transfer of sea level to land

This level indicator was transferred to the mainland territory using leveling along the line railway"St. Petersburg - Oranienbaum" and "tied" with a brand-bolt to one of the buildings at the Baltic Station. It was this bolt that since 1892 has been the main benchmark for all leveling measurements in the country.

In 1946 on the territory Soviet Union a unified system of coordinates and heights was introduced. The initial level was taken Baltic Sea with a mark corresponding to zero on the Kronstadt footstock. This is the control reference point of the state leveling system. From the mark, heights and depths are calculated for all domestic maps and sailing directions, orbits for spacecraft flights are determined.

Varieties of benchmarks in geodesy

On the ground, the reference point is indicated by a structure in the form of a pyramid of stones, boards or metal tubes. Depending on the purpose, there are several types of benchmarks:

• Centuries are distributed in accordance with a special scheme throughout the country. They are installed according to the instructions in the given geographical points. They are used mainly for scientific purposes.
• Fundamental ones are equipped along all leveling lines of the first class (between age-old ones) and along the most critical lines of the second class. The distance between the points is from 50 to 80 km. They are laid exclusively in the ground in the form of reinforced concrete pillars and pylons. Since the fundamental benchmark can only be used in certain cases, an ordinary benchmark satellite with accurate transferred data is installed not far from it. It is used as a support for leveling grades 3 and 4.
• Ordinary benchmarks are wall, rock and ground. Fixed at a distance of 3.5 to 7 km from one another, these signs can be laid along all leveling lines.

The system of interconnected fundamental and ordinary reference points forms the GGS - the state geodetic network.

Cartographic designation of geodetic signs

On the maps, the reference point is marked with special icons. They are distinguished as follows:

• for astronomical points;
• for GGS points;
• for central points fixed on the territory;
• for survey network points;
• for points of the state leveling geodetic network.

All these points are marked on the real surface of the Earth with metal pyramids or ordinary benchmarks. Geodetic centers indicating the location of the point are applied to maps by coordinates, that is, as accurately as possible, with indications of elevation marks.

What is a reference point? Elevations included in the general geodetic network, mounds, hills or free-standing buildings with spiers, towers or bell towers are designated by conventionally accepted combined icons. GHS points in maps with large scale absolutely everything is indicated. Astronomical points, which are landmarks, are indicated only in cases where they are starting points in a given area.

Triangulation (reference) points, their installation

The installation of permanent signs is carried out by the State Geodetic Leveling Network. The ground parts of the benchmarks are mutually visible to each other at a certain distance. The design and height of signs depend on the purpose, local conditions, soil and distances from one point to another.

Geodetic points can be made in the form of metal or wooden pyramids, stone or reinforced concrete pillars. The height of each structure depends on the binding location. Any benchmark serves as a tripod or support for the measuring instrument and the observer.

The underground part of such a structure is made in the form of a foundation monolith filled with concrete. A mark cast from metal is built into the point itself, which is the center of the point. The inscription on the latter indicates the number and type of this item. The name of the organization that performed the work and the year of installation are cast together with a mark (usually cast iron).

Construction and reference marks

Disc-shaped benchmarks, made by cast iron, are installed in the walls industrial buildings, locks, in the abutments and This is done to monitor the static state of large structures. On disk stamps, in addition to inscriptions, there are protrusions intended for installation. The purpose of geodetic marks can be divided into the following categories:

• reference, or control, which are the basis for determining the position of the established brands, taking into account the safety and stability over a long time;
• auxiliary - these are intermediate signs for transferring coordinates and values ​​between deformation and reference marks;
• deformation marks, which are fixed directly on the walls of the observed structures or buildings (with spatial changes in the position of the object, these marks move with it).

Fixed points in construction are a guarantee of timely detection of the mobility or instability of a large object, such as a hydroelectric dam or a high-rise building.

Who needs it all

Thanks to the interconnected system of designated points, a state geodetic network is formed. Special catalogs contain lists with specified coordinates of all such points. This information is used by topographers to study the surface of the planet, in engineering and geodetic surveys, for various needs of the country's economy.

