In knowledge, two levels are distinguished: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical (from gretriria - experience) level of knowledge - this is knowledge obtained directly from experience with some rational processing of the properties and relations of the object is known. It is always the basis, the basis for the theoretical level of knowledge.

Theoretical level is knowledge gained through abstract thinking

A person begins the process of cognition of an object from its external description, fixes its individual properties, sides. Then it delves into the content of the object, reveals the laws to which it is subject, proceeds to an explanation of the properties of the object, combines knowledge about the individual aspects of the subject into a single, integral system, and the resulting deep versatile specific knowledge about the subject is a theory that has a certain internal logical structure.

It is necessary to distinguish the concepts of "sensual" and "rational" from the concepts of "empirical" and "theoretical". scientific knowledge"empirical" and "theoretical" lie within the sphere of less than scientific knowledge.

Empirical knowledge is formed in the process of interaction with the object of study, when we directly influence it, interact with it, process the results and draw a conclusion. But getting separate. The EMF of empirical facts and laws does not yet allow us to build a system of laws. In order to know the essence, it is necessary to go to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are always inextricably linked and mutually condition each other. Thus, empirical research, revealing new facts, new observational and experimental data, stimulates the development of the theoretical level, poses new problems and tasks for it. In turn, theoretical research, considering and concretizing the theoretical content of science, opens up new perspectives. IVI explanations and predictions of facts and thereby orients and directs empirical knowledge. Empirical knowledge is mediated by theoretical knowledge - theoretical knowledge indicates exactly which phenomena and events should be the object of om empirical research and under what conditions the experiment should be carried out. At the theoretical level, the boundaries are also identified and indicated, in which the results at the empirical level are true, in which empirical knowledge can be used in practice. This is precisely the heuristic function of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

The boundary between the empirical and theoretical levels is very arbitrary, their independence relative to each other is relative. The empirical passes into the theoretical, and what was once theoretical, at another, higher stage of development, becomes empirically accessible. In any sphere of scientific knowledge, at all levels, there is a dialectical unity of the theoretical and empirical. The leading role in this unity of dependence on the subject, conditions, and already existing, obtained scientific results belongs either to the empirical or to the theoretical. The basis of the unity of the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge is the unity of scientific theory and research practice.

50 Basic methods of scientific knowledge

Each level of scientific knowledge uses its own methods. So, at the empirical level, such basic methods as observation, experiment, description, measurement, modeling are used. At the theoretical level - analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, induction, deduction, idealization, historical and logical methods, etc.

Observation is a systematic and purposeful perception of objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships in vivo or under experimental conditions in order to cognize the object under study

The main monitoring functions are:

Fixation and registration of facts;

Preliminary classification of facts already recorded on the basis of certain principles formulated on the basis of existing theories;

Comparison of recorded facts

With the complication of scientific knowledge, the goal, plan, theoretical guidelines, and comprehension of the results are gaining more and more weight. As a result, the role of theoretical thinking in the observation

Especially difficult is observation in the social sciences, where its results largely depend on the worldview and methodological attitudes of the observer, his attitude to the object

The observation method is a limited method, since it can only fix certain properties and relationships of an object, but it is impossible to reveal their essence, nature, development trends. Comprehensive with the observation of the object is the basis for the experiment.

An experiment is a study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the course of the process in a certain direction.

Unlike simple observation, which does not involve active influence on the object, an experiment is an active intervention of the researcher into natural phenomena, in the course of the studied. An experiment is a type of practice in which practical action is organically combined with the theoretical work of thought.

The significance of the experiment lies not only in the fact that with its help science explains the phenomena material world, but also in the fact that science, relying on experiment, directly masters one or another dos of the studied phenomena. Therefore, the experiment serves as one of the main means of communication between science and production. After all, it makes it possible to verify the correctness of scientific conclusions and discoveries, new laws and data. The experiment serves as a means of research and invention of new devices, machines, materials and processes in industrial production, necessary step practical testing of new scientific and technical discoveries.

The experiment is widely used not only in natural sciences, but also in social practice, where it plays an important role in the knowledge and management of social processes

The experiment has its own specific features compared to other methods:

The experiment allows you to explore objects in the so-called pure form;

The experiment allows you to explore the properties of objects in extreme conditions, which contributes to a deeper penetration into their essence;

An important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability, due to which this method acquires special significance and value in scientific knowledge.

