Consequences Shifting the focus of attention to the consequences of this belief. Questions: What will happen next? What can this lead to? Affirmation: And then later... This

Consequences FAQ: I drank negatively yesterday. I learned my lesson and will never go to that man's party again. However, is there anything that can help me now? If you've followed the rules in this book, you won't need any of this. However, in case of emergency

Lesson 4

EARTHQUAKE. REASONS FOR AN EARTHQUAKE AND ITS POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES

Subject: OBJ.

Date: "____" _____________ 20___

Compiled by: OBZh teacher Khamatgaleev E.R.

Target: consider the characteristics, causes and possible consequences earthquakes.

Course of lessons

Class organization.

Greetings. Checking the list of the class.

Message about the topic and purpose of the lesson.

Knowledge update.

Define hazardous and emergency situations. What are their similarities and differences? Give examples of dangerous and emergencies from publications in newspapers and magazines.

What is a natural disaster? Select examples of natural disasters of a geological, meteorological and hydrological nature.

Checking homework.

Listening to the responses of several students to homework(at the choice of the teacher).

Working on new material.

Earthquake - it a natural phenomenon associated with the geological processes occurring in the Earth's lithosphere. An earthquake manifests itself in the form of tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface, resulting from sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust or in the upper part of the mantle. These displacements and ruptures are due to deep processes occurring in the lithosphere and associated with the movement of lithospheric plates. In mountain belts and near them, the intra-earth tension grows and grows until it exceeds the resistance rocks, resulting in a rupture of rocks and their displacement. Intraterrestrial tension drops abruptly. Potential strain energy is converted into kinetic energy, which is dissipated in different directions from the rupture site in the form of seismic waves. Seismic waves shake the earth. A seismic rupture of the earth's crust always originates in depth. It very rarely happens when the rupture depth does not exceed 3-5 km, most often it occurs at a depth of 10-15 km. It has been established that weak tremors usually occur at depths up to 5 km, powerful earthquakes originate at a depth of 40-60 km. The place of destruction of the rock is called earthquake focus or hypocenter. The focus of an earthquake is the space inside the Earth where the rocks were broken.

To measure the energy released in the earthquake source, the Richter scale was introduced (Charles Richter is the largest American seismologist), which has 9 divisions - from 1 to 9. Per unit of measurement in Richter scale taken magnitude - a conditional value that shows not the energy released during the break, but a value proportional to it. Magnitude is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the total energy of seismic vibrations.

The epicenter of the earthquake this is a conditional point on the earth, located above the focus of an earthquake, above the place where the first shock of vibration and displacement of rocks originated in the depths of the Earth, seismic waves arose that ran away from the center in different directions.

Seismic waves can be of different types - longitudinal, transverse and surface. They have different speeds of movement, energy and force of impact. The farther the wave is from the epicenter, the weaker the earthquake.

The strength of an earthquake, its intensity is estimated in points according to Mercali scale(Giuseppe Mercali - Italian scientist). Evaluation of the strength of earthquakes in points is a conditional and relative value. Points are not physical units, but serve for the convenience of determining the relative strength of an earthquake by its external manifestations.

The Mercali scale has 12 divisions - from 1 to 12. This means that all possible earthquakes are divided into 12 groups according to the increasing strength of their manifestation.

1 point(imperceptible) - an earthquake in which only instruments pick up vibrations in the soil.

2 points(very weak) - the earthquake is practically not felt by people.

3 points(weak) - fluctuations are noted by few people.

4 points(moderate) - the earthquake is noted by many people; open windows and doors that are not tightly closed.

5 points(quite strong) - hanging objects sway, floors creak, glass rattles, whitewashing in houses crumbles.

6 points(strong) - the earthquake leads to slight damage to some buildings: thin cracks appear in the plaster, in the furnaces.

7 points(very strong) - significant damage to some buildings is inevitable: cracks appear in the plaster, individual pieces of it break off, thin cracks appear in the walls, chimneys are damaged.

8 points(destructive) - destruction is observed in buildings: large cracks form in the walls, cornices, chimneys fall; landslides and cracks up to several centimeters wide appear on the slopes of the mountains.

9 points(devastating) - collapses occur in many buildings, walls, partitions, roofs collapse; cracks with a width of 30 cm or more are formed in the soil; there are collapses, scree, landslides in the mountains.

10 points(destroying) - the destruction of most buildings; in some - serious damage; cracks in the ground up to 1 m wide are formed, collapses, landslides occur; lakes are formed due to blockages in river valleys.