Lists indicating the values ​​of the coordinates are brought to the officers of the army along with topographic maps. Artillerymen are also well aware that the reference point is a mark indicating a known height, a kind of support for shooting on the ground.

Reference points on temperature scale Celsius is considered to be the temperature at which water boils and freezes at sea level.

In business, this concept is used to describe a certain state of affairs where certain actions can lead either to complete failure or to success.

Health, entrepreneurship

Since the reference point is a kind of reference indicator, a “hook”, this concept can be used in many areas of human life.

Investigating the causes of frequent stress in people who constantly live in megacities, scientists have found that the unnatural visual environment is to blame. The distribution of right angles and lines, buildings of a uniform color, a large number static objects negatively affects emotional condition person. The psychophysiological direction in science, called visual ecology, claims that the absence hallmarks architectural decorative elements overloads

The eye must highlight, fix some point, detail, element in the visual space, so that the brain perceives environment as comfortable, close to natural and harmonious. Only then does a person have a feeling of aesthetic and emotional satisfaction.

Benchmarks in business are like airbags. They can be used to increase the competitiveness of the enterprise. If we take as a basis some marketing techniques or the state of affairs in the current period, we can identify comprehensive measures that need to be taken to change the situation for the better.

Benchmark (geodesy)

Rapper in France

rapper(fr. repere sign, starting point) in geodesy- a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface is determined by leveling. In the Russian Federation, the heights of the benchmarks are calculated relative to the zero of the Kronstadt footstock. Benchmarks are divided into fundamental and ground.

The fundamental benchmarks, which are reinforced concrete pylons, are laid in the ground every 50-80 km on all leveling lines of the 1st class, as well as on the most critical lines of the 2nd class and near the most important offshore water meters. Ordinary benchmarks, laid every 5-7 km on leveling lines of all classes, are divided into unpaved, installed in the ground; wall, laid in the walls of capital structures; rocky, laid in rocky soil. Centuries-old benchmarks are laid at the intersection points of leveling lines of the 1st class.

Fundamental and ground benchmarks located on the territory of the country form the state leveling network. The benchmarks of the state leveling network serve as initial (reference) points for determining the heights of intermediate points on the earth's surface during topographic surveys and various kinds of survey work, and are also used for scientific purposes when studying the difference in sea levels.

In Russia, the Baltic system of heights is used in the Far East. At the end of the 1980s, the mark of the Kronstadt footstock was transferred to the coast of the Far Eastern seas, the expected error was approximately 1 meter.

brand

• brand- point of the leveling network, which serves to fix the point, the height of which above sea level is determined by leveling. The stamp is a cast metal disk with a diameter of 8 to 10 centimeters, built into the wall of a permanent (usually stone) building or bridge. In the center of the disk there is a hole with a diameter of about 2 mm, which determines the position of the mark. Its number is cast on the stamp, as well as the name of the organization that carried out the leveling work. Unlike a benchmark, a brand can be deformable. A mark attached to a part of the structure of a structure (foundation, column, wall) in order to measure settlement, heel or shear of the foundation.

see also

Notes

Links

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

See what "Reper (geodesy)" is in other dictionaries:

- (French repère “sign, starting point”) Benchmark (geodesy) Benchmark (geometry) fiducial point(physics) Rapper (artillery) See also Rapper rap performer ... Wikipedia

Reper (French repére sign, starting point) Reper (geodesy) In mathematics Reper (differential geometry) Reper (affine geometry) See also Rapper rap performer ... Wikipedia

Benchmark ground - – leveling benchmark, the base of which is set below the depth of freezing, thawing or movement of the soil, serving as a high-altitude geodetic base in the creation (development) of geodetic networks. [SP 11 104 97] Rubric… …

Wall anchor- - leveling benchmark installed on load-bearing structures capital buildings and structures. [SP 11 104 97] Term heading: Geodesy tools Encyclopedia headings: Abrasive equipment, Abrasives, Roads ... Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Leveling benchmark- - geodetic sign, which defines the point of the leveling network. [RTM 68 13 99] Term rubric: Geodesy tools Encyclopedia rubrics: Abrasive equipment, Abrasives, Highways … Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Reper (French repère - mark, sign, starting point) in geodesy, a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface is determined by leveling. In the USSR, R. heights are calculated ... ...