A description is an indication of the features of an object or phenomenon, both essential and non-essential. Description, as a rule, is applied to single, individual objects for a more complete acquaintance with them. His method is to give the most complete information about the object.

Measurement is a specific system for fixing and recording the quantitative characteristics of the object under study using various measuring instruments and devices with the help of measurement, the ratio of one quantitative characteristic of an object to another, homogeneous with it, taken as a unit of measurement, is determined. The main functions of the measurement method are, firstly, fixing the quantitative characteristics of the object, and secondly, the classification and comparison of measurement results.

Modeling is the study of an object (original) by creating and studying its copy (model), which, by its properties to a certain extent, reproduces the properties of the object under study.

Modeling is used when the direct study of objects for some reason is impossible, difficult or impractical. There are two main types of modeling: physical and mathematical. At the present stage of development of scientific knowledge, a particularly large role is given to computer modeling. A computer that operates special program, is able to simulate the most real processes: fluctuations in market prices, orbits spaceships, demographic processes, other quantitative parameters of the development of nature, society, an individual person.

Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge

Analysis is the division of an object into its components (sides, features, properties, relationships) with the aim of their comprehensive study.

Synthesis is the union of previously identified parts (sides, features, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole.

Analysis and synthesis are dialectically contradictory and interdependent methods of cognition. Cognition of an object in its concrete integrity presupposes a preliminary division of it into components and consideration of each of them. This is the task of the analysis. It makes it possible to single out the essential, that which forms the basis of the connection of all aspects of the object under study is, dialectical analysis is a means of penetrating into the essence of things. But playing an important role in cognition, analysis does not provide knowledge of the concrete, knowledge of the object as a unity of the manifold, the unity of various definitions. This task is performed by synthesis. Therefore, analysis and synthesis organically interact with emopovyazani and mutually determine each other at each stage of the process. theoretical knowledge familiarity.

Abstraction is a method of abstracting from certain properties and relations of an object and, at the same time, focusing on those that are the direct subject of scientific research. Abstraction with contributes to the penetration of knowledge into the essence of phenomena, the movement of knowledge from the phenomenon to the essence. It is clear that abstraction dismembers, coarsens, schematizes an integral mobile reality. However, this is precisely what makes it possible to more deeply study the individual aspects of the subject "in its pure form" and, therefore, to penetrate into their essence of their essence.

Generalization is a method of scientific knowledge that captures the general features and properties of a certain group of objects, makes the transition from the singular to the special and general, from the less general to the more cryptic.

In the process of cognition, it is often necessary, relying on existing knowledge, to draw conclusions that are new knowledge about the unknown. This is done using methods such as induction and deduction.

Induction is such a method of scientific knowledge, when, on the basis of knowledge about the individual, a conclusion is made about the general. This is a method of reasoning by which the validity of the put forward assumption or hypothesis is established. In real cognition, induction always acts in unity with deduction, is organically connected with it.

Deduction is a method of cognition when, on the basis of general principle in a logical way, from certain propositions as true, new true knowledge about the individual is necessarily derived. With the help of this method, the individual is known on the basis of knowledge of general laws.

Idealization is a method of logical modeling through which idealized objects are created. Idealization is aimed at the processes of conceivable construction of possible objects. The results of idealization are not arbitrary. In the limiting case, they correspond to individual real properties of objects or allow their interpretation based on the data of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Idealization is associated with " thought experiment", as a result of which, from the hypothetical minimum of some signs of the behavior of objects, the laws of their functioning are discovered or generalized. The boundaries of the effectiveness of idealization are determined by practice.

Historical and logical methods are organically combined. The historical method involves consideration of the objective process of the development of the object, its real history with all its twists and turns. This is a certain way in reproducing in thinking the historical process in its chronological order and specificity.

The logical method is the way in which thinking reproduces the real historical process in his theoretical form, in the system of concepts

task historical research is the disclosure of specific conditions for the development of certain phenomena. The task of logical research is to reveal the role that individual elements of the system play in the development of the whole.

In knowledge, two levels are distinguished: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical (from Gr. Emreiria - experience) level of knowledge - this is knowledge obtained directly from experience with some rational processing of the properties and relations of the object is known. It is always the basis, the basis for the theoretical level of knowledge.