11 points(catastrophe) - characterized by numerous cracks on the surface of the earth and vertical movements along them, large landslides in the mountains; general destruction of buildings.

12 points(strong catastrophe) - there is a strong change in the terrain; numerous cracks are formed, vertical and horizontal movements along them; huge collapses and landslides; riverbeds change, waterfalls and lakes form; characterized by the destruction of all buildings and structures.

Thus, the shock of an earthquake occurs inside the earth's interior, while kinetic energy is released, which is measured in magnitudes; seismic waves arise that propagate in all directions and, having reached the surface of the Earth, cause vibrations of the earth's surface, the strength of which is measured in points and determines the consequences that these vibrations led to. The strength of an earthquake depends on the magnitude and distance of a certain point on the Earth's surface from the source of the earthquake (hypocenter).

With the same magnitude of the earthquake (with the same energy released during the fracture of rocks), the strength of the earthquake can be different depending on the depth of the earthquake source.

For example, the Tashkent earthquake of 1966 had a magnitude of 5.3, the depth of the focus was 8 km, the magnitude of the earthquake reached 8 points at the epicenter, which fell on the city center.

If an earthquake with the same magnitude occurred at a depth of 15-25 km, tremors would cause an earthquake with a magnitude of no more than 4-5 points.

Where do earthquakes occur on Earth?

B O Most of the world is seismically safe. Only the boundary regions between lithospheric plates are seismically dangerous. The areas most prone to earthquakes are called seismic regions or seismic belts. The map shows that earthquakes accumulate mainly in two belts:

Mediterranean-Asian, covering the countries of Europe (Portugal, Italy, Greece), the Near and Middle East (Turkey, Iran), Central Asia(Northern India, Indonesia);

Pacific, covering Japan, China, the Far East, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands.

Recall that on the territory of Russia seismically dangerous areas include: North Caucasus, the Baikal region, the Kamchatka Peninsula, Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands.

Areas where earthquakes of 8-9 and more are possible are located in the Altai in the Sayan Mountains, in Eastern Siberia, Yakutia, Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin.

Let us give examples of some earthquakes that took place in the second half ofXXv.

On October 6, 1948, a very strong earthquake occurred in Turkmenistan with an intensity of 7.3 points. As a result of the earthquake, the city of Ashgabat was completely destroyed, more than 110 thousand people died.

On December 7, 1988, a strong earthquake occurred in Armenia. The earthquake covered an area with a population of about a million people. The epicenter of the earthquake was recorded in the northern spurs of the Bazum Range. The magnitude of the earthquake was 7 units, the hypocenter (center) of the earthquake was at a depth of 15 km, the intensity was 7.7 points. As a result of the earthquake, 3 cities and 17 districts of the republic were most severely damaged. About 30 thousand people died, more than half a million people were left homeless.

On January 17, 1995, an earthquake occurred in Japan, with an epicenter in the area major port Kobe. As a result of the earthquake, 5 thousand people died, about half a million families were left homeless.

On May 27, 1995, a devastating earthquake occurred in the north of Sakhalin Island, which completely destroyed the city of Neftegorsk, killing 1841 people. The Neftegorsk earthquake was characterized by a magnitude of 7.6, a depth of the hypocenter of the earthquake of 24 km, and an intensity of 9 points.

On October 4, 1994, an earthquake occurred in the Kuril Islands. The Kuril earthquake occurred 70 km east of Shikotan Island. It had a magnitude of 8 units, the hypocenter of the earthquake was at a depth of 33 km, the intensity of the earthquake was 9-10 points. As a result, 11 people died, 32 were injured, 1.5 thousand people were injured, and 631 families were left homeless.

In August 1995 there was a major earthquake in Turkey. 15 thousand people died.

In September 1999, a 7.6 magnitude earthquake hit the island of Taiwan, killing more than 2,000 people.

In conclusion, we note that earthquakes with an intensity of 5-6 points occur on Earth on average 5-7 thousand times a year; 7-8 points - 100-150 times; destroying earthquakes with an intensity of 9-10 points - 15-20 times. Statistics have established that strong, catastrophic earthquakes of 11-12 points occur 1-2 times a year.

Work on the studied material.

Questions and tasks:

What is an earthquake and what causes it?

How is the intensity of an earthquake measured?

What is the magnitude of an earthquake and what does it characterize?

Summary of the lesson.

Teacher. Draw conclusions from the lesson.

