TMK - Heavy interplanetary ship K. Foktistov

On this day in 1972, US President Richard Nixon approved the NASA program to create reusable Transport Spacecraft. Our review is devoted to the most interesting and unusual projects Ships of this class from around the world.

Boeing X-20 DYNA SOAR

The first reusable spacecraft was developed in the USA back in 1963. The Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar project was a multipurpose military orbital aircraft. Dyna-Soar was the most innovative space project of that time, but the construction of the first machines was soon discontinued, and the project is closed.

Spiral

In the mid-60s, the development of the "Spiral" project began in the USSR in response to American Dyna-Soar. It was assumed that the orbital aircraft will accelerate the passenger airliner to about 6 mach. In 1969, the development was suspended and continued in the mid-70s. Test flights were carried out at the MiG-105.11 dialing, but soon the project closed finally.

Space shuttle

The first shuttle on the legendary program SPACE SHUTTLE was launched on April 12, 1981. The design of the machine consisted of three steps: reusable solid fuel rocket accelerators, fuel tank with liquid hydrogen and oxygen and orbital apparatus itself. According to engineers, the shutters had to deliver cargo between the land and orbital stations. In the entire history of the program, about 1,400 tons of various goods were delivered. The program ended in 2011. In total, 135 launches of five shuttles were produced: Colombia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis and Indehenor. Colombia and Challenger died as a result of a catastrophe.

Buran

In response to the American "Shuttle", in the Soviet Union since 1976 the development of the Energy-Buran program began. The first and only flight on this program was carried out on November 15, 1988 without the participation of pilots. In 1993, the program was officially closed.

Dash

In 1985-1989, the development of a reusable spacecraft "Zarya" was carried out in the Soviet Union. In 1987, a sketchy project of the car was created. The main distinctive feature from other ships of that time was in the mechanics of landing with the help of jet engines. However, due to the reduction in financing, the project was stopped.

Avatar

The Avatar Indian program was announced in May 1998. According to engineers, the machine will provide the most cheap transportation of goods into orbit. Avatar will use conventional airfields for take-off and landing. The construction of the first prototype of the cosmolete is engaged in the private company CIM Technologies.

Skylon.

British Skylon project Reaction Engines Limited started in 2000. Now he is in finding financing. According to engineers, Skylon system ships will significantly reduce the cost of transporting goods to near-earth orbit. The cosmologist will be able to transport about 200 tons of cargo. In 2013, the British government agreed to allocate 60 million pounds of sterling on project support.

Shenlun.

The Chinese reusable Shenlevun cosmologist ("Dragon Space Plan") is developed since the beginning of the 2000s. It will be launched from the H-6K bomber. The first suburbant flight "Dragon" performed January 8, 2011.

Rus

In 2009, RKK "Energia" began developing the transport space system "Rus". The ship will deal with the delivery of goods into orbit and ensure the safety of airspace. In addition, the module will fly to the moon. Unmanned tests will begin in 2018.

MAX

The development of the project began in 1980 and attracted the attention of many experts, but its development gained momentum only in 2012. On the this moment Clamps are being developed for take-off with carrier aircraft M-55 "Geophysics" and ZM-T. The Max project suggests the conclusion to the orbit of tourists and small commercial cargo.

In 2011, the United States was without cosmic vehicles capable of delivering a person to an near-earth orbit. Now the American engineers design more new manned spacecraft than ever, and private companies leading, and this means that the development of space will become much cheaper. In this article we will talk about seven-projected devices, and if at least some of these projects are progressing, a new golden age will come in the piloted cosmonautics.

• Type: Inhabited Capsule Creator: Space Exploration Technologies / Elon Mask
• Launch date: 2015
• Purpose: Flights to orbit (up to the ISS)
• Chances of success: very decent

When in 2002, Elon Mask established his company Space Exploration Technologies, or Spacex, skeptics did not see any prospects in this. However, by 2010, his startup was the first private enterprise, who managed to repeat what was before the diocese of the state. The Falcon 9 rocket brought the Dragon unmanned capsule into orbit.

