Persian kings. History of ancient persia

Persian king

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The first Persian king of the Achaemenid state, who conquered Asia Minor and Central Asia

The first king of the Achaemenid state, who conquered Babylon and Mesopotamia

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Defeated Croesus

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The first king of the state of the Achaemedines

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Son of Cambyses I

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King who conquered Mesopotamia

ancient Persian king

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First Achaemenid king

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The first king of the Achaemenid state, conquered Media, Lydia, Babylon (6th century BC)

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Science fiction writer... Bulychev

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The name of the person who wrote about Alisa Selezneva

The name of the science fiction writer Bulychev

Invented Alisa Selezneva (name)

Ancient Persia (Iran) is a state in Western and Central Asia (the territory of modern Iran and Pakistan). In its heyday, this was a vast territory, starting from the coast of Asia Minor and reaching the Indus River in the east. This great empire, uniting dozens of ancient Iranian tribes who called themselves "Aryans", became an intermediary in the cultural dialogue between the West and the East.

The first mention of Persia

The life of the Persians in ancient times is known from Assyrian sources, which described conflicts with various mountain tribes. It is known that at the end of the VIII century BC. e. formed near Lake Urmia tribal union under the leadership of the leaders of the noble Persian family of the Achaemenids. This land was first conquered by Assyria, and in the 7th century. BC e. Subdued Midia. King Astyages of Media married one of his daughters to the Persian king Cambyses I, great-grandson of the legendary founder of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty. In this marriage, Cyrus II was born, who later became the Great, the king of all Persian peoples. A legend is connected with his birth, which Herodotus brought to us in his History.

Legend of Kira

Once, the ruler of Media, Astyages, had a dream that from the womb of his daughter grew vine, which first filled all of Media, and then Asia. He summoned the magicians to interpret the dream for him. According to them, this meant that the son of his daughter would capture Media and Asia during the life of Astyages. When the daughter gave birth to a son, Astyages panicked that the prophecy would come true and ordered his grandson Harpag to be killed. Harpagus did not want to dirty his hands himself and gave the boy to the shepherd, ordering him to be killed in the mountains, and then bring and show the body of the baby. At this time, the shepherd's wife gave birth to a stillborn child, the shepherd left the boy for himself, and Harpagu brought the body of his child. The boy was named Cyrus. So the prince grew up, not knowing about his origin.

Until one day the son of a nobleman appeared in the pasture and saw the game of the sons of the shepherds, who played the "king". Cyrus was chosen as king, because he was a tall young man with a proud posture, others carried out his orders, guarded the palace. The official's son was also taken into this game. But he began to argue with the "king", for which he was punished and flogged with whips. Returning home, he complained to his father that he had been beaten by order of the Persian, the indignant father told Astyages everything. The king ordered that a shepherd and his son be brought to the palace. Then he interrogated Harpag, having learned the truth, the king, in a rage, ordered the execution of his son. Harpagus decided to take revenge on the cruel king at the first chance that came up.

The magicians dissuaded Astyages from killing his grandson, saying that the prophecy had come true, the boy was already the king in a child's game. Nevertheless, Astyages played it safe, ordering to guard all the ways so that not a single person could divulge the story of his origin to Cyrus. But Harpagus outwitted Astyages by writing a letter to Cyrus, he hid it in the belly of a hare. Having given the hare to his servant, he ordered to deliver it to the boy. Disguised as a hunter, the servant carried out the command of the master. On the way, the royal guards searched the servant, but did not find the letter. Thus, the letter fell into the hands of Cyrus, who learned from it who he really was.

Soon, Cyrus rebelled against Astyages (in 550 BC), gathering an army from the Persians. Having moved an army to Ecbatana, the capital of Media, Cyrus unexpectedly received help from the Medes themselves. Astyages sent his army, led by Harpagus, to meet the Persian army, confident that he remained loyal to him. However, Harpagus did not forgive the king for the death of his son and persuaded the Medes from noble families to treason. In addition, it was easy to do, many did not like the king for his cruelty. As a result, many Medes went over to the side of the enemy. The Persians managed to disperse the victorious Median army. The prophetic dream came true, Astyages executed the magicians. Gathering another army, he led him to the Persians. The Median warriors were known as excellent horsemen. Cyrus ordered his army to move on foot. The warriors covered themselves with shields from swords and arrows, managing to pull riders off their horses. Cyrus defeated the enemy army on his head, Astyages was captured, until the end of his life he spent in custody.

In 559 B.C. e. Cyrus II was proclaimed king. He founded the first capital of the Persian kingdom, Pasargada. Subsequently, the Persian army, led by Cyrus, continued the victorious conquest of other states: Lydia Croesus, himself big city of that time - Babylon, occupied the Eastern Iranian lands, regions of Central Asia, Afghan, Pakistani, Indian territories. Miletus and other states before Egypt by own will obeyed Kira. Many merchants advocated the formation of a powerful centralized state.

Cyrus set Egypt as his next target, but his plans failed to come true. During one of the campaigns against the Massagets (Massagets are nomadic tribes of Central Asia, related to the Sarmatians, Sakas and Scythians) led by Queen Tomiris, the army of the Persian king was defeated, and Cyrus himself died. For 25 years, Cyrus created a huge empire.