Learners. An earthquake manifests itself in the form of tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface, which occur as a result of sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust or in the upper part of the mantle associated with the movement of lithospheric plates.

End of lesson.

Homework. In a safety diary, write down areas in Russia where the likelihood of earthquakes is high. Analyze the given examples of earthquakes and determine the existing relationship between the magnitude of the earthquake, the depth of the hypocenter (center) of the earthquake and the intensity of the earthquake. reasons and consequences. Additional materials to §5. Mercalli Strength Scale earthquakes, his ...

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   Know the specifications earthquakes and causes occurrence. be able to evaluate earthquakes. Individual survey From history earthquakes§2.1-2.2 4 Consequences earthquakes. 1 combined Causes occurrence earthquakes. Consequences. Measures...

EARTHQUAKE- underground impacts and fluctuations of the Earth's surface, caused by nature. causes (tectonic processes). In some places on the Earth, they occur frequently or sometimes reach great force, breaking the integrity of the soil, destroying buildings and causing loss of life.

Causes

Physico-chemical processes occurring inside the Earth cause changes in the physical state of the Earth, volume and other properties of matter. This leads to the accumulation of elastic stresses in any area of ​​the globe. When the elastic stresses exceed the tensile strength of the substance, there will be a rupture and displacement of large masses of the earth, which will be accompanied by tremors of great force. This is what causes the shaking of the Earth - earthquake.

An earthquake is also usually called any oscillation of the earth's surface and bowels, no matter what causes it is caused - endogenous or anthropogenic, and whatever its intensity.

Earthquakes do not occur everywhere on Earth. They are concentrated in relatively narrow belts, confined mainly to high mountains or deep oceanic trenches. The first of them - the Pacific - frames the Pacific Ocean;

the second - the Mediterranean Trans-Asian - extends from the middle of the Atlantic Ocean through the basin mediterranean sea, Himalayas, East Asia up to the Pacific Ocean; finally, the Atlantic-Arctic belt captures the mid-Atlantic underwater ridge, Iceland, Jan Mayen Island and the submarine Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic, etc.

Earthquakes also occur in the African and Asian depressions, such as the Red Sea, Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa in Africa, Issyk-Kul and Baikal in Asia.

The fact is that highest mountains or deep oceanic trenches on a geological scale are young formations in the process of formation. The earth's crust in such areas is mobile. The vast majority of earthquakes are associated with mountain building processes. Such earthquakes are called tectonic. Scientists have compiled special card, which shows what strength earthquakes happen or can be in different parts of our country: in the Carpathians, in the Crimea, in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, in the mountains of the Pamirs, Kopet-Dag, Tien Shan, Western and Eastern Siberia, the Baikal region, on Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands and the Arctic.

There are also volcanic earthquakes. Lava and hot gases seething in the bowels of volcanoes press on the upper layers of the Earth, like boiling water vapor on the lid of a teapot. Volcanic earthquakes are rather weak, but last for a long time: weeks and even months. There have been cases when they occur before volcanic eruptions and serve as harbingers of disaster.

Ground shaking can also be caused by rockfalls and large landslides. These are local landslide earthquakes.

As a rule, strong earthquakes are accompanied by aftershocks, the power of which gradually decreases.

During tectonic earthquakes, ruptures or movements of rocks occur in some place deep in the Earth, called earthquake focus or hypocenter. Its depth usually reaches several tens of kilometers, and in some cases hundreds of kilometers. The area of ​​the Earth located above the hearth, where the force of tremors reaches its greatest value, is called epicenter.

Sometimes disturbances in the earth's crust - cracks, faults - reach the surface of the Earth. In such cases, bridges, roads, structures are torn and destroyed. An earthquake in California in 1906 created a crack 450 km long. Sections of the road near the crack shifted by 5-6 m. During the Gobi earthquake (Mongolia) on December 4, 1957, cracks appeared with a total length of 250 km. Ledges up to 10 m formed along them. It happens that after an earthquake large plots lands sink and fill with water, and in places where ledges cross rivers, waterfalls appear.

Earthquake hazards in San Francisco

The strong earthquake that devastated San Francisco occurred

"gold rush", which by that time had become the most prosperous

city ​​on the West Coast, alarmed. The shocks followed one after another

others, and it was very strange to feel the earth tremble underfoot, or

watch the table bounce in front of your eyes.

On that fatal day when the servants woke the newspaper magnate

William Randolph Hearst, relaxing in his luxurious New York

apartment, and was told that his native and beloved San Francisco was destroyed

tremors and fires, he replied: "Do not overplay - in Kali-

Fornia earthquakes often occur.