The next step on the path of the mask in space is the development based on the capsule of repassing the Dragon of the device capable of carrying people on board. It will wear the name DragonRider and is intended for flights to the ISS. Using an innovative approach both in design and in operational principles, Spacex states that the carriage of passengers will cost only $ 20 million for one passenger-place (a passenger-place in the Russian "Union" costs today $ 63 million today).

Path to the manned capsule

Improved interior

The capsule will be equipped with a crew from seven people. An earthly pressure is supported inside the unmanned version, so it will be easy to adapt to people's stay.

Wider portholes

Through them, astronauts will be able to observe the docking process from the ISS. In future modifications, the capsule - with the possibility of landing on the reactive jet - will need even wider overview.

Additional engines, developing craving 54 tons for emergency lifting orbit in the event of a carrier rocket accident.

Dream Chaser - Descendant of Space Shuttle

• Type: Space aircraft with launch using a carrier missile Creator: Sierra Nevada Space Systems
• Planned launch in orbit: 2017 year
• Purpose: orbital flights
• Chances of success: good

Of course, space aircraft have certain advantages. Unlike the ordinary passenger capsule, which, falling through the atmosphere, can only adjust the trajectory slightly, the shuttles are capable of carrying out the maneuver on the descent and even change the destination airfield. In addition, they can be reused after brief service. However, the catastrophes of two American shutouts showed that the space planes are by no means an ideal means for orbital expeditions. First, carry goods on the same devices as the crews, expensive, because using a pure cargo ship, can be saved on security and livelihood systems.

Secondly, the shuttle fastening on the side of the accelerators and the fuel bac increases the risk of damage from the accidentally fallen elements of these structures, which caused the death of the COLUBIA shuttle. However, Sierra Nevada Space Systems fuses that it will be able to oblivion the reputation of the orbital space aircraft. To do it, she has a Dream Chaser - a winged machine for shipping crews on space station. Already, the company is fighting for NASA contracts. The design of the Dream Chaser got rid of the main deficiencies characteristic of old space shuttles. First, now loads and crews intend to carry separately. And secondly, now the ship will be mounted not on the side, but at the top of the ATLAS VA rocket. At the same time, all the advantages of the shuttles will be saved.

Supportal flights of the device are scheduled for 2015, and in orbit it will be replaced two years later.

How inside?

Seven people can go on this apparatus in space. The ship starts on the top of the rocket.

On the specified section, it is separated from the carrier and then can adjust to the docking unit of the space station.

Dream Chaser has never flown into space, but is ready for at least for running along the runway. In addition, it was discharged from helicopters, experiencing the aerodynamic capabilities of the ship.

New Shepard - AMAZON Secret Ship

• Type: Inhabited Capsule Creator: Blue Origin / Jeff Bezos
• Launch Date: Unknown
• Chances of success: good

Jeff Bezos - the 49-year-old founder of Amazon.com and a billionaire with his vision of the future - for more than ten years embodies secret plans for the development of space. From its 25-billion capital of Bezos, many millions have already invested in the bold undertaking, which has received the name of Blue Origin. Its apparatus will take off from the experimental starting site, which is built (of course, with FAA approval) in the deaf corner of Western Texas.

In 2011, the company published frames on which the cone-shaped missile system New Shepard was visible. It takes off vertically to the height of one and a half hundred meters, hangs there for a while, and then smoothly descends to the ground using a jet jet. According to the project, in the future, the launch vehicle can, throwing a capsule on the susvorbital height, to return to the cosmodrome, using its own engine. This is a much more economical scheme than the capture of the used stage in the ocean after the leadation.

After in 2000, the Internet entrepreneur Jeff Bezos founded his space company, he kept the fact of its existence in secret for three years. The company launches its experimental devices (like that capsule, which is depicted in the photo) from a private spaceport in West Texas.

The system consists of two parts.

The capsule for the crew, in which the normal atmospheric pressure is maintained, separated from the carrier and flies to a height of 100 km. The route engine allows a rocket to make a vertical landing near the starting table. The capsule itself is then returned to the ground with a parachute.