- (Greek geōdaisía, from gē Earth and dáiō I divide, I share) the science of determining the shape, size and gravitational field of the Earth and measurements on the earth's surface to display it on plans and maps, as well as to carry out various ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

geodesy- ▲ Applied science regarding, determine (implicit), position, material body geodesy is the science of determining the spatial position of objects. triangulation. polygonometry. mine surveying. surveyor. surveyor. gravimetry. |… … Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language

I Reper (French repère mark, sign, starting point) in geodesy, a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface (See Level surface) is determined by leveling (See ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

- (French herege sign, starting point) 1) R. in geodesy geodesy, a sign that fixes the point of the leveling network. At the place of laying, R. can be wall and ground. 2) R. in mathematics in space (on a plane) is a set of three (two) vectors with ... ... Big encyclopedic polytechnic dictionary

REPER

REPER

(fr.). A sign that serves as a reference point for leveling.

Dictionary foreign words, included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .

rapper

(fr. repeat)

1) geod. so a point on the ground with a known absolute height - a metal disk with a ledge (or with a hole - a mark), fixed in the walls of long-term structures, or a concrete monolith laid in the ground; serves as a reference or reference point when leveling and when laying out engineering structures;

2) in artillery - an auxiliary point specially selected in the target area for firing, at which guns are sighted in, followed by the transfer of fire to hit the target.

3) those. checkbox to check object linear changes

New dictionary of foreign words.- by EdwART,, 2009 .

Benchmark

rapper, m. [fr. repere] (geodes.). 1. Strongly fortified platform for setting the rail, with a precisely defined height above sea level, which serves as a starting point or a reference point for leveling (geodes). 2. Auxiliary point at which artillery is zeroed in, followed by the transfer of fire to the target (military).

A large dictionary of foreign words. - Publishing house "IDDK", 2007 .

Benchmark

a, m. ( fr. repère mark, notch).
1. geod. A sign on the ground indicating a certain absolute height of a given point.
2. mat. The set of two (on a plane) or three (in space) vectors with common beginning, not lying on one straight line and taken in a certain order.
3. military In artillery: an auxiliary point in the target area for firing, at which guns are sighted, followed by the transfer of fire to hit the target.

Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words L. P. Krysina.- M: Russian language, 1998 .

See what "REPER" is in other dictionaries:

Benchmark- Geodetic sign fixing the point of the leveling network Source: GOST 24846 81: Soils. Methods for measuring deformations of the foundations of buildings and structures original document ... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

benchmark- a, m. repère, repaire m. label, notch, badge. Poppy. 1908. 1. A sign fixed on the ground (column, rail, etc.), indicating the height above sea level, determined by leveling. BASS 1. A small stake for orientation when staking out ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

benchmark- rapper, pl. rappers, genus. rappers and in the speech of artillerymen, rapper, pl. rapper, born benchmarks ... Dictionary of pronunciation and stress difficulties in modern Russian

In geodesy, a sign of a point with a known absolute height is a metal disk with a protrusion (or a mark hole) fixed in the walls of permanent structures, or a concrete monolith laid in the ground ...

- (French repere) in space (on a plane) a set of three (two) vectors with a common origin, not lying in the same plane (on the same straight line) and taken in a certain order ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

In geodesy (French repere mark, sign, starting point * a. bench mark, datum mark, reference point; n. Hohenmarke, Nivellelementzeichen; f. repere; i. referencia de nivel, banco de nivel) a sign fixing a point on the earth's surface ,… … Geological Encyclopedia

rapper, rapper, husband. (French repère) (geod.). A firmly fixed staking platform, with a precisely defined height above sea level, serving as a starting point or a reference point for leveling. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935… … Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

A sign set to mark any specific points when surveying or a certain level during leveling work. Samoilov K.I. Marine vocabulary. M. L .: State Naval Publishing House of the NKVMF of the USSR, 1941 ... Marine Dictionary

Geodetic sign, fixed in the ground and serving as a starting or reference point for leveling. Technical railway dictionary. M.: State transport railway publishing house. N. N. Vasiliev, O. N. Isahakyan, N. O. ... ... Technical railway dictionary

Exist., number of synonyms: 4 sign (138) rail (12) column (14) ... Synonym dictionary

Books

• Home doctor. Medical guide. New illustrated edition, . Edited by V. F. Tulyankin, T. I. Tulyankina. Second edition, revised, corrected and enlarged. The book has 330 black-and-white illustrations and 19 color pages...