Theoretical level is knowledge gained through abstract thinking.

A person begins the process of cognition of an object from its external description, fixes its individual properties, sides. Then he goes deep into the content of the object, reveals the laws to which he is subject, proceeds to explain the properties of the object, combines knowledge about the individual aspects of the subject into a single, holistic system, and the resulting deep versatile specific knowledge about the subject is a theory that has a certain internal logical structure.

It is necessary to distinguish the concept of "sensual" and "rational" from the concepts of "empirical" and "theoretical". "Sensual" and "rational" characterize the dialectics of the process of reflection in general, while "empirical" and "theoretical" belong to the sphere of scientific knowledge only.

Empirical knowledge is formed in the process of interaction with the object of study, when we directly influence it, interact with it, process the results and draw a conclusion. But obtaining individual empirical facts and laws does not yet allow one to construct a system of laws. In order to know the essence, it is necessary to go to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are always inextricably linked and mutually condition each other. Thus, empirical research, revealing new facts, new observational and experimental data, stimulates the development of the theoretical level, poses new problems and tasks for it. In turn, theoretical research, considering and concretizing the theoretical content of science, opens up new perspectives for explaining and predicting facts and thereby orients and directs empirical knowledge. Empirical knowledge is mediated by theoretical knowledge - theoretical knowledge indicates exactly which phenomena and events should be the object of empirical research and under what conditions the experiment should be carried out. Theoretically, it also turns out and indicates the limits in which the results at the empirical level are true, in which empirical knowledge can be used in practice. This is precisely the heuristic function of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

The boundary between the empirical and theoretical levels is rather arbitrary, their independence relative to each other is relative. The empirical passes into the theoretical, and what was once theoretical, at another, higher stage of development, becomes empirically accessible. In any sphere of scientific knowledge, at all levels, there is a dialectical unity of the theoretical and empirical. The leading role in this unity of dependence on the subject, conditions and already existing, obtained scientific results belongs either to the empirical or to the theoretical. The basis of the unity of the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge is the unity of scientific theory and research practice.

Basic methods of scientific knowledge

Each level of scientific knowledge uses its own methods. So, at the empirical level, such basic methods as observation, experiment, description, measurement, modeling are used. Theoretically - analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, induction, deduction, idealization, historical and logical methods, and the like.

Observation is a systematic and purposeful perception of objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships in natural conditions or under experimental conditions with the aim of knowing the object under study.

The main monitoring functions are as follows:

Fixation and registration of facts;

Preliminary classification of facts already recorded on the basis of certain principles formulated on the basis of existing theories;

Comparison of recorded facts.

With the complication of scientific knowledge, the goal, plan, theoretical guidelines, and comprehension of the results are gaining more and more weight. As a result, the role of theoretical thinking in observation increases.

Especially difficult is observation in the social sciences, where its results largely depend on the worldview and methodological attitudes of the observer, his attitude to the object.

The method of observation is limited by the method, since with its help it is only possible to fix certain properties and connections of an object, but it is impossible to reveal their essence, nature, development trends. Comprehensive observation of the object is the basis for the experiment.

An experiment is a study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the course of the process in a certain direction.

Unlike simple observation, which does not involve an active impact on the object, an experiment is an active intervention of the researcher into natural phenomena, in the course of the processes that are being studied. An experiment is a kind of practice in which practical action is organically combined with the theoretical work of thought.

The significance of the experiment lies not only in the fact that with its help science explains the phenomena of the material world, but also in the fact that science, relying on experience, directly masters one or another of the studied phenomena. Therefore, the experiment serves as one of the main means of communication between science and production. After all, it allows you to verify the correctness of scientific conclusions and discoveries, new patterns. The experiment serves as a means of research and invention of new devices, machines, materials and processes in industrial production, a necessary stage in the practical testing of new scientific and technical discoveries.

The experiment is widely used not only in the natural sciences, but also in social practice, where it plays an important role in the knowledge and management of social processes.

The experiment has its own specific features compared to other methods:

The experiment makes it possible to study objects in the so-called pure form;

The experiment allows you to explore the properties of objects in extreme conditions, which contributes to a deeper penetration into their essence;

An important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability, due to which this method acquires special significance and value in scientific knowledge.