Rise of the Persian Empire

After the death of Cyrus II the Great, Cambyses II ascended the throne. It was he who conquered Egypt, making his father's dream a reality. The successful conquest of Egypt was predetermined, since the Egyptian kingdom was going through the worst times: a weak army, people's dissatisfaction with high taxes, the inept policy of Pharaoh Psammetichus III.

Before going to Egypt, Cambyses enlisted the support of the nomads of the Sinai desert, who helped him in the transition of troops to the city of Pelusium. Cambyses captured Memphis in 527 BC. e., where he showed cruelty to the Egyptians and their gods. He executed many noble people, destroyed temples, scourged their priests, executed the son of Psammetik III. The pharaoh himself was spared. Cambyses was proclaimed the Egyptian pharaoh.

Leaving Egypt, Cambyses launched two disastrous campaigns into Nubia and Libya. In the campaign to capture Libya, the army, crossing the desert, fell into a strong sandstorm, most of the armies perished in the sands, and Kamizu had to turn back. Returning to Egypt, where in his absence a rebellion broke out under the leadership of Psammetichus III, he crushed the rebellion and executed the former pharaoh.

Here news reached him that rebellions had begun in Persia against Persian hegemony. Leaving for Egypt, Cambyses, fearing a coup, got rid of his brother. The magician Gaumata, taking advantage of the absence of the king, seized power and led on behalf of the deceased brother Bardiya. Cambyses had been absent from his kingdom for three years, having received bad news, he went home. But he never made it home, he died on the way under unclear circumstances.

The magician Gaumata, who pretended to be the brother of Cambyses, began his ascent in Babylon, where he enlisted universal support, then captured the capital of Persia, Pasargada. While in power, he abolished duties and military service for three years, pursuing the goal of replacing the Persian top of the nobility with the Median. Gaumata was in power for 7 months. After some time, a conspiracy of representatives of seven eminent Persian families arose, who killed the impostor and proclaimed Darius king. He immediately returned the preemptive rights to the Persians and began to reunite the empire, which crumbled like a house of cards. In Babylon, Parthia, Armenia, Margiana, Elam and other areas, impostors appeared, posing as Cambyses.

The rebellions that broke out throughout the empire, Darius brutally suppressed. After he gathered all the lands together, Darius erected the Behistun inscription, which is carved on a high rock. The image shows how the enslaved kings of the provinces of the Iranian Empire bring tribute to their Shahinshah Darius the Great. Darius is depicted much larger than the rest of the kings, which clearly indicates their subordinate position.

Reforms of Darius I

Darius was well aware that it was impossible to manage such an empire in the old ways, so at the beginning of his reign he engaged in reforms, which resulted in the creation of a reliable management system.

The results of the reformation of Darius I:

• Divided the empire into administrative districts - satrapies. Officials from the tribal nobility of Persia were appointed as the head of the province. The satraps had administrative, civil and judicial powers. They collected taxes, kept order in the economy. To maintain order and protect the borders, military formations were stationed in the districts, the command was appointed by the king himself. Remote territories (Cyprus, Cilicia) were under the self-government of local kings.
• A royal chancellery was created, which led the staff of officials. The main office was in the Persian capital, the city of Susa. Additional royal offices were located in big cities- Babylon, Memphis, Ecbatana. The head of the treasury (responsible for the treasury and taxes collected), judicial investigators, scribes, heralds worked here. Also, secret agents worked for the Shah - "the ears and the eye of the king." The official language was Aramaic, but other languages ​​were also used. Important documents were written in several languages ​​at once.
• A new post of "chief-chief" appeared, which supervised the officials and the personal guard of the king, also monitored the state administration.
• Legislation was harmonized. One set of laws was created for the entire population, while taking into account the ancient laws of the conquered countries. But still the Persians had privileges.
• He carried out a tax reform, now monetary taxes depended on the size of the territory, the fertility of the land and the population.
• A single monetary system was introduced for all satrapies - a golden darik, which was in circulation throughout the country.
• The mainstay of the country was the army, senior staff recruited from the Medes and Persians. The army was supported by 10 thousand "immortals", recruited from various Indo-Iranian peoples. The first thousand of the 10 thousand "immortals" were the Shahinshah's personal guard. Mercenary soldiers were often accepted into the ranks, mostly Greeks. The composition of the army - cavalry, chariots and infantry. Warriors from the nobility were recruited into the cavalry, they had to have equipment - an iron shell, a bronze shield and helmets, and weapons - two spears, a sword, a bow with arrows. The main weapon of the infantry was the bow. On the borders of the entire empire, military units were stationed in fortresses. These warriors were allotted land. Later, a military fleet was created, which included Greek ships, ships of the Phoenicians and Cypriots.
• The empire had a well-developed road network. Regular messengers and mail, road guards raised the message system to a high level.

Provincial uprisings

Having completed the reforms, restoring order in the empire, Darius decided to conquer Scythia, which he did not succeed. Then he decided to take over Greece. It was with the campaign of Darius that a series of military conflicts began, which were called the Greco-Persian wars. For wars, a full state treasury was needed, so taxes began to increase over time.

At the same time, the palace city of Persepolis was being built, which reached splendor under the heirs of Darius. Many artisans were sent to build it. All this worsened the situation in the country, the first to express dissatisfaction was Egypt, which rebelled against the Persians. Darius at this time was preparing for a second campaign against Greece. But Darius died without realizing his plans.