We are accustomed to the fact that a modern city is permeated by a variety of networks - communications, water supply, gas, transport, and so on. There is another network among them, not entirely invisible, but little known to the uninitiated. You may have noticed metal signs hammered or cemented into the walls of buildings. They're called geodetic benchmarks and together they make up the state leveling network (GNS).

One of the best descriptions geodetic benchmarks can be found in the technical encyclopedia of 1934.

Once, a couple of years ago, I tried to clarify some issues for myself on my own, but it turned out that there are a dime a dozen materials on geodesy on the Internet, but common man sorting through this mass of information is not so easy, and especially in relation to our Chelyabinsk realities. And recently I had the opportunity to ask questions to experts. They were answered:

Sergei Reingoldovich Reizvich- Director of LLC NPF "Nedra".
Sergei Vasilievich Vorobyov- a former leading employee of the architecture of Chelyabinsk, responsible for the creation, maintenance and development of geodetic networks.
Vladimir Nikolaevich Ivanov- cadastral engineer.
Dmitry Yurievich Mylnikov- Head of the department of design automation PC GPI Chelyabinskgrazhdanproekt.
Evgeniy Anatolievich Maslov- Head of the department for the protection of state secrets and mobilization training of the branch of the Federal State Budgetary Institution "FKP Rosreestra" for Chelyabinsk region.

What are rappers and what are they for?

D. Mylnikov: rappers and wall leveling marks are part of the leveling (altitude) network, which serves to measure the height relative to sea level when performing various engineering and construction works. On the territory of Russia, the sea height is measured relative to the zero of the Kronstadt footstock and is called the "Baltic system of heights". All benchmarks are made in such a way that they can be installed or hung from a special hole leveling rail, with which height measurements are made.

S.R. Reyzvich: At present, after leveling the state height network from Kaliningrad to Anadyr, the height marks are determined in the Baltic system of heights of 1977, which differs from the Baltic system by an average of 20 cm on the territory of the Chelyabinsk region.

D. Mylnikov: To determine the exact position on the ground, that is, coordinates, points of the state geodetic network (GGS) are used. The difference between GGS points and high-altitude benchmarks is that they have a clearly defined center, the coordinates of which are determined. Each item must be marked with its number, which is entered in the catalog. All other parameters of the item are determined by the catalog. In addition, the year of foundation, the name of the organization and other parameters that are not mandatory can be applied. At the same time, in practice, even the absence of a number on the benchmark is not critical, since all items are also marked on topographic maps and plans, as well as in the so-called "outlines" (schematic plans), according to which surveyors find them on the ground.

GGS points are the so-called "geodesic towers", which you probably saw outside the city. At the same time, the tower itself is needed only so that it can be seen from afar, and the point itself is located under it in the form special mark, poured into concrete base. At the same time, the most accurate points of the 1st class and the astronomical-geodesic network have one more duplicate sign at depth, which will be used to restore the point in case of damage. The coordinates of these points are calculated with very high precision, for points of the astronomical and geodetic network - using special astronomical measurements relative to the position of the stars. GHS points are usually also points of the leveling (altitude) network, since for them, in addition to coordinates, the height above sea level is also determined.

S.R. Reyzvich: In turn, in urban conditions, the benchmarks of the leveling network are also very often used as GGS points - for such points, not only the height is determined, but also the coordinates in one or another geodetic coordinate system associated with the Earth's surface.

D. Mylnikov: In addition, there are so-called points local geodetic networks, which are also called support and boundary networks(OMS). They are created in settlements and are used in defining borders. land plots and marking work during construction, that is, when determining the place where exactly you need to build a house or lay a road. Such points do not have geodetic towers. During the construction of large facilities or the development of large sites, temporary benchmarks and points are often created for the period of work, which makes it possible to speed up and simplify the entire process. Often these are temporary structures, for example, driven into the ground metal pipe or rail, the top of which serves as a mark, so after the completion of construction, they cease to exist.