The carrier rocket lifts the device from the starting table.

SpaceShipTwo - Pioneer in Tourist Business

• Type: Spaceship, launched in the air from a carrier aircraft Creator: Virgin Galactic /
• Richard Branson
• Launch date: scheduled for 2014
• Purpose: Supportal Flights
• Chances of success: very good

The first of the SPACESHIPTWO devices during the test planning flight. In the future, four more of the same devices will be built, which will begin to carry tourists. In line, the flight was already recorded by 600 wishing, including celebrities such as Justin Bieber, Ashton Kutcher and Leonardo Di Caprio.

The apparatus built by the famous designer Bertan Rutan in collaboration with the magnate Richard Branson, the owner of the company Virgin Group, laid the foundation of the future of space tourism. Why not roll into space of everyone? IN new version This apparatus will be able to accommodate six tourists and two pilots. Journey into space will consist of two parts. At first, the WhitekNightTwo aircraft (its length is 18 m, and the wingspan - 42) will raise the SpaceShipTwo apparatus at a height of 15 km.

Then the jet device will be separated from the carrier aircraft, runs its own engines and rushes into space. At an altitude of 108 km, passengers will excellently consider the curvature of the earth's surface, and serene radiance earthly atmosphere - And all this on the background of black cosmic depths. A ticket worth a quarter of a million dollars will allow travelers to enjoy weightlessness, but only four minutes.

Inspiration Mars - Kiss over the Red Planet

• Type: Interplanetary Transport Creator: Foundation Inspiration Mars / Dennis Tito
• Launch date: 2018
• Purpose: Flight to Mars
• Chances of success: dubious

Honeymoon (a year and a half) in the interplanetary expedition? This feature wants to offer a selected pair of the Inspiration Mars Foundation, which is managed by a former NASA engineer, an investment specialist and the first space tourist Dennis Tito. Tito Group expects to take advantage of the planet parade, which will occur in 2018 (it happens every 15 years). "Parade" will allow flying from the ground to Mars and return over the trajectory of free return, that is, without burning an additional fuel. Next year, Inspiration Mars will start accepting applications for an expedition duration of 501 days.

The ship will have to fly at a distance of 150 km from the surface of Mars. To participate in flight it is planned to choose a married couple - possibly newlyweds (the issue of psychological compatibility is important). "According to the Inspiration Mars Foundation, it will take $ 1-2 billion to collect the foundation for affairs, which previously seemed simply unthinkable, such, let's say, as a flight to other planets," says Marco Caceres, the head of space research by TEAL GROUP.

• Type: Spaceplane, capable of taking off the independently Creator: Xcor Aerospace
• Planned launch date: 2014
• Purpose: Supportal Flights
• Chances of success: quite decent

In the California company, Xcor Aerospace (headquarters in Mojave), it is believed that they have the key to the cheapest suburbant flights. The company already sells tickets to its 9-meter Lynx apparatus, designed only for two passengers. Tickets are $ 95,000.

Unlike other space aircraft and passenger capsules, Lynx does not need a carrier rocket. Running jet engines specially designed under this project (kerosene with liquid oxygen will be burned in them), Lynx takes off from the band in the horizontal direction, as the usual aircraft does, and only disperse, it squeaks on its space trajectory. The first test flight of the device can take place in the coming months.

Take off: the spacecraft accelerates on the runway.

Lifting: reaching a speed of 2.9 Mach, it turns cool height.

Purpose: After about 3 minutes after takeoff, the engines are turned off. The plane follows a parabolic trajectory, rushing through the subborital outer space.

Return to the dense layers of the atmosphere and landing.

The device gradually resets the speed, cutting circles on the downward spiral.

Orion - Passenger capsule for a large company

• Type: Inhabable Employment Ship for Interstellar Flights
• Creator: NASA / US Congress
• Launch date: 2021-2025

NASA's near-earth orbit flights have already lost to private companies, but the agency has not yet refused the Agency from Claims to Far Space. The planets and asteroids may fly a multi-purpose inhabitable Orion apparatus. It will consist of a capsule docked with a module that, in turn, will make a power plant with a fuel reserve, as well as a residential compartment. The first test flight capsule will be held in 2014. It will be launched into space 70 m launch vehicles with a length of 70 m. Then the capsule should return to the atmosphere and land in the water of the Pacific Ocean.