The Persian throne was occupied by the son of Darius Xerxes I. All his reign he had to suppress uprisings, it was he who suppressed the rebellion in Egypt, then the uprising in Babylon. At the same time, he acted harshly, he turned Babylonia into a simple satrapy, took the inhabitants into slavery and destroyed the city. Xerxes swore an oath to take revenge on Greece for the triumph over the Persians at Marathon, he dreamed of burning Athens. He did this in 480 BC. e., on the second trip.

The king of Persia took revenge - he burned Athens, but while Xerxes set fires, the Athenians and Spartans dealt a crushing blow to the Persian army, defeating it at sea near the island of Salamis and on land - at Plataea. All the army of Xerxes died in the campaign against Greece and on the way home. Returning back to Persia with a small remnant of the army, Xerxes was mired in intrigues and ingloriously died at the hands of his chief of the palace guards.

Fall of an empire

After the death of Xerxes, the rest of the kings tried to preserve the territory of the empire and engaged in internecine squabbles for the throne. Thus, states gradually began to emerge from the Persian Empire: Lydia (413 BC), Egypt (404 BC), Cyprus, Cilicia, Khorezm, Sidon, Kariya, part of India (360 AD). BC.). But the main danger came from Macedonia, where the young commander subjugated states, territories, peoples. In 334 BC. e. Prince Alexander with his army turned to the East, all his attention was directed to the huge Persian Empire. During this period, Shahinshah Darius III was in power. Persian troops in two major battles lost to the army of Alexander the Great, after the defeat at Issus (333 BC) royal family was captured by the enemy. After the second defeat (331 BC), Darius III fled with part of the troops to Bactria. The commander pursued the fugitives. In flight, Darius was killed by his own satrap. When Alexander caught up with the convoy, he found Darius dead. Thus, the last king of the Achaemenid dynasty perished. The Persian Empire - ended its existence, all the satrapies became part of the power of Alexander the Great.

The territory of Persia before the formation of an independent state was part of the Assyrian Empire. 6th century BC. became the heyday ancient civilization that began with the kingdom of the ruler Persia Cyrus II the Great. He managed to defeat a king named Croesus of the richest country of antiquity, Lydia. It went down in history as the first public education, in which silver and gold coins began to be minted in the history of the world. It happened in the 7th century. BC.

Under the Persian king Cyrus, the borders of the state were significantly expanded and they included the territories of the fallen Assyrian Empire and the powerful. By the end of the period of the reign of Cyrus and his heir, Persia, which received the status of an empire, occupied an area from the lands of Ancient Egypt to India. The conqueror honored the traditions and customs of the conquered peoples and accepted the title and crown of the king of the occupied states.

The death of the king of Persia Cyrus II

In ancient times, the Persian emperor Cyrus was considered one of the most powerful rulers, under whose skillful leadership numerous successful military campaigns were carried out. However, his fate ended ingloriously: the great Cyrus fell at the hands of a woman. Near the northeastern border of the Persian Empire lived Massagetae. Small tribes were very savvy in military affairs. They were ruled by Queen Tomyris. She answered Cyrus' proposal for marriage with a decisive refusal, which made the emperor extremely angry and he undertook a military campaign to capture the nomadic peoples. The queen's son died in the fight, and she promised to force the king of an ancient civilization to drink blood. The battle ended with the defeat of the Persian troops. The head of the emperor was brought to the queen in a leather fur filled with blood. Thus ended the time of despotic rule and conquests of the king of Persia, Cyrus II the Great.

Rise to power of Darius

After the death of the mighty Cyrus, his direct heir came to power Cambyses. Militia began in the state. As a result of the struggle, Darius I became the emperor of Persia. Information about the years of his reign has come down to our days thanks to Behistunskaya inscriptions, which contains historical data in Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite. The stone was found by an officer of Great Britain G. Rawlinson in 1835. The inscription testifies that during the reign of a distant relative of Cyrus II the Great Darius, Persia turned into an oriental despotism.

The state was divided into 20 administrative divisions, which were ruled by satraps. The regions were called satraps. Officials were in charge of administration and their duties included control over the collection of taxes to the main treasury of the state. The money went to the development of infrastructure, in particular, roads were built connecting areas throughout the empire. Postal posts were established to convey messages to the king. During his reign, extensive construction of cities and the development of handicrafts were noted. Gold coins - "dariki" - are introduced into monetary use.

Centers of the Persian Empire

One of the four capitals of the ancient civilization of Persia was located on the territory of the former Lydia in the city of Susa. Another community and political life was located in Pasargada, established by Cyrus the Great. The residence of the Persians was also located in the conquered Babylonian kingdom. Emperor Darius I was put on the throne in a city specially established as the capital of Persia persepolis. Its wealth and architecture amazed the rulers and ambassadors of foreign countries, who stayed in the empire to bring gifts to the king. stone walls The palace of Darius in Persepolis is decorated with drawings depicting the immortal army of the Persians and the history of the existence of the "six peoples" living in the ancient civilization.