A description is an indication of the features of an object or phenomenon, both essential and non-essential. Description, as a rule, is applied to single, individual objects for a more complete acquaintance with them. Its purpose is to give the most complete information about the object.

Measurement is a specific system for fixing and recording the quantitative characteristics of the object under study using various measuring instruments and apparatus. With the help of measurement, the ratio of one quantitative characteristic of an object to another, homogeneous with it, taken as a unit of measurement, is determined. The main functions of the measurement method are, firstly, fixing the quantitative characteristics of the object; secondly, classification and comparison of measurement results.

Modeling is the study of an object (original) by creating and studying its copy (model), which, by its properties to a certain extent, reproduces the properties of the object under study.

Modeling is used when the direct study of objects for some reason is impossible, difficult or impractical. There are two main types of modeling: physical and mathematical. On the present stage the development of scientific knowledge, a particularly large role is given to computer modeling. A computer that operates according to a special program is able to simulate the most real processes: market price fluctuations, spacecraft orbits, demographic processes, and other quantitative parameters of the development of nature, society, and an individual.

Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge.

Analysis is the division of an object into its constituent parts (sides, features, properties, relationships) with the aim of their comprehensive study.

Synthesis is the union of previously identified parts (sides, features, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole.

Analysis and synthesis are dialectically contradictory and interdependent methods of cognition. Cognition of an object in its concrete integrity presupposes a preliminary division of it into components and consideration of each of them. This task is performed by analysis. It makes it possible to single out the essential, that which forms the basis of the connection of all aspects of the object under study. That is, dialectical analysis is a means of penetrating the essence of things. But, while playing an important role in cognition, analysis does not provide knowledge of the concrete, knowledge of the object as a unity of the manifold, the unity of various definitions. This task is performed by synthesis. So, analysis and synthesis are organically interconnected and mutually condition each other at each stage of the process of theoretical knowledge.

Abstraction is a method of abstracting from certain properties and relations of an object and at the same time focusing on those that are the direct subject of scientific research. Abstracting contributes to the penetration of knowledge into the essence of phenomena, the movement of knowledge from the phenomenon to the essence. It is clear that abstraction dismembers, coarsens, schematizes an integral mobile reality. However, this is precisely what allows a deeper study of individual aspects of the subject "in its purest form." And that means getting into their essence.

Generalization is a method of scientific knowledge that captures the general features and properties of a certain group of objects, makes the transition from the individual to the special and the general, from the less general to the more general.

In the process of cognition, it is often necessary, relying on existing knowledge, to draw conclusions that are new knowledge about the unknown. This is done using methods such as induction and deduction.

Induction is such a method of scientific knowledge, when, on the basis of knowledge about the individual, a conclusion is made about the general. This is a method of reasoning by which the validity of the put forward assumption or hypothesis is established. In real cognition, induction always acts in unity with deduction, is organically connected with it.

Deduction is a method of cognition, when, on the basis of a general principle, a new true knowledge about a separate one is necessarily derived from some provisions as true ones. With the help of this method, the individual is known on the basis of knowledge of general laws.

Idealization is a method of logical modeling through which idealized objects are created. Idealization is aimed at the processes of conceivable construction of possible objects. The results of idealization are not arbitrary. In the limiting case, they correspond to individual real properties of objects or allow their interpretation based on the data of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Idealization is associated with a "thought experiment", as a result of which, from a hypothetical minimum of some signs of the behavior of objects, the laws of their functioning are discovered or generalized. The boundaries of the effectiveness of idealization are determined by practice.

Historical and logical methods are organically linked. The historical method involves consideration of the objective process of the development of the object, its real history with all its twists and turns. This is a certain way of reproducing in thinking the historical process in its chronological sequence and concreteness.

The logical method is a method by which mentally reproduces the real historical process in its theoretical form, in a system of concepts.

The task of historical research is to reveal the specific conditions for the development of certain phenomena. The task of logical research is to reveal the role that individual elements of the system play in the development of the whole.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking. Thinking is an active process of generalized and indirect reflection of reality carried out in the course of practice. Human thinking is carried out in the closest connection with speech, and its results are fixed in the language as a certain sign system.

Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes in terms of their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended with the help of rational processing of empirical knowledge data. This processing is carried out with the help of inference, laws, categories, principles, etc.