Under distant expeditions for which ORION is preparing will, apparently, a new rocket is built. At NASA factories in Huntsville, Alabama, work on the new 98-meter missile Space Launch System is already underway. This superheavy transport should be ready by the time when (and if) NASA astronauts will gather to fly to the moon, on some asteroid or even further. "We are more and more about Mars," says Dan Dambaher, head of the research system in NASA, as about our main Goal" True, some critics say that such claims are somewhat exy. The projected system is so huge that NASA will be able to use it no more than once every two years, since one launch it will cost $ 6 billion.

When does a person stand on an asteroid?

In 2025, NASA plans to send astronauts in the Orion ship to one of the asteroids located near the Earth - 1999AO10. The trip should take five months.

Running: Orion with a crew of four takes off from Cape Canaveral, Florida.

Flight: After five days of the flight of Orion, using the strength of the attraction of the moon, will make a turn around it and take the course for 1999AO10.

Meeting: Astronauts will fly to the asteroid two months after the start. Two weeks they will spend on its surface, but there is no speech about the real landing, since this spacestone has too weak gravity. Rather, crew members simply attach their ship to the surface of the asteroid and collect samples of minerals.

Return: Since all this time asteroid 1999AO10 is gradually approaching land, the return path will be a little shorter. Reaching the near-earth orbit, the capsule is separated from the ship and driven in the ocean.

In continuing the story of the Soviet projects of expeditions to Mars - the history of the heavy interplanetary ship TMK, the work on which began at the very beginning of the "lunar race".

The initiator of the project was a pilot-cosmonaut Konstantin Feoktistov, his leader appointed Tikhonravov.

For those who do not know or remember the first Soviet cosmonauts give a brief historical certificate. Together with V.

Komarov and B. Egorov, K. Foktists, was part of the first group crew, which was flying on October 12-13, 1964 on the first apparatus new Series "Sunrise" lasting 1 day 17 minutes 3 seconds.

For the first time in the practice of space flights, astronauts were located in a spacecraft without spacecraft.

In addition, Feoktists were the first "civil" cosmonaut and the only one in history soviet cosmonautics Non-partisan who committed a cosmic flight.

In the future, he dedicated himself to design activities and participated in the development of the "Union" and "progress" type ships, as well as their modifications. The Martian project was not so much "breakdown of the pen" for Feoktistov, as an attempt to work out the schemes and aggregates of future spacecraft capable of going to other planets.

According to the first version, TMK was supposed to consist of five modules, the assembly of which was carried out in the orbit of the Earth.

The ship was included:

- Space Cabin
- Flight device in the Martian atmosphere
- two landing modules (one standby)
- Motor compartment.

The most problems have delivered a power plant that, with technologies of that time, needed large stocks of fuel, "eaten" a significant part of the starting mass. Then a variant was proposed with an electrical engine, which had a significantly smaller mass and higher efficiency. The use of EDD allowed to significantly reduce the starting mass of TMK, which was now estimated at 75 tons. This made it possible to remove the ship into orbit in one launch on the H-1 launch vehicle. At the same time, the mass of the ship on the path trajectory to Mars was 30 tons! However, the disadvantages of this option turned out to be more.

For the effective functioning of the EDD, there was a powerful source of electricity aboard the TMC, which would require the installation of huge solar panels are concurrent area of \u200b\u200b36.000 m.kv. Of course, such a titanic structure was unacceptable, but even with its theoretical construction, Erd would be only 7.5 kg, and several months would need to accelerate the spacecraft.

Instead, a project was developed using compact nuclear reactor The power of 7 MW with a flammable method of transformation of thermal energy (using thermal devices or semiconductor thermocouples), which was supposed to provide EDD energy with a specific impulse of 100,000 m / s. This version of TMK, in addition to the power plant, included an extended conical tank with a working flueling body and a huge evaporator radiator in the form of a long cylinder.