Religious representations of the Persians

In ancient times in Persia there was polytheism. The adoption of a single religion came with the doctrine of the struggle of the god of good and the generation of evil. The name of the prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster). In the tradition of the Persians, in contrast to the religiously strong Ancient Egypt, there was no custom of erecting temple complexes and altars for performing spiritual rites. The sacrifices were made on the hills, where the altars were arranged. god of light and goodness Ahura Mazda depicted in Zoroastrianism in the form of a solar disk, decorated with wings. He was considered the patron saint of the kings of the ancient civilization of Persia.

The Persian state was located on the territory of modern Iran, where ancient architectural monuments of the empire have been preserved.

Video about the creation and fall of the Persian Empire

Darius - the son of the Persian and Median king hystaspes (Persian Wischtâspa; 550 BC), grandson of a Persian king Arsham (Persian Aršāma - “Heroic Power”), who ruled in Pars from 590 to 550 BC. e., belonged to the younger branch of the ruling Achaemenid dynasty. Darayavuash (Dārayava (h) uš - “Holding good”, “Good-equal”) before entering the history of the Ancient East under the name King Darius I was an outstanding person, and already had considerable military experience, since war in those distant times was the normal state of all states, peoples and tribes.

In an inscription from the royal palace in Susa (Iran):
King Darius says: Ahura Mazda, the greatest of the gods, created me, made me a king, gave me this great kingdom, with good horses with good people. By the grace of Ahura Mazda my father Hystasp and my grandfather Arsham both lived, when Ahura Mazda made me king on this earth.

Becoming king of Persia Darius I the Great,who ruled from 522-486 BC. e., by force of arms suppressed major uprisings against ruling dynasty Achaemenids in Babylonia, Persia, Media, Margiana, Elam, Egypt, Parthia, Sattagidia and rebellions of nomadic tribes in Central Asia.

The suppression of anti-Persian uprisings in the subject territories was carried out by a large military campaign, involving the collection of a large army, the involvement of allied troops from among nomadic tribes, primarily, the seizure of rebellious cities and fortresses, the collection of military booty and the punishment of state criminals who rebelled. Darius had two brothers - military leaders Artaban and Artan, who had their counterparts. The Persian king had to be not only commander, but also a skilled diplomat, since it was more profitable for him to get along with the local nobility than to fight.

Persian power sought to extend its expansion to rich lands, taxes and requisitions from the conquered lands constantly replenished the royal treasury. King Darius I drew attention to the neighboring Indian states, in which there was no agreement, but there was a lot of wealth that became easy prey for the warlike Persians.

Near 518 BC e. King Darius I the Great conquered the northwestern part of India - the western bank of the Indus River. Then - the northwestern part of the Punjab, located east of this river. Persian conquests in India continued until 509 BC. e. Darius I sent the Greek sailor and geographer Scylacus to explore the Indus River to the Arabian Sea.

On gold and silver tablets, Darius I reported succinctly, but expressively, about the huge size of his state:

“Darius, Great King, King of Kings, King of Countries, son of Hystaspes, Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom that I own from Scythia, which is behind Sogdiana, to Kush(Ethiopia), from India to Sardis, gave me Ahuramazda, greatest of gods. May Ahuramazda protect me and my house.”

After a successful Indian campaign Persian army Darius I decided to subjugate the Scythians of the Northern Black Sea region. Apparently, not all Scythians knew that the Persian king Darius the Great, owns Scythia, and a new campaign 511 BC e. turned out to be unsuccessful for Darius. On the way to distant and unknown Scythia Darius gathered a large army , uniting it with the forces of subject peoples, and moved across the Danube, Persian sailors built two floating bridges - one across the Bosphorus, the other across the Danube. To protect the bridge across the Danube, the king had to leave a large military detachment of the Persians.

Herodotus admired the military prowess of the Scythians, and collected information about the war of the Scythians with the enemies of his homeland, he wanted to understand what makes up the strength of the Scythian tribes. FROM kief fought in their own way , their cavalry was considered invincible. The Scythians evaded direct combat with the Persian army of Darius, luring the Persians deep into the country, they made quick and unexpected guerrilla raids on the Persian detachments stretched across the steppe.

Scythian in Scythian clothes and a "Thracian" hat, armed with a short sword (akinak). The Persians are dressed the same way.

The Persians lost the war in the boundless Black Sea Scythian steppe, and the world famous conqueror hastily retreated, Darius fled from Scythia with the remnants of the defeated troops, and the Scythians retained their independence. So unexpectedly for Darius, his inglorious campaign in the Northern Black Sea region ended with huge losses. However, Darius the Great retained control over Thrace and Macedonia (the state of Odrys) and the Black Sea straits.

Under King Darius I, a series began Greco-Persian Wars (499-449 BC), which went with varying degrees of success. Military conflicts between Achaemenid Persia and the Greek city-states that defended their independence dragged on for 50 years. The main opponents of the Persian state in these wars were Athens and some Greek cities-policies on the Peloponnese peninsula.

Reason for First Greco-Persian War 492 BC e. there was an uprising of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, which were under the yoke of the satrap - the governor of the king of Persia. The uprising was started by the city of Miletus. Then Athens sent 20 warships with an army on board to help the rebellious Greeks of Asia Minor. strong Sparta refused to help the rebels in Miletus.