The theory is built in such a way that it describes not the surrounding reality, but idealized objects. Idealization is the main logical operation of theoretical thinking. Its purpose and result is the creation, construction of a special type of objects - idealized objects, work with which is an essential characteristic of theoretical knowledge.

A characteristic feature of theoretical knowledge is the study of the very process of knowledge, its forms, techniques, methods, conceptual apparatus, etc. On the basis of a theoretical explanation and known laws, a prediction, a prediction of the future is carried out.

Methods of theoretical knowledge.

1. Formalization - displaying meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operation with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction artificial languages(language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.).

It is the use of special symbols that makes it possible to eliminate the ambiguity of the words of the usual, natural language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.

Formalization clarifies the content by revealing its form and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness. The ever deeper formalization of the content of knowledge never reaches absolute completeness, because the development (change) of the subject of knowledge and knowledge about it never stops.

2. Axiomatic Method - a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions - axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are derived from them in a purely logical way, through proof. To derive theorems from axioms (and in general some formulas from others), special rules of inference are formulated. Therefore, the proof in the axiomatic method is a certain sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom or is obtained from the previous formulas according to some rule of inference.

The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing the already mined scientific knowledge. The famous French physicist Louis de Broglie drew attention to the fact that "the axiomatic method may be a good method of classification or teaching, but it is not a method of discovery."

3. Hypothetical-deductive method - a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived. The conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably have a probabilistic character.

The general structure of the hypothetical-deductive method:

a) familiarization with factual material that requires a theoretical explanation and an attempt to do so with the help of already existing theories and laws. If not, then:

b) putting forward guesses (hypotheses, assumptions) about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using a variety of logical techniques;

c) an assessment of the solidity and seriousness of the assumptions and the selection of the most probable from the set of them;

d) derivation of consequences from the hypothesis;

e) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

The hypothetical-deductive method is not so much a method of discovery as a way of constructing and substantiating scientific knowledge, since it shows exactly how a new hypothesis can be arrived at.

4. Climbing from the abstract to the concrete - a method of theoretical research and presentation, consisting in the movement of scientific thought from the original abstraction through successive stages of deepening and expanding knowledge to the result - a holistic reproduction in the theory of the subject under study. As its prerequisite, this method includes the ascent from the sensory-concrete to the abstract, to the separation in thinking of individual aspects of the subject and their "fixing" in the corresponding abstract definitions. The movement of cognition from the sensory-concrete to the abstract is precisely the movement from the individual to the general; such logical methods as analysis and induction prevail here.

General logical methods and techniques of research.

1. Analysis - real or mental division of an object into its constituent parts and synthesis - their combination into a single organic whole, and not into a mechanical unit.

2. abstraction - the process of mental abstraction from a number of properties and relations of the phenomenon under study with the simultaneous selection of properties of interest to the researcher.

3. Generalization - establishment process common properties and signs of the subject, is closely related to abstraction.

4. Idealization - a mental procedure associated with the formation of abstract (idealized) objects that are fundamentally unrealizable in reality.

An idealized object ultimately acts as a reflection of real objects and processes.

5. Induction - the movement of thought from the individual to the general and deduction - the ascent of the process of cognition from the general to the individual. Inductive generalizations are usually regarded as empirical truths and are probabilistic in nature.

A characteristic feature of deduction is that it always leads from true premises to a true, reliable conclusion.

6. Analogy - establishing similarities in some aspects, properties and relationships between non-identical objects. Based on the identified similarities, an appropriate conclusion is drawn. Analogy provides not reliable, but probable knowledge.

7. Modeling - a method of studying certain objects by reproducing their characteristics on another object - a model that is an analogue of one or another fragment of reality - the original model. Between the model and the object of interest to the researcher, there must be a known similarity (similarity) - in physical characteristics, structure, functions, etc.

According to the nature of the models, material (objective) and ideal modeling are distinguished. Material models are natural objects that obey the natural laws of physics, mechanics, etc. in their functioning

In ideal (sign) modeling, models appear in the form of graphs, drawings, formulas, systems of equations, natural and artificial (symbols) language sentences, etc. At present, mathematical (computer) modeling has become widespread.

8. Systems approach - a set of general scientific methodological principles, which are based on the consideration of objects as systems.