The protection of the crew from radiation was provided by the screen located directly behind the reactor, and to protect residential premises from infrared radiation The radiator was used the heat screen. It was placed radiation asylum with bioprotection.

Other ship blocks included working and residential compartments with a descended device. Relatively large stocks by weight allowed to place on TMK the required number of devices and systems. The total duration of the expedition was three years, from which the total time of the ERD is about a year.

This vehicle version received the designation of TMK-E. The dimensions of this design were impressed:

length - 175 meters
Maximum diameter - 6 meters
Full weight - 150 tons.

It is quite natural that it was not possible to raise such a huge ship from Earth, so the assembly of TMK-E was to be held in orbit. The crew of the ship consisted of 6 people, three of whom were planted on Mars.

To implement a research mission, a whole Martian complex was developed, consisting of 5 separate devices of a segment-conical form:

- Cabin crew
- manipulator and drilling rig
- platform with converter for intelligence flights
- Two platforms with orbit modules returned
- Platform with nuclear installation.

After landing, the segments were formed into the "Martian train" on the wheels of a large diameter. The reserve of energy theoretically grabbed for the year of autonomous work. That would be enough for the expedition to pass the distance from the southern pole to the northern, along the way, taking the soil sample and the atmosphere. All this time over Mars was supposed to be the orbital complex TMK-E, which would be transmitted to the obtained samples. Through it also communicated with the PC.

In connection with the large duration of the expedition, which was approximately 18 months, the design team of Feoktistov took care of livelihood systems. With the starting mass of stocks of food and oxygen, it would not be enough for such long term, Therefore, I had to work out the system with a closed cycle.

To this end, an ecological system of Earth was used in a simplified form, where to generate oxygen from carbon dioxide of carbon dioxide, containers with algae chlorella were decided. To replenish the edible diet, it was assumed to use hydroponic greenhouses, which were planned to grow vegetables - this would reduce the mass of products taken from the Earth by about 20-50%. Light to the greenhouses was supposed to flow through large-sized external solar hubs.

For the inspection of the ideas of the Specialists of the OKB-1, in collaboration with the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems, numerous experiments with skaters, crew salvation systems and its livelihoods were carried out. Also built an analogue of the residential compartment of TMK-E, in which three tests spent the year.

However, it was not possible to implement such a large-scale and ambitious project of Foktistov and Tikhonravov. Since 1965, a more priority has become a landing on the moon with the use of rockets H1-L3, so the development of TMK-E has moved very slowly, and in a few years and was stopped at all.

According to the books of the book A. Vervushin "Battle for the stars. Space confrontation. "

The spacecraft used for flights in an near-earth orbit, including under man control.

Everything spaceships You can divide into two classes: manned and running in control mode from the surface of the Earth.

At the beginning of the 20s. XX century K. E. Tsiolkovsky once again predicts the future development of outer space by earthlings. In his work, the "spacecraft" is a mention of the so-called celestial ships, the main purpose of which is the implementation of human flights into space.
The first space ships of the East series were created under the guidance of the General Designer of the OKB-1 (now Rocket and Space Corporation "Energia") S. P. Queen. The first piloted spacecraft "Vostok" was able to deliver to the human space on April 12, 1961. This cosmonaut was Yu. A. Gagarin.

The main tasks set in the experiment were:

1) studying the impact of the conditions of orbital flight per person, including its performance;

2) checking the principles of the design of spacecraft;

3) testing of structures and systems in real conditions.

The total weight of the ship was 4.7 tons, the diameter is 2.4 m, the length is 4.4 m. Among the onboard systems, which the ship was equipped with, you can select the following: control systems (automatic and manual modes); Automatic orientation system in the sun and manual - to the ground; life supporting system; thermostat system; Landing system.

In the future, the developments obtained in the implementation of the East spacecraft program made it possible to create much more perfect. To date, "Armada" spacecraft is very clearly represented by the American Reusable Space Space Space "Shuttle", or Space Shuttle.