To cut off the connections of the rebellious cities on the eastern shore of the Aegean, Darius I gathered a large fleet, who defeated the Greeks in a battle near the island of Lede, not far from Miletus. The uprising of the Greek cities in Asia Minor was brutally suppressed. The help of Athens was the reason for Darius to declare war on the Hellenic world on the Peloponnesian peninsula on the other side of the Aegean Sea.

Against the Greek states, Darius I made two large military campaigns. The first one took place in 492 BC. e., when the king sent an army to Greece under the command of his son-in-law Mardonius. The land army marched along the southern part of Thrace, and the fleet moved along the sea coast. However, during strong storm at Cape Athos most of the Persian fleet was lost, and their ground troops, having lost support from the sea, began to suffer heavy losses in frequent clashes with local population. In the end, Mardonius decided to go back.

In 491 BC. e. Darius I sent ambassadors to Greece, which were to lead to the obedience of the freedom-loving Greeks. A number of small Greek city-states could not resist and recognized the power of the Persians over themselves, but in Athens and Sparta, the royal ambassadors of Persia were killed.

In 490 BC. e. The second campaign of Darius I to Greece took place. The king sent against Greece a large army under the command of experienced commanders Datis and Artaphernes . The Persian army was delivered to European territory by a huge Persian fleet. The Persians destroyed the city Eritria on the island of Euboea and landed near Marathon, just 28 kilometers from Athens.

Exactly in the famous Battle of MarathonThe Greeks inflicted the heaviest defeat on the Persians during the three Greco-Persian wars. Battle of Marathon took place on September 13, 490 BC. e. The small Greek village of Marathon was destined to enter not only military history but also in the history of the international Olympic movement.

The Greek army, under the command of the experienced commander Miltiades, one of the ten Athenian strategists, consisted of 10,000 hoplite warriors from Athens and one thousand of their allies from Plataeus (Boeotia) . About the same number were poorly armed slaves. Spartans promised to send significant military assistance, but were late for the start of the battle.

60,000th Persian amiya headed by one of the best royal commanders Datis . The Persian royal fleet, after the landing of the troops of Datis, anchored not far from Marathon. Small craft Persian sailors, according to tradition ancient world, pulled ashore to protect them in the event of a big wave of the sea and strong winds. The crews of many ships went ashore in order to take part in the collection of military booty on the battlefield after the victorious end of the battle with the Greeks.

The Persians began the battle using their usual tactics - at the heart of their combat formation was the "victorious" center, which was to split the enemy line in two . Miltiades was well acquainted with the military art of the Persians and ventured to change the construction of the Greek battle formations, traditional for that time. He sought to cover the entire width of the Marathon valley with a long phalanx of heavily armed Greek infantry. Thanks to this, it was possible to avoid the environment, because the Persian commander had light cavalry, but Miltiades did not.

The flanks of the heavily armed Greek infantry rested on rocky hills, through which the Persian cavalry could not pass, being under fire from Greek archers and slingers. As an obstacle to the Persian cavalry, notches of cut down trees were arranged on the flanks.

Having strengthened the positions of the flanks of the heavily armed Greek foot soldiers, Miltiades deliberately weakened its center, in which he placed selected detachments of Athenian foot soldiers and a few Greek cavalry.

The army of the Persian king and the combined army of the Athenians and Plataeans stood for three days in combat positions against each other. Miltiades did not start the battle because he was waiting for the promised help from Sparta. The Persians also waited, they hoped that their well-visible numerical superiority would intimidate the enemy.

The Persians were the first to start the battle. Their huge army, poorly observing the formation, began to roll on the Greek phalanx, which, in anticipation of the approach of the enemy, froze, blocking the entire Marathon valley in width. The very beginning of the battle promised the royal commander an early, in his opinion, victory. The “victorious” center of the Persian army with a ramming blow threw back the center of the Greek phalanx, which, on the orders of Miltiades, launched a counterattack on the attacking enemy. Under the onslaught of a huge mass of people, the Greek phalanx nevertheless resisted and did not break into pieces.

After the first attack of the Persians, something happened that Datis did not expect. The Greeks delivered strong blows to the attackers simultaneously from two flanks, and drove the Persians back. The "victorious" center of the Persians was surrounded by a half-ring of Greek infantrymen, and was utterly defeated. The Persians did not have a large reserve to send him to the center of the battle to help the encircled soldiers in the very center of the Marathon Valley.

The Persian army was seized with panic, and it rushed to the seashore, to its ships. Datis, no matter how hard he tried, could not restore order in his army. By order of Miltiades, the Greeks, having restored the solidity of their phalanx, began to pursue the fleeing enemy.

The Persians managed to reach the nearest shore and launch ships. They set off with all sails and oars away from the coast, fleeing from the arrows of the Greek archers.

In the Battle of Marathon, the Persian army was completely defeated and lost 6400 people killed, not counting the prisoners, and more than one thousand wounded remained on the ships of the Persian royal fleet that had gone east. In a day Battle of Marathon September 13, 490 BC. e. the Athenians lost only 192 of their warriors.

The Greek victory in the wars against the Persians inspired other Greek city-states to resist Persian domination.