Unfortunately, the San Francisco quake far exceeded anything

valid guesses. It was one of the biggest cataclysms in the

It is estimated that the magnitude of this earthquake was 8.3 on the scale.

le Richter. Then it was the only scale for seismic measurements.

ny. The earthquake was stronger than 30 nuclear bombs,

simultaneously blown up underground. Under the destroyed buildings and in the

pits that covered wooden buildings in the very first minutes after

earth tremors killed eight hundred people.

Mary Monty, now ninety-four, recalls the events of that

ominous day: "I was thrown out of bed. The walls of the house in which we live

Li, began to tremble and become covered with cracks. Then fell off with a bang

plaster. She broke the web woven by the large spider. We ran out

into the street - the road was covered with bumps, they moved, swelling, as if

in a boiling pot. My mother gathered all the children, and we drove from the city to

carriage to the mountains. Fires blazed everywhere. Suddenly there was a new fire -

It was the gas line that burst, and gasoline began to pour out into the street."

Mary Monti was one of 300,000 homeless people who lost their homes in

the result of a devastating natural disaster that destroyed about

twenty-nine thousand buildings.

The earthquake destroyed the water supply, so the firemen could not

should get down to business.

In the Telegraph Hill area, the wealthiest Italian families in the city are

migrants tried to put out fires with tens of thousands of liters of wine.

Gangs of robbers rushed through the streets, devastating the destroyed shops and

cleaning the pockets of the dead along the gutters.

After capturing the looters at the crime scene, the angry residents hanged

them without trial and investigation on the survivors lampposts.

Writer Jack London, who wrote reports about the earthquake for the daily

efficient magazine, reported: "San Francisco is dead! ..

An earthquake struck at 5:15 am on Wednesday. In a minute to the sky

flames shot up. The fires started a dozen blocks south

Market Street, in workers' ghettos and factories. Nobody extinguished the fire, people

were not organized, there was no communication ... In a word, all the ingenious systems

the themes of human defense were destroyed by the thirty-second movement of the earth's crust."

By the time the fires broke out, more than 75 percent of San Fran

cisco had already been destroyed, four hundred city blocks lay in ruins.

All this later forced the government to invest in the study of powerful

th fault of the earth's crust and in the development of measures that will make it possible to predict

next natural disaster.

CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES ON THE RICHTER SCALE

Behavior rules

In the event of an earthquake warning or signs of an earthquake, it is necessary to act quickly, but calmly without panic.

With early warning of the threat of an earthquake. Before leaving the apartment, it is necessary to turn off the heaters and gas, if the stove was heated, put it out; then you need to get dressed, take the necessary things, a small supply of food, medicines and documents and go outside. On the street, move away from buildings and structures as quickly as possible in the direction of squares, wide streets, sports grounds, undeveloped areas, strictly observing the established procedure. If the earthquake started unexpectedly, when it is not possible to get ready and leave the apartment, it is necessary to stand in the door or window opening and, as soon as the first tremors subside, quickly go outside.

At enterprises and institutions during earthquakes, all work stops, production and technological equipment stops, measures are taken to turn off the current, reduce the pressure of air, water, steam, etc.; workers and employees who are members of the G.O. formations are immediately sent to their assembly areas, the rest of the people occupy safe places. If, according to the conditions of production, it is impossible to stop the unit, furnace, turbine, etc. in a short time, then they are transferred to a sparing mode of operation.

When you are outside your apartment or place of work during an earthquake, for example, in a store, theater or on the street, you should not rush home, you should calmly listen to the instructions of the relevant officials in the current situation and act according to their instructions. If you are in public transport, you should not leave it on the go, you need to wait until the transport stops completely and get out of it calmly, letting children, the disabled, and the elderly go ahead.

Earthquakes can last from a few moments to several days. The approximate frequency of shocks and the time of their occurrence may be reported by radio and other accessible ways. Your actions should be consistent with these messages.

Rescue action

Warning

The information obtained during the registration of earthquakes is very important, it provides information both about the source of the earthquake and about the structure of the earth's crust in certain areas and the Earth as a whole. Approximately 20 minutes after a strong earthquake, seismologists around the globe will learn about it. It does not require radio or telegraph.

How does this happen? During an earthquake, rock particles move and oscillate. They push and vibrate neighboring particles, which transmit the vibrations even further in the form of an elastic wave.