E. Maslov: Support and boundary networks are also installed by surveyors, but they are used for local purposes, for settlements somewhere in the region - in Sosnovka, Argayash, etc. After the completion of the work, the surveyors, according to the act, transfer the compulsory medical insurance to the municipality, and then the municipality is responsible for their safety. Such tags are taken into account for individual directories.

S.R. Reyzvich: What else are rappers used for? To identify the impact of man-made processes during the construction of structures on quicksand, roads, bridges, subway lines, special observation stations are installed - in urban conditions they are also laid in the form of wall benchmarks.

The existing wall benchmarks are of great importance, since they were used to link and lay out the construction elements of the adjacent territory. If there are discrepancies in the position of the boundaries of buildings, structures, land plots, these wall benchmarks are the basis for conducting a forensic geodetic examination.

What are rappers?

S.R. Reyzvich: There are several varieties. Age-old rappers provide long-term preservation of the elevation mark, they are not found on the territory of the Chelyabinsk region. Fundamental benchmarks are located along the railway and are reinforced concrete pylons 30x30 cm in which metal signs are laid. In the rest of the region, the high-altitude network is represented by ground and wall benchmarks.

D. Mylnikov: Ground benchmarks necessarily have a concrete base - an "anchor", into which a metal, usually cast iron, mark with marking is poured. Wall benchmarks installed in the foundations of the rear and structures, including in the supports of bridges.

V. Ivanov: You can read more about the types of benchmarks.

S.R. Reyzvich: Rules for the design of benchmarks -.

What other information can be obtained by looking at a particular benchmark?

D. Mylnikov: Usually, its number and the name of the manufacturer are cast on the benchmark, sometimes the year. An engraved height value is sometimes found on ground benchmarks. All other parameters, except for the number, are optional and not always accurate, since all the exact parameters of the leveling network points are recorded in a special catalog.

The number on the benchmark is often not serial number item, but the unique number of the piece of iron itself, which is assigned to it during manufacture at the factory (like the body number of a car). Likewise, the year that is cast and not engraved is the year of manufacture of the sign, and not the year of its installation. That is, everything that was cast was applied at the factory at the time of manufacture, and cannot be associated with a specific place and time of installation of the sign. Everything that is engraved (cut out) is applied already at the moment or after the installation of the sign and refers to the parameters of a particular sign in a particular place.

But even the presence of a number on the benchmark is not mandatory. In the catalog of points of the geodetic and leveling networks, in addition to the number and parameters, there is always an "outline", that is, a diagram of the location of the benchmark or point on the ground. In addition, points are often applied on duty topographically locality. At the same time, in practice, usually, first, according to the topographic plan or outline, they find out where the benchmark is approximately located next to the work site, and then they are already looking for it on the ground. The probability that several benchmarks or points will be laid nearby is very low, so the absence of a number for it practical use not critical.

E. Maslov: The directory of references also indicates the address of the object. By the time of laying it, it is already known, since the benchmark is set after the building is built. That is, construction begins with surveyors, and ends with them.

Who is responsible for creating, recording and storing information about benchmarks?

D. Mylnikov: The catalog of points of state networks is stored in the state geodetic fund, for which this moment the state service of registration, cadastre and cartography is responsible.

E. Maslov: The catalog is labeled "For Official Use". Currently, all organizations performing cartographic and geodetic work are required to receive this data and use it in their work.

In what years did they begin to install benchmarks and when and why did they stop doing this?

D. Mylnikov: Benchmarks began to be actively installed in the 30s, when industrialization and the construction of large industrial enterprises and residential buildings began. Although leveling and geodetic networks were created even before the revolution, for example, during the construction of the Trans-Siberian railway, which passed through Chelyabinsk. At the same time, in different time the marking and the amount of information on the benchmarks were different. In order to find out now what and where was indicated, you need to raise the archives, look at the reports on the progress of work on their installation.