After the withdrawal of Sparta from the war, which, as a land power, was not interested in overseas operations, the leadership of military operations passed to Athens, who led in 478/477 BC new military-political association — Delian League, or First Athenian Maritime League, which included island and coastal Ionian policies. Union led active offensive against the Persians with the aim of finally ousting them from the Aegean Sea, and liberating the Greek cities of Asia Minor from their power. In the 470s, the Persians were expelled from the Thracian coast and from the zone of the Black Sea straits and the Greek cities of Asia Minor were liberated to the coast.

In 469, the Persians were again defeated by the Athenian commander Cimon. in sea and land battles at the mouth of the Eurymedon River, off the southern coast of Asia Minor. The Athenians' attempt to achieve more by supporting new egyptian uprising, ended in failure: the Persians destroyed the Greek fleet in the Nile Delta and crushed the uprising in Egypt. However, in 450/449 Athenian commander Kimon once again defeated the Persians in a naval battle at Salamis in Cyprus, after the battle of Salamis the Athenian representative Callius and the Persians started peace talks.

According to the Peace of Callia, concluded in 449, The Persians admitted their defeat in the war with the Greeks. From now on, Persian ships were forbidden to sail into the Aegean Sea, and no troops could be within three days of travel from the coast of Asia Minor. The Aegean has finally become inland sea Greeks, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor gained freedom and independence, received trade routes and access to sources of raw materials and markets in the Aegean and the Black Sea region. The victory of the Greeks over the Persians provided the ancient society of Greece with the opportunity for further development.

Persian empire of Darius the Great.

The basis of the Persian state was the Western Iranian tribes, united administratively and militarily into one strong and cohesive state under the rule of the king. In the Persian state the Persians occupied a privileged position as the ruling people. The Persians were exempt from all taxes, so that all tax burdens and taxes were levied on the peoples conquered by the Persians. The Persian kings always emphasized their "merits and virtues", and the dominant position of the Persians in the state.

The Persians were united by a single language and a single religion - the cult of the supreme god Ahura Mazda was revered (Avest. ahura-mazdā - “The Wise Lord”). In the Avesta, Ahura Mazda is the beginningless Creator, residing in infinite light, the creator of all things and the giver of all that is good, the omniscient organizer and ruler of the world.

Ahura (ahura-) corresponds to Sanskrit असुर asura, the epithet of many, primarily Varuna. Asura - this is a genus of Indo-Iranian deities associated with the foundations of being and morality human society, "elder gods" as opposed to devas, "young gods". In Indian tradition later asuras are being demonized as "envious to the gods (devas)". AT Zoroastrianism is the opposite the devas curse and Ahuras are revered predominantly Ahura Mazda.
Mazda(name. pad. mazdå) - from the Proto-Indo-European *mn̥s-dʰeH "setting thought", "comprehending", hence "wise".

The ancient Roman historian Ammian Marcellinus considered the father of Darius the Great, King Hystaspes chief magicians (a member of the priestly caste of Persia), and talked about his studies in India with brahmins - brahmins the highest varna of Hindu society. The Persian king was considered the ruler of the country, who became by the will of the supreme god Ahura Mazda, therefore all Persians must take an oath of allegiance to their king, the god's viceroy on earth.

King Darius I wrote: « By the will of Ahuramazda, these provinces followed my laws; what I ordered them, they fulfilled. Ahura Mazda gave me this kingdom. Ahuramazda helped me to master this kingdom. By the will of Ahuramazda, I own this kingdom.

The Persian king Darius I the Great became famous as a major statesman, politician and military reformer. Under him, the huge Persian state was divided at 24 satrapies - administrative-taxable districts. They were headed by the royal governors - satraps, who at the same time were military commanders, located in the territory of the satrapies. Their duties included the protection of state borders. from robbery attacks by neighbors, primarily nomadic tribes, military intelligence and security on communications routes.

Under Darius I, the possessions of the governors (satraps) gradually became hereditary, which contributed to the strengthening of the state.

Darius I ordered tax system, which significantly strengthened the well-being of the Persian state, and the royal treasury began to steadily replenish by reducing financial abuses in the satrapies, and internal popular uprisings against the royal power became much less.

To strengthen the power of Persia, the king Darius I carried out a major military reform. The tsarist army underwent reorganization. The core of the Persian army was the infantry and cavalry, recruited from the Persians. This was no coincidence - the Persian rulers did not trust the troops, which consisted of non-Persians, because they were prone to treason and avoided risking their lives during military campaigns and battles.

The royal troops were led by commanders independent of the satraps and subordinate only personally to King Darius. This allowed Daria to avoid the danger of major uprisings in the country with the participation of troops stationed in the satrapies. In critical situations military leaders could act independently , guided only by the interests of the Persian state.

The old trade routes and new roads were built . The king understood perfectly well that from the prosperity of the external and domestic trade, safety roads of Persia for merchants the well-being of the state largely depends, as well as income of the treasury and the Persian nobility - the main pillar of the Achaemenid dynasty. Trade in Persia under Darius I flourished also because many busy trade routes from the Mediterranean to India and China passed through its territory - "The Great Silk Road".

During the reign of King Darius was restored shipping canal from the Nile to Suez, which connected rich Egypt with Persia . King Darius I took care on the development of the fleet and the security of maritime trade , the well-being of coastal port cities, which brought considerable income to his treasury. According to the historians of the Ancient World, the Egyptians revered the Persian ruler on a par with their pharaohs-legislators. Even the inhabitants of distant Carthage recognized, albeit nominally, the authority of Darius, but in Egypt they wrote and spoke the ancient Egyptian language, in Babylonia - in Babylonian, in Elam - in Elamite, etc.