Thus, the concussion is, as it were, transmitted along the chain and diverges in the form of elastic waves in all directions. Gradually, as the distance from the source of the earthquake, the wave weakens.

It is known, for example, that elastic waves are transmitted along the rails far ahead of a speeding train, filling them with an even, barely audible rumble. The elastic waves that form during an earthquake are called seismic. They are recorded by seismographs at seismic stations around the globe. Seismic waves traveling from the source of an earthquake to seismic stations pass through the Earth's strata, which are inaccessible for direct observation. The characteristics of the recorded seismic waves - the time of their appearance, amplitude, oscillation period and other parameters - allow determining the position of the earthquake epicenter, its magnitude, and the possible strength in points. Seismic waves also carry information about the structure of the Earth. Deciphering a seismogram is like reading the story of seismic waves about what they encountered in the depths of the Earth. This is a difficult but exciting task. During an earthquake, very long surface seismic waves propagate along the surface of the Earth, as well as along the oceans, with periods from several seconds to several minutes. These waves circle the Earth several times. Spreading from the epicenter towards each other, they make the entire globe oscillate as a whole. The globe begins to "sound" like a giant bell when it is struck, and such a blow to the Earth is a strong earthquake. In recent years, it has been established that the fundamental tone of such “sounding (oscillations) has a period of about one hour and is recorded by especially sensitive equipment. These data, through complex calculations on an electronic computer, allow us to draw conclusions about physical properties our planet. determine the structure of the shell or mantle of the Earth at a depth of hundreds of kilometers.

In a special device seismograph, marking earthquakes, the property of inertia is used. main part seismograph - a pendulum - is a load suspended on a spring to a tripod. When the soil oscillates, the seismograph's pendulum lags behind its movement. If a needle is attached to the pendulum and smoked glass is pressed against it so that the needle only comes into contact with its surface, the simplest seismograph that was used before will be obtained. The soil, and with it the tripod and the glass plate, oscillate, the pendulum and the needle remain motionless due to inertia. On a soot-covered surface, the needle will draw a curve of the oscillation of the Earth's surface at a given point.

If, instead of a needle, a mirror is attached to the pendulum and a beam of light is directed at it, then the reflected beam - the “bunny” - will reproduce the vibrations of the soil in an enlarged form. Such a "bunny" is directed to a uniformly moving tape of photographic paper; after developing on this tape, you can see the recorded oscillations - the curve of the Earth's oscillations in time - seismogram.

Seismologists all over the world use the same definitions in seismology:

Seismic hazard - the possibility (probability) of seismic effects of a certain force on the earth's surface (in points of the seismic intensity scale, oscillation amplitudes or accelerations) on a given area during the considered time interval.

Seismic risk is the calculated probability of social and economic damage from earthquakes in a given area in a given time interval.

A new step in world seismology was made back in 1902 by Academician B. B. Golitsyn, who proposed a method for converting the mechanical vibrations of a seismograph into electrical ones and recording them using mirror galvanometers.

This principle was later incorporated into all systems of seismographs, both in the USSR and abroad. This made it possible to create very sensitive instruments that can be used to register earthquakes anywhere in the world.

Assistance to victims

During large earthquakes, people can be in the rubble. Under conditions of prolonged compression of soft tissues of individual parts of the body, lower or upper limbs a very severe lesion can develop, called the syndrome of prolonged compression of the limbs or traumatic toxicosis. It is caused by the absorption into the blood of toxic substances, which are the decay products of multiplied soft tissues.

Affected with traumatic toxicosis complain of pain in the damaged part of the body, nausea, headache, thirst. On the damaged part, abrasions and dents are visible, repeating the outline of the protruding parts of the crushed objects. The skin is pale in places cyanotic, cold to the touch. The damaged limb 30-40 minutes after its release begins to swell rapidly.

During traumatic toxicosis, 3 periods are distinguished:

Intermediate

Late

In the early period, immediately after the injury and within 2 hours, the consciousness of the affected person is preserved, he is excited, tries to free himself from the blockage, asks for help. After staying in the rubble for two hours, an intermediate period begins. In the body, toxic phenomena are growing. Excitation passes, the affected person becomes relatively calm, gives signals about himself, answers questions, can periodically fall into a drowsy state, he has dry mouth, thirst, and general weakness. Late period general state the victim deteriorates sharply: excitement appears, an inadequate reaction to the environment, consciousness is disturbed, delirium, chills, vomiting occur, the pupils first strongly constrict and then expand, the pulse is weak and frequent. V severe cases death comes.