It is impossible not to mention the Soviet development, which is currently not used, but it could be a serious competition to the American ship.

"Buran" - the program of the Soviet Union for the creation of a multi-sized space system was called. Works under the program "Buran" began due to the need to create a multi-sized space system as a means of deterring the potential enemy in connection with the beginning of the American project in January 1971

To implement the project, NGOs "Lightning" were created. In the shortest possible time in 1984, with the support of more than a thousand enterprises from all over the Soviet Union, the first full-scale instance was created with the following technical characteristics: His length was more than 36 m with a wings of 24 m; starting mass - more than 100 tons with a lot of payload
30 tons

"Buran" had a hermetic cabin in the nose compartment, which could accommodate about ten people and most Equipment to ensure flight in orbit, descent and landing. The ship was equipped with two groups of engines at the end of the tail compartment and in the front of the housing for maneuvering, the combined motor installation was used for the first time, which included the fuel tanks of the oxidizing agent and fuel, thermostatization, fluid intimidation in weightlessness, control system, etc.

The first and only flight of the Buran Space ship made on November 15, 1988 in an unmanned, fully automatic mode (for reference: "Shuttle" still performs landing only on manual control). Unfortunately, the flight of the ship coincided with severe times, which began in the country, and in connection with the end " cold War"And the lack of sufficient funds The Buran program was closed.

The beginning of a series of American spacecraft type "Shuttle" was found in 1972, although he was preceded by a draft reusable two-stage aircraft, each stage of which was similar to jet.

The first stage performed the function of the accelerator, which after entering the orbit finished its part of the task and returned to the Earth with the crew, and the second was an orbital ship and after executing the program also returned to the start place. It was the time of the arms race, and the creation of a ship of this type was considered the main link in this race.

To launch the ship, Americans use an accelerator and its own ship, fuel for which is located in the outer fuel tank. The spent accelerators after landing on are reused, with a limited number of starts. Structurally, the Shuttle Series Ship consists of several basic elements: Orbiter air-space aircraft, reusable rocket accelerators and a fuel tank (disposable).

The first flight of the spacecraft due to large number Flames and constructive changes took place only in 1981. In the period from April 1981 to July 1982, a series of orbital flight tests of the "Columbia" ship was held in all flight modes. Unfortunately, in a series of flights of ships of the "Shuttle" series did not cost without tragedies.

In 1986, during the 25th on the launch of the Challenger's ship, a fuel tank exploded due to the imperfection of the structure of the apparatus, as a result of which all seven crew members were killed. Only in 1988, after making a number of changes to the flight program, the spacecraft "Discovery" was launched. A new ship "Endesor" was introduced to the change of "Challenger", which carries out its flights since 1992

Modern rocket engines are well coped with the task of removing equipment into orbit, but completely unsuitable for long-term space travel. Therefore, no first decad of years, scientists work on the creation of alternative space engines that could overclock the ships before record speeds. Let's consider seven major ideas from this area.

Emdrive.

To move, it is necessary to push out something - this rule is considered one of the unshakable pillars of physics and cosmonautics. From which it is specifically repelled - from the ground, water, air or a jet gas jet, as in the case of rocket engines, is not so important.

Well known mind experiment: Imagine that the cosmonaut went into open space, but the cable connecting it with the ship, unexpectedly broke up and the person begins to slowly fly away. All he has is a box with tools. What are his actions? Proper answer: He needs to throw tools away from the ship. According to the law of preserving the impulse, the person will drop from the tool exactly with the same force, with what and the tool from the person, so it will gradually move towards the ship. This is the reactive traction - the only one possible method move in empty space space. True, EmDrive, as experiments show, has some chances of this unshakable statement to disprove.

The creator of this engine is the British engineer Roger Shairst, founding his own Satellite Propulsion Research company in 2001. Emdrive design is very extravagant and is the form of a metal bucket, soldered at both ends. Inside this bucket is a magnetron emitting electromagnetic waves - the same as in a conventional microwave. And it turns out to be enough to create a very small, but quite noticeable craving.