The minting of gold coins markedly strengthened financial system Persian state. Named after King Darius gold and silver coins "dariki" , which are in circulation in neighboring countries, primarily Greek city-states engaged in trade. The introduction of a gold coin into circulation testified primarily to financial well-being Persia under King Darius I. Persia gold mines were a special concern of the tsarist administration.

Large incomes allowed the warlike king Darius to maintain military fortresses and a huge mercenary army, which stood not only on the borders of Persia, but also inside it.

King Darius I , according to the tradition of that time, began to prepare for his death long ago. At his command, in the rocks of Nakshi-Rustam, near the city of Persopol ("the city of the Persians"), a royal tomb was built, decorated with magnificent sculptures, which became the last refuge of the most powerful ruler of ancient Persia.

On his grave inscription, Darius I wrote: “If you think: “How numerous were the countries subject to King Darius,” then look at the images that support the throne; then you will know and you will know (how) far the spear of the Persian husband penetrated; then you will know (that) a Persian man far from Persia struck the enemy.

In a palace inscription in Persepolis, the king Darius I prays to Ahuramazda about the well-being of their country and people; he is proud of his Persian heritage royal family. As can be seen from the Persian inscriptions, the Persian king solemnly promised to repel any attack on Persia.

The direct heirs of Darius showed neither military and diplomatic talents, nor consistency in foreign policy Persia.

Having reached its peak during the reign of the crowned commander Darius I (Daray-vaush), the Achaemenid state after the death of the king began to steadily decline, primarily due to military defeats, and lose one after another the territories of their possessions.

Persian king Xerxes I (born around 519 BC - death in 465 BC) King of the Achaemenid state (486 BC). He led the Persian campaign in Greece (480-479 BC), which ended in defeat and marked the end of the first stage.

After the death of Darius I Hystaspes, his son, Xerxes I, ascended the Achaemenid throne. The new king of kings immediately ran into military problems. The vast state was restless. Some of the provinces were falling out of obedience. 484 BC e. Persian king Xerxes was forced to go to pacify the rebellious Egypt. Then came the news of the uprising in Babylon. The Persian army invaded Mesopotamia, destroyed the fortifications, plundered the temples and destroyed the main shrine of the Babylonians - the statue of the god Marduk.

The successful pacification of the rebellious may have turned Xerxes' head, and he began to think about capturing new territories. Xerxes fully inherited his father's hatred of the Greeks. But, remembering the failures of Darius and being very circumspect, he did not rush. The king of kings thought for a long time, and his associates were perplexed: they were convinced that little Hellas, on the territory of which there were many city-states, would not be able to withstand the power of the huge Persian army.

In the end, the king called those close to him for advice. He outlined to them his plans for the construction of a huge pontoon bridge across the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles). The Persian king Xerxes intended not only to fulfill his father's covenant and seize Greece. He intended to turn all states into one, that is, to come to world domination. The military leaders could not but support the idea of ​​Xerxes. In the eastern despotism, which was the state of the Achaemenids, it was not customary to contradict the ruler. Those who had their own opinion could easily say goodbye not only to the position, but also to the head.

For four years, preparations for the campaign continued. Finally, the titanic work of building the bridge was completed. Persian troops were already ready to cross over to Europe. However, a terrible storm destroyed the gigantic structure. Then the king ordered to cut off the heads of the builders, among whom the vast majority were Phoenicians and Egyptians subject to the Persians. In addition, by order of the formidable ruler, the strait was carved with a whip, and shackles were thrown into the sea. At that distant time, people still inspired natural objects, and the king sincerely believed that the recalcitrant strait after punishment would feel the full force of the wrath of the great Xerxes.

The bridge was rebuilt. In addition to the fact that ships could now safely bypass a dangerous place in the strait, a channel was dug. To do this, they dug up a whole mountain. The Persian king Xerxes had as many human resources as he wanted: 20 satrapies-provinces regularly supplied labor.

480 BC e., August - the troops safely crossed to Europe. For 7 days and nights, troops marched along the bridge without stopping. Persians, Assyrians, Parthians, Khorezmians, Sogdians, Bactrians, Indians, Arabs, Ethiopians, Egyptians, Thracians, Libyans, Phrygians, Cappadocians, inhabitants of the Caucasus - this is an incomplete list of the peoples that were part of the army of Xerxes.

According to Herodotus, in the army of Xerxes there were 1,700,000 infantrymen, 80,000 horsemen and 20,000 camel auxiliaries. The total number of warriors, in his opinion, reached more than five million people. In fact, according to scientists, the number of troops did not exceed 100,000, but even this figure at that time can be considered huge. In addition, the ground forces were supported by a fleet of 700–800 ships.

Xerxes did not doubt victory. Well, what could the Greeks oppose to his military power? Smiling smugly, he declared: “In my army, everyone is subject to one person. The whip will drive them into battle, the fear of me will make them brave. If I order, everyone will do the impossible. Are the Greeks capable of this, talking about freedom? However, it was precisely this desire for freedom that helped the Hellenes to survive in a fierce struggle with the most powerful empire of that time.