New benchmarks and signs are still being installed, but mainly where new construction is underway. It makes no sense to install new benchmarks in the old quarters, since there are enough old ones, and the number of works for which they are needed is less in the old built-up area. In principle, the main purpose of the benchmarks and points of geodetic networks is precisely to fix the reference position for as much as possible long time. In practice, this means that as soon as one or another territory is basically built up, the installation of new benchmarks on it also stops. And until some large-scale reconstruction begins, when the old buildings are demolished, in the foundations of which the benchmarks are laid, no one will install new ones.

True, in recent years, in connection with the development of technologies for performing work using GPS and GLONASS, the need to install benchmarks and points of the geodetic network has sharply decreased. This does not mean that they are not needed at all, but now they can be installed much less often (with large distances from each other).

S.R. Reyzvich: As far as I know, the last benchmarks were installed during the construction of the subway. These are ordinary metal signs laid along Lenin Avenue to the Aeroflot agency. As a recent example, we can also cite our benchmarks on the building of the legislative assembly of the region, which were laid around 2002.

What measures are taken (were taken) to preserve the benchmarks, are they periodically inspected, restored?

D. Mylnikov: The state geodetic and leveling networks are protected by the state, and administrative punishment is provided for damage to the GGS and GTS points. As for the rappers, most of of these belong to local networks, for which the municipality is responsible, which should monitor their safety. But due to the fact that in recent years there have been constant changes in the organs state power responsible for geodesy and cartography, which from separate service are now part of public service registration, cadastre and cartography, no one really does this really. That is, the problem of the safety of benchmarks and geodetic points exists.

As such, there is no special examination of the points at present. Usually it is replaced by constant use in the process of performing geodetic work. In the event that a specialist finds any problems with an item, he usually reports this to the accounting authority (if only because he has to take the parameters of another, neighboring item).

Local networks usually do not restore damaged or lost points, since it is easier and faster to lay a new point and determine its parameters. If there is a suspicion that the position of the benchmark or point is violated, then you still have to make new measurements at neighboring points. And if the sign itself is lost, then the new sign may have other sizes and a different registration number.

V.S. Vorobyov: During the Soviet era, inspection of points was carried out, special money was even allocated for this. In 1992-1994, as far as I know, on the territory of Chelyabinsk, the cycles of observations of the settlement of buildings and structures in the metro construction zones were annually carried out by a small but quite qualified enterprise MUP "Chelyabgeocenter". After the termination of its existence, the banner was taken up by Uralmine Surveying, which continues to make observations to this day, for which it is honor and praise - it is very difficult in our mercantile time to obtain funding for such work, which does not promise momentary benefits.

As for the responsibility for safety, I personally do not know of a single case where someone was really punished for the destruction of the state geosign. The main trouble is facing works on facades.

E. Maslov: In the city, the destruction of points is not so noticeable, because it is mainly iron and concrete, and even wooden towers still remain in the area. Some of them are tumbled down and destroyed. They are not monitored - this is also due to mismanagement, but also because there is no great need for them - GPS is increasingly being used.

Why is the concentration of benchmarks in the city center higher than on the outskirts?

D. Mylnikov: Where work was carried out more actively, there were more benchmarks and points installed. In this case, the center is usually built up more densely, the line-of-sight distance between the points required for measurements is less, therefore, in order to simplify and speed up the work, they tried to install more benchmarks and points. In new areas, the building density is lower, the line-of-sight range is greater, so the benchmarks can be installed at a greater distance from each other. In addition, with the advent of new equipment, such as laser levels or geodetic GPS / GLONASS receivers, the installation density can be significantly lower.

E. Maslov: By the way, this picture is typical not only for Chelyabinsk. For example, in Moscow, 20 out of 22 points are located in the city center.

Are the anchor bookmark and the building connected in some way? Is there any way to determine the date of construction from the benchmark?

S.R. Reyzvich: No. Indirectly, the benchmark can talk about nearby construction or the presence of dangerous facilities (metro, thermal power plant, etc.).

D. Mylnikov: There is no clear connection between the benchmark and the building. Firstly, the benchmark can be installed in the building much later than its construction. Secondly, since the year of manufacture of the sign itself is indicated on the sign, it could have been cast before the building was built.