Having found a person in the blockage, first of all, you need to inspect this place and take measures to free the victim. The blockage is dismantled carefully so that it does not collapse. A person can be removed from the blockage only after complete release from compression.

When providing first aid, a sterile bandage is applied to wounds and abrasions. If the affected person has cold, cyanotic, severely damaged limbs, a tourniquet is applied to them above the place of compression. This will stop the absorption of toxic substances from crushed soft tissues into the bloodstream. The tourniquet should not be applied very tightly so as not to completely disrupt the blood flow to the damaged limbs.

In cases where the limbs are warm to the touch and not severely damaged, a tight bandage is applied to them. After applying a tourniquet or other bandage, a syringe is injected with a tube of an analgesic, and in its absence, 50 grams of vodka are given inside. Damaged limbs, and even in the absence of fractures, are immobilized with splints or with the help of improvised means.

From the very first minutes, first aid to the affected person is shown hot tea, coffee, heavy drinking with the addition of baking soda, 2-4 grams per dose (up to 20-40 grams per day). Soda helps to restore the acid-base balance of the internal environment of the body, drink plenty of water and remove toxic substances in the urine.

Affected with traumatic toxicosis as quickly and carefully as possible on a stretcher are taken to a medical facility.

With bruises, superficially located tissues and internal organs can be damaged. Signs of bruising of superficially located soft tissues are pain, swelling, bruising. When providing first aid to the victim, a pressure bandage is applied, cold is applied, and peace is created. Severe bruises of the chest or abdomen can be accompanied by damage to internal organs: lungs, liver, spleen ... It is necessary to put cold on the site of the bruise and urgently deliver the affected person to a medical facility.

With head injuries, brain damage is possible: a bruise or a concussion. Signs of a brain injury are headaches, nausea, and sometimes vomiting, the consciousness of the victim is preserved. A concussion is accompanied by loss of consciousness, nausea and vomiting, severe headaches, dizziness. First aid for a bruise and concussion of the brain is to create complete rest for the affected person and apply cold to the head.

Sprains occur during an unsuccessful jump, fall, or lifting weights. Pain appears in the damaged joint, swelling is formed, movements are limited. When providing first aid, tight bandaging is performed, cold is applied to the damaged joint, and the injured limb is provided with rest.

Dislocations occur when the articular surfaces of bones are displaced.

In this case, the integrity of the articular bag is violated, sometimes the ligaments are torn. The main signs of dislocations of the joints of the extremities: pain in the joint, impaired movement in it, change in the shape of the joint, shortening of the limb and its forced position.

Dislocations can be in the mandibular and intervertebral joints.

Providing first medical care in case of dislocation, one should not try to set it - this is the duty of the doctor. In case of joint dislocations, rest of the limb is created, and in case of dislocations in large joints, along with rest, it is recommended to introduce an anesthetic.

The consequences of earthquakes

In a broad sense, environmental consequences, apparently, should be divided into social, natural and natural-anthropogenic. In each of the groups, direct and indirect consequences can be distinguished.

At present, we quite fully know the direct manifestations (consequences) of earthquakes on the earth's surface and, consequently, their direct effects on the elements of the social organism, while the accompanying (preceding, subsequent) indirect phenomena at the level of micro- and even macroanomalies of processes in the lithosphere and outside it began to be studied quite recently.

The most studied and clearly reflect the seismic hazard are economic losses as a result of earthquakes. Over the past decades, the recorded economic losses from earthquakes have increased by an order of magnitude and now reach about 200 billion dollars. for a decade. If in the previous decade in the epicentral zone, for example, an 8-magnitude earthquake, the average loss per inhabitant was 1.5 thousand dollars, now it reaches 30 thousand dollars. Naturally, with an increase in the score (and magnitude), the areas of the affected territories increase, and, consequently, the damage.

The number of victims of earthquakes on the globe, although unevenly distributed over the years, is on the whole steadily growing, for the reasons indicated above. Over the past 500 years, 4.5 million people have died from earthquakes on Earth. people, that is, every year earthquakes claim an average of 9 thousand human lives. However, in the period 1947-1976. The average loss was 28 thousand. person per year. From an environmental point of view, like social consequences, no less important is the fact that the number of injured (including seriously injured) is usually many times higher than the number of dead, and the number of homeless people exceeds the number of direct victims by an order of magnitude or more. So, in areas of complete destruction of buildings (zones of 8 points and above), the number of victims can be 1-20%, and the number of wounded - 30-80%, inverse ratios are rare.