Entering the land of Hellas, the king first of all tried to get news of his advance to the Greek cities as quickly as possible. For this, the first captured Greek scouts were not executed, but released, showing the army and fleet. Ambassadors were sent to the policies demanding "land and water." But the Persian king did not send anyone to the hated Athens and Sparta, making it clear to their inhabitants that there would be no mercy for them. But Xerxes' expectations were not justified: only Thessaly and Boeotia agreed to recognize his authority. The rest began to prepare to fight back.

Athenian strategist Themistocles, elected in 482 BC. e., in a short time he was able to create a powerful fleet. He, as Plutarch wrote, "put an end to the internecine wars in Hellas and reconciled the individual states among themselves, persuading them to postpone enmity due to the war with Persia."

According to the plan of the allies, they decided to give battle to the enemy on land and at sea. 300 trireme ships were sent to Cape Artemisia on the coast of Euboea, and the army headed to Thessaly. Here in the gorge of Thermopylae, the Greeks expected a formidable enemy.

Xerxes waited 4 days for news of the naval battle. When it became known that half of his fleet was swept away by a storm, and the rest suffered heavy losses and could not break through to the coast, the king sent scouts to find out what the Greeks were doing. He hoped that those, seeing the superiority of the enemy, would retreat. However, the Greeks stubbornly remained in place. Then Xerxes moved the army. Sitting in a chair, he watched the progress from the top of the mountain. The Greeks continued to stand. The "immortals" were thrown into the battle, but they could not achieve success either.

It became clear that the position of the Greeks is extremely advantageous, and their courage has no limits. Perhaps the king of the Persians, Xerxes, would have had to look for another way, but among the locals there was a traitor who, for a reward, showed the Persians a bypass path. The defenders of the gorge noticed that they were surrounded. The commander of the Greeks, King Leonid released the allies. 300 Spartans, 400 Thebans and 700 Thespians remained with him. After a fierce fight, they all died. Enraged, Xerxes ordered to find the body of Leonidas. He was beheaded and his head was put on a spear.

The Persian army advanced towards Athens. Themistocles persuaded the citizens to leave the city. He was sure that the Athenians would take revenge not on land, but at sea. But not all allies agreed with the opinion of their commander. Endless bickering began. Then the strategist sent his slave to Xerxes, who again waited, hoping for disagreements in the enemy camp. The slave told Xerxes that the Hellenes were going to retreat at night, and Themistocles wants to go over to the side of the Persians and advises to start the offensive at once at night.

Xerxes showed unforgivable gullibility. Apparently, he was so sure of own strength that did not even think about a possible trap. The Persian king ordered the fleet to close all exits from the Salamis Strait so that not a single enemy ship could escape him. Themistocles wanted to achieve this: now the ships of the Spartans and Corinthians could not leave the Athenians. It was decided to give battle.

(480 BC) 1000 Persian ships and 180 Greek ships took part. On the shore, under a gilded canopy, the Persian king Xerxes sat on a throne, watching the battle. Nearby were courtiers and scribes who were supposed to describe great victory Persians. But the clumsy Persian ships, forced to operate in a narrow strait, were much inferior to the fast Greek triremes. The latter went to ram and easily dodged the enemy.

As a result, most of Xerxes' fleet was sunk. The bulk of the Persians, who could not swim, drowned. Those who reached the coast were exterminated by the Greek infantry. In the end, the Persians turned to flight. The surviving ships were destroyed by the inhabitants of Aegina, who set up an ambush.

The remnants of the Persian army moved to the bridge over the Hellespont. Themistocles wanted to destroy it, but heeded the advice of the former strategist of Athens, Aristides. He believed that the trapped Persian warriors would fight desperately and many Greeks would die.

They say that the king of kings returned home on a ship that was utterly overcrowded. During a strong storm, the helmsman turned to him: “Sir! We need to lighten the ship!” - and the king ordered his subjects to leave the ship. Those themselves began to rush overboard, where they, who could not swim, were waiting for inevitable death. Having safely reached the shore, Xerxes granted the helmsman a golden ring for saving his life and immediately ... ordered to cut off the head of the savior because he had killed so many Persians.

But not the entire Persian army left Hellas. By order of Xerxes, troops were left in Thessaly, which were supposed to spend the winter and continue the war in the spring. 479 BC e. - near the city of Plataea in Boeotia happened major battle. In it, the famous Persian commander Mardonius fell, with whose death the Persians were finally broken and left the Peloponnesian Peninsula. First stage Greco-Persian Wars was finally completed.

With dreams of world domination, Xerxes had to part forever. His destiny was the exaltation of the capital of Persepolis. The construction of the palace, begun under Darius, was completed, and a new one was built, the construction of the throne room of one hundred columns began.

In the meantime, there was a relentless struggle for influence at court. The courtiers and even members of the Xerxes family intrigued incessantly. Xerxes became more and more suspicious. Once, when the queen reported that his brother was preparing an assassination attempt, the king ordered the destruction of his entire family.

The courtiers, all the more, could not count on the pity of the king. As you can see, because in the summer of 465 BC. e. Xerxes and his eldest son were killed by conspirators led by the minister Artabanus. Another son of the king, Artaxerxes I, ascended the throne, but the golden age of the Achaemenid dynasty passed into the past along with the warlike Persian king Xerxes I, firmly established in history.