The author himself explains the work of his engine through pressure difference electromagnetic radiation At different ends of the "bucket" - in a narrow end it is less than in a wide one. Due to this, a thrust is created toward the narrow end. The possibility of such a motor operation was challenged more than once, but in all experiments the installation of the steeper shows the presence of thrust in the proposed direction.

Among the experimenters who tested the "bucket" of the Steer, organizations such as NASA, Technical University of Dresden and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The invention was checked in a variety of conditions, including in vacuo, where it showed the presence of thrust in 20 microns.

This is very little regarding chemical jet engines. But, given the fact that the engine of the game can work as if it does not need a fuel reserve (the operation of the magnetron can provide solar panels), it is potentially able to accelerate spacecraft to huge speeds measured as a percentage of light speed.

To fully prove the engine performance, it is necessary to spend many measurements and get rid of side Effectswhich can be generated, for example, external magnetic fields. However, alternative possible explanations of the abnormal thrust of the engine engine, which, in general, violates the usual laws of physics.

For example, the versions are put forward that the engine can create a craving due to an interaction with a physical vacuum that quantum level It has non-zero energy and is filled with constantly born and disappearing virtual elementary particles. Who ultimately will be right - the authors of this theory, the balls themselves or other skeptics, we will learn in the near future.

Sunny sail

As mentioned above, the electromagnetic radiation puts pressure. This means that it is theoretically, it can be converted into motion - for example, with the help of sails. Similarly, how the ships of the past centuries caught the wind in their sails, the spacecraft of the future would catch sunny or any other star light in his sails.

The problem, however, is that the pressure of light is extremely little and decreases with increasing distance from the source. Therefore, to be effective, such a sail must have very low weight and very large square. And this increases the risk of destruction of the entire structure when meeting with an asteroid or another object.

Attempts to build and launch solar sailboats in space have already happened - in 1993, the testing of the solar sail on the ship "Progress" held Russia, and in 2010, Japan implemented successful tests on the way to Venus. But no ship used the sail as the main source of acceleration. A little more promising in this regard, another project looks like an electric sail.

Electric sail

The sun radiates not only photons, but also electrically charged particles of the substance: electrons, protons and ions. All of them form the so-called sunny wind, a monthly luminous from the surface of the shone of about one million tons of substance.

The sunny wind applies to billions of kilometers and is responsible for some natural phenomena on our planet: geomagnetic storms and northern lights. The land from the solar wind is protected using its own magnetic field.

Sunny wind, like the wind air, is quite suitable for travel, it is only necessary to make him blow into the sail. The project of an electric sail created in 2006 Finnish scientist Pecken Yanhound, externally has little common with sunny. This engine consists of several long thin cables, similar to wheel needles without rim.

Due to the electron gun emitting against the direction of movement, these cables acquire a positive charged potential. Since the electron mass is about 1800 times less than the proton mass, the traction being created by electrons will not play a concept. Not important for such sails and electrons of the solar wind. But positively charged particles - protons and alpha radiation - will be repelled from cables, thereby creating a reactive traction.

Although this traction will be about 200 times less than the solar sail, the European Space Agency is interested. The fact is that the electric sail is much easier to construct, produce, deploy and operate in space. In addition, with the help of gravity, the sail also allows you to travel to the source of the star wind, and not just from it. And since the surface area of \u200b\u200bsuch sail is much less than that of sunny, for asteroids and space garbage It is vulnerable less. Perhaps the first experimental ships on the electric sail we will see in the next few years.

Ion engine

The flow of charged particles of a substance, that is, ions, not only stars emit. Ionized gas can be created and artificially. In the usual state, the gas particles are electrically neutral, but when its atoms or molecules lose electrons, they turn into ions. In the overall mass, such gas still has no electric chargeBut its individual particles become charged, and therefore can move in a magnetic field.