Social consequences, that is, the impact of seismic events on the population, includes both direct social damage (death of people, their physical or mental injuries, loss of shelter in conditions of disruption of vital systems, etc.) and indirect social damage, the severity of which depends on dimensions of the direct line and is due to a sharp, against the background of material losses, change in the moral and psychological situation, the hasty movement of large masses of people, the violation of social ties and social status, the reduction in working capacity and the fall in the efficiency of the work of the survivors, partly abstracted from the usual individual and social activities. A strong earthquake, especially in large cities and densely populated areas, inevitably leads to the disorganization of life for a certain period of time. Violations of social behavior can occur even in the absence of the event itself, but only in connection with rumors of an earthquake, no matter how ridiculous and unfounded these expectations may be. With regard to the last decade, such examples are known for a number of cities of the former Soviet Union. The consequences of seismic catastrophes, especially during periods of a general weakening of the economic and economic state and political instability and long-term social disorientation of the population, can affect for decades.

Within the framework of environmental problems, among the often provoked by strong earthquakes, that is, secondary, consequences should be noted (against the background of damage and destruction of landscape and cultural monuments and habitat disturbance as such), such as the emergence of epidemics and epizootics, the growth of diseases and disruption of population reproduction, the reduction food base (destruction of stocks, loss of livestock, destruction or deterioration of agricultural land quality), adverse changes in landscape conditions (for example, exposure of mountain slopes, flooding of valleys, hydrological and hydrogeological changes), deterioration of atmospheric air quality due to clouds of raised dust and the appearance of aerosol particles as a result of fires arising from an earthquake, a decrease in water quality, as well as the quality and capacity of recreational and health-improving resources.

The impact of strong earthquakes on the natural environment (geological environment, landscape shell) can be very diverse and significant, although in most cases the area (zone) of changes does not exceed 100-200 km.

Among the direct, most expressive and significant impacts, we highlight the following:

Geological, hydrological and hydrogeological, geophysical, geochemical, atmospheric, biological..

The natural and technogenic consequences of earthquakes affect the natural environment of the region covered by the earthquake as a result of disturbance (destruction) of artificially created structures (objects). These include, first of all, the following:

1. Fires at facilities built environment leading to environmental consequences.

2. Breakthrough of reservoirs with the formation of a water shaft below the dams.

3. Breaks in oil, gas and water pipelines, spills of oil products, leakage of gas and water.

4. Emissions of harmful chemical and radioactive substances into the environment due to damage to production facilities, communications, storage facilities.

5. Violation of the reliability and safe functioning of military-industrial and military-defense systems, provoked explosions of ammunition.

The above list of earthquake consequences is most likely incomplete, especially with regard to long-term consequences, often of which we are not yet aware. But even among those listed, some do not yet have sufficiently defined quantitative characteristics and, accordingly, cannot be assessed in terms of the degree of danger and the amount of damage caused with the necessary completeness and reliability.

Geological features are known better than others, for which quantitative characteristics can now be given in relation to the strength of earthquakes. An idea of ​​the size of sources (in projection onto the earth's surface) for earthquakes of various strengths is given in the table. (in this case, table number 2)

Table number 2

These values ​​roughly determine the areas of destructive consequences. As can be seen from the table (No. 2), these areas can cover areas of hundreds and thousands, and with the most strong earthquakes in tens of thousands of square kilometers.

It is clear that such numerous and significant violations of the landscape environment (and, of course, the biosphere) cannot but lead to violations of the ecological conditions in these and adjacent areas. The most significant and easily identified are expressed in the destruction of vegetation cover, habitats of animals (and sometimes of themselves, as well as people), in violation of traditional habitats and terrestrial migration routes, changes in the water regime, redistribution of water reserves, deterioration in the quality of fodder lands, etc. d.

Can the harmful effects of earthquakes be mitigated?

The seismic zoning map of the USSR indicates the zones and the possible strength of future shaking in them. Scientists still cannot predict when they will occur. This is difficult, because earthquakes originate in the inaccessible depths of the Earth, and the forces that cause them , accumulate very slowly. Undoubtedly, in the future, scientists will learn to predict the timing of earthquakes. Now we can only weaken the consequences of earthquakes. For this purpose, in areas threatened by them, construction is carried out according to specially developed rules. Special Construction Materials and designs. Stable, durable buildings are being erected, designed for the possible magnitude of an earthquake in a given area. So, according to seismic zoning, Tashkent is in the 8-point zone, and the seismic buildings built with this in mind were almost not damaged during the earthquakes of 1966.