As for the shape of the rapper, then a separate study needs to be carried out. For a surveyor, it is not so much the form that is important, but the safety of the sign and the convenience of its use. On the other hand, in the days of the USSR, signs of benchmarks were produced centrally, so the shape of the benchmark will rather speak about the history of the production of signs. When, at what plant, etc. At the same time, the benchmarks were installed at different times, that is, both old and new ones can stand on the same territory. A new benchmark could be installed to replace the lost one, etc.

The section is very easy to use. In the proposed field, just enter the desired word, and we will give you a list of its meanings. I would like to note that our site provides data from various sources - encyclopedic, explanatory, word-building dictionaries. Here you can also get acquainted with examples of the use of the word you entered.

Meaning of the word rapper

rapper in the crossword dictionary

benchmark

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

benchmark

benchmark, m. (fr. repire) (geodes.). A firmly fixed staking platform, with a precisely defined height above sea level, serving as a starting point or a reference point for leveling.

New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

benchmark

m. A sign fixed on the ground indicating a certain absolute height of a given point (in geology).

m. The set of two (on the plane) or three (in space) vectors with a common origin, not lying on the same straight line and taken in a certain order (in mathematics).

m. An auxiliary point at which the gun is sighted for the subsequent transfer of fire to the target (in artillery).

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

benchmark

in geodesy - a sign of a point with a known absolute height, a metal disk with a ledge (or with a hole - a mark), fixed in the walls of long-term structures, or a concrete monolith laid in the ground.

benchmark

REPER (French repere) in space (on a plane) is a set of three (two) vectors with a common origin, not lying in the same plane (on the same straight line) and taken in a certain order.

Benchmark

rapper

• Benchmark
• Benchmark
• Benchmark
• fiducial point
• Benchmark

Benchmark (geodesy)

rapper(from - label, sign, starting point) in geodesy - a sign that fixes a certain point on the earth's surface with a known absolute height. This height is determined by leveling with respect to the original level surface. A metal disk 5 centimeters in diameter with a number and an indication of the department is fixed on the benchmarks. AT Russian Federation it is customary to calculate the heights of benchmarks relative to the zero mark of the Kronstadt footstock.

Reference (geometry)

rapper (sign, starting point) is the set of a point of the manifold and the basis of the tangent space at this point.

Frame (affine geometry)

rapper(from - sign, starting point) or point basis affine space - a generalization of the concept of a basis for affine spaces.

An affine space frame A, associated with the vector space V dimensions n, is a set of points O ∈ A(origin) and an ordered set of n linearly independent vectors e, …, e ∈ V(that is, the basis in n-dimensional vector space V). This is equivalent to giving an ordered set of n+ 1 affine independent points O, P, …, P ∈ A. In this case, obviously, the vectors $e_1 = \vec(OP_1), \ldots, e_n = \vec(OP_n)$.

Coordinates points X ∈ A relative frame ( O; e, …, e) are the coordinates of the vector $\vec(OX)$ with respect to the basis e, …, e. In the same way as when choosing a basis in a vector space, any vector of this space is given by its coordinates, any point of an affine space is given by its coordinates relative to the selected frame. If with respect to the benchmark ( O; e, …, e) dot X ∈ A has coordinates ( x, …, x), and the point Y ∈ A- coordinates ( y, …, y), then the vector $\vec(XY)$ has with respect to the basis e, …, e coordinates ( y − x, …, y − x).

Benchmark ( O; e, …, e) is called orthogonal (orthonormal) if the corresponding basis e, …, e is orthogonal.

Benchmark (artillery)

rapper- a real or conditional point on the ground used for zeroing in artillery pieces. These benchmarks are used to transfer fire to real targets without first zeroing them in. There are two types of benchmarks: real and fictitious.

Examples of the use of the word rapper in the literature.

At the top of Iremel, one cannot find a single benchmark, no wreckage of the trigapoint, just various rubbish dragged here by tourists.

A hyperluminal exhaust is an explosion with a capacity of tens of megatons, carrying a potential danger for lighthouses, highway benchmarks and other ships.