In the ion engine, the inert gas (the xenon is usually used) is ionized by the stream of high-energy electrons. They knock out electrons from atoms, and they acquire a positive charge. Next, the resulting ions are accelerated in the electrostatic field to speeds of about 200 km / s, which is 50 times more than the rate of gas expire from chemical jet engines. Nevertheless, modern ion engines have a very small burden - about 50-100 milligions. Such an engine could not even move from the table. But he has a serious plus.

A large specific impulse can significantly reduce fuel costs in the engine. For gas ionization, energy obtained from solar panels is used, so the ion engine is able to work for a very long time - up to three years without a break. For such a term, he will have time to disperse the spacecraft to speeds that chemical engines have not dreamed.

Ion engines have repeatedly furred Solar system As part of various missions, but usually as auxiliary, not basic. Today, as a possible alternative to ion engines, they are increasingly talking about plasma engines.

Plasma Engine

If the degree of ionization of atoms becomes high (about 99%), then such an aggregate state of the substance is called plasma. It is possible to achieve plasma state at high temperatures, therefore, in plasma engines, ionized gas is heated to several million degrees. Heating is carried out using an external energy source - solar panels or, more real, a small nuclear reactor.

The hot plasma is then thrown over the nozzle of the rocket, creating cravings in tens of times greater than in an ion engine. One example of a plasma engine is the Vasimr project, which is developing since the 70s of the last century. Unlike ion engines, plasma in space were still not tested, but with them bind high hopes. It is the plasma engine Vasimr is one of the main candidates for manned flights to Mars.

Thermonuclear Engine

To tighten the energy of thermonuclear synthesis, people are trying from the middle of the twentieth century, but so far it was not possible to do it. Nevertheless, the controlled thermonuclear synthesis is still very attractive, because it is a source of huge energy obtained from very cheap fuel - helya and hydrogen isotopes.

Currently, there are several projects for the design of the reactive engine on the energy of thermonuclear synthesis. The most promising of them is the model based on the plasma magnetic retention reactor. The thermonuclear reactor in such an engine will be a leshedral cylindrical chamber of 100-300 meters in length and 1-3 meters in diameter. Fuel in the form of a high-temperature plasma should be supplied to the chamber, which, with sufficient pressure, enters the reaction of nuclear synthesis. The magnetic system coils located around the chamber must hold this plasma from contact with the equipment.

Zone thermonuclear reaction Located along the axis of such a cylinder. With the help of magnetic fields, extremely hot plasma stems through the nozzle of the reactor, creating a huge craving, many times greater than that of chemical engines.

Engine on antimathyteria

All the substance surrounding us consists of fermions - elementary particles with half-spin. This, for example, quarks from which protons and neutrons are consisting in atomic nuclei, as well as electrons. At the same time, each fermion has its own antiparticle. For an electron, there is a positron, for quark - antiquarian.

Anticascies have the same mass and the same spin as their ordinary "comrades", differing in the sign of all other quantum parameters. Theoretically, anti-patches are able to draw up antimatter, but so far nowhere in the Universe was not registered. For fundamental science is a big question why it is not.

But in the laboratory, you can get some of the antimatter. For example, the experiment was recently carried out in comparing the properties of protons and antiprotons that were stored in a magnetic trap.

When meeting the antimatter and conventional substance, the process of mutual annihilation is accompanied by a splash of colossal energy. So, if we take a pitch of the substance and antimatter, the amount of energy allocated at their meeting will be comparable to the "Tsar-bomb" explosion - the most powerful hydrogen bomb in the history of mankind.

Moreover, a significant part of the energy will be separated in the form of photons of electromagnetic radiation. Accordingly, the desire to use this energy for space displacements by creating a photon engine similar to sunny sail, only in this case The light will be generated by an internal source.

But in order to effectively use radiation in the jet engine, it is necessary to solve the problem of creating a "mirror", which would be able to reflect these photons. After all, the ship somehow needs to push off to create a craving.

No modern material Simpar will not stand the radiation born in the case of such an explosion and instantly evaporate. In their fantastic novels, the Strugatsky brothers solved this problem by creating an "absolute reflector". IN real life Nothing like this could not be done. This task, as well as the creation of a large number of antimatter and its long-term storage, is the case of the physics of the future.