Currently, about 1000 seismic stations equipped with various systems seismographs and continuously recording earthquakes.

At the central seismic station "Moskva" at the Institute of Physics of the Earth of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, a special Service for Urgent Reports on Strong Earthquakes has been set up. It reports the place, time and strength of the earthquake that happened.

In Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands, in 1960, the Tsunami Warning Service was organized, which works in contact with the same services in Japan and the United States.

The population, warned in advance of the approaching. tsunami, goes to safe places, and ships are taken out to the open sea, where long tsunami waves are not dangerous to them.

Examples

Here is what housewife Annette Henry said, who was on one of

the busiest streets of San Francisco when an underground strike occurred in October 1989; "It looked like God clapped his hands and underground

lei passed the wave. The cars on the highway were jumping up and down like they were in Disney

evskom cartoon. Every time an earthquake occurs in California,

seniya, we giggle, we are calm and self-confident. But now everything was

differently. We were haunted by the thought that the jokes were over. I kaza-

elk, that began that, the Great earthquake. "

The rocks in the St. Andreas Fault could no longer contain the pressure

the earth's crust, which began an energetic shift. Pressure waves radiating from

epicenter of the earthquake, propagated at a speed of 5 miles per second

southeast of San Francisco through a bed of rock under the Santa Cruz Mountains.

within 15 seconds turned many buildings into ruins, destroyed sec-

of the Bay Bridge, tore a whole mile of highway overpass and plunged into

the conflagration of the historical district of Marina.

Thanks to the worldwide television network that showed the baseball game,

spectators in England and other countries saw the stadium begin to rock

"Candlestick Park" and huge cracks appeared in concrete walls.

When a flyover collapsed over a mile and fell onto the road,

living under it, more than a hundred people died. Dozens of people were buried

in their cars under the multi-ton weight of collapsed concrete.

"The concrete flattened them out," said Henry Reniera, head of the emergency

Auckland services. - It was like a battlefield. Upper highway, as if

lot, hit the lower one, bombarding the drivers below with huge cobblestones and

cars. Victims trapped under tons of rocks frantically

honked and we threw there great amount lifting equipment

and cranes, hoping to save them. Weakening sounds of car sirens

foamy died, as the batteries were discharged, but we knew that there

there are people. It was a terrible picture."

First rescue work started under a fallen section of highway. Near

flattened cars, one of the first to appear was a paper factory worker

ricky. He heard the screams of children coming from the crushed red car.

car. Together with other rescuers, the worker helped rescue

ki eight-year-old girl Katie, but her six-year-old brother Julio turned out to be

crushed by the body of his dead mother.

At the risk of being the victim of subsequent aftershocks, Dr. Dan Allen squeezed-

through the gap and gave Giulio a sedative. At this time, children

cue doctor Thomas Betts got to the boy by automobile fire

stairs.

He later said: "I was not prepared for what I saw there. The boy was

shocked. He only wept and stroked his mother's face with his hands."

Two hours of hard work by doctors did not bring Julio's rescue any closer.

His right leg was shattered. Doctors tried to get the boy out of

cars to provide medical assistance, but failed. They gave him

anesthetic medicine, then with great difficulty they removed those

lo dead mother. Only after that, the doctors managed to amputate Ju-

lio leg and send him to the hospital.

At night, the ruins were illuminated by fires from the swaying skyscrapers.

rebs built without taking into account the effect of an earthquake, glass fell and

eerie sounds of sirens were heard.

After some time, the destruction was localized. They touched

mostly old buildings that could not withstand the elements.

The destroyed section of the highway, for example, which caused the most numerous casualties

you, was thirty years old.

Experts agreed that the devastation in San Francisco would be

even greater if not for the California building code introduced

after 1906 to minimize damage from future catastrophes and

valid until now. This code, supplemented by the lessons of the earth

quakes in 1971 in San Fernando and 1985 in Mexico City, forced the construction

bodies to draw Special attention on the anti-seismic stability of houses and

structures.

Residents of San Francisco prefer not to think that the new earth-

shading can reach 8.3 on the Richter scale, as it was in 1906

year. No one cares about a study done by the National Oceania

chesky and atmospheric commission after the catastrophe in 1989. But in it

it is stated that the future earthquake will be forty times more powerful and

leads to tens of thousands of deaths.

Years have passed, but San Francisco is still recovering from the consequences

earthquakes. It is unlikely that they will be completed in a ten-year period. but