The specificity of the system approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the study on revealing the integrity of the developing object and the mechanisms that ensure it, on identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them into a single theoretical picture.

9. Structural-functional The (structural) method is built on the basis of identifying their structure in integral systems - a set of stable relationships and relationships between its elements and their roles (functions) relative to each other.

The structure is understood as something invariant (unchanging) under certain transformations, and the function as the "appointment" of each of the elements of the given system.

10. Probabilistic-statistical methods are based on taking into account the action of many random factors that are characterized by a stable frequency. This makes it possible to reveal the necessity (law), which "breaks through" through the combined action of a multitude of accidents.

Probability is a quantitative measure (degree) of the possibility of the occurrence of a certain phenomenon, event under certain conditions. The range of probability is from zero (impossibility) to one (reality).

In statistical laws, predictions are not reliable, but only probabilistic in nature, which is due to the action of many random factors, through the complex interweaving of which necessity is expressed.

Scientific knowledge has 2 levels: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level cognition is associated with the subject of scientific research, includes 2 components - sensory experience (sensation, perception, representation) and their primary theoretical understanding.

Empirical cognition is characterized by fact-fixing activity.

Theoretical level lies in further processing empirical material. Theoretical knowledge is essential knowledge carried out at the level of abstractions of high orders.

Positions of empiricism: on the 1st plane - the role of sensation, direct observations in cognition and the denial of the role of theoretical thinking. The position of rationalism: on the 1st plane - the activity of the mind, ascribes to it the role of the unity of the power of cognition and ignoring the significance of sensory cognition.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by direct study of really existing, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the actual data obtained in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. is also carried out. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge - as a result of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) level of knowledge. At this level, the scientist operates only with theoretical (ideal, iconic) objects. Also at this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects and phenomena are revealed. Theoretical level - a higher level in scientific knowledge

Considering theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones are: problem, hypothesis and theory.

A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is that which is not yet known by man, but which needs to be known. In other words, this is knowledge about ignorance, a question that has arisen in the course of cognition and requires an answer. solutions.

Scientific problems should be distinguished from non-scientific (pseudo-problems), for example, the problem of creating a perpetual motion machine. The solution of any specific problem is an essential moment in the development of knowledge, during which new problems arise, and new problems are put forward, certain conceptual ideas, including hypotheses.

Hypothesis - a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and needs to be proven. Hypothetical knowledge is probable, not reliable, and requires verification, justification. In the course of proving the hypotheses put forward, some of them become a true theory, others are modified, refined and concretized, turn into errors if the test gives a negative result.

The decisive test of the validity of the hypothesis is practice (the logical criterion of truth plays an auxiliary role in this). A tested and proven hypothesis passes into the category of reliable truths, becomes a scientific theory.

Theory - the most developed form of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic display of the regular and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality. Examples of this form of knowledge are Newton's classical mechanics, Darwin's evolutionary theory, Einstein's theory of relativity, the theory of self-organizing integral systems (synergetics), etc.

In practice, scientific knowledge is successfully implemented only when people are convinced of its truth. Without turning an idea into a personal conviction, a person's faith, successful practical implementation of theoretical ideas is impossible.

The general methods of cognition of reality include: induction, deduction, analogy, comparison, generalization, abstraction, etc.

The specific methods of theoretical knowledge in science include: idealization, interpretation, thought experiment, computer computational experiment, axiomatic method and genetic method of constructing a theory, etc.

In scientific knowledge, abstractions of identification and isolating abstractions are widely used, for example. The abstraction of identification is a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects (at the same time, they are abstracted from a number of individual properties, features of these objects) and combining them into a special group. An example is the grouping of the entire multitude of plants and animals living on our planet into special species, genera, orders, etc. Isolating abstraction is obtained by separating certain properties, relationships that are inextricably linked with objects of the material world, into independent entities (“stability ”, “solubility”, “electrical conductivity”, etc.).

The formation of scientific abstractions, general theoretical provisions is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but is only a means of a deeper, more versatile knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, further movement (ascent) of knowledge from the achieved abstract back to the concrete is necessary. The knowledge about the concrete obtained at this stage of the study will be qualitatively different in comparison with that which was available at the stage of sensory cognition. In other words, the concrete at the beginning of the process of cognition (sensory-concrete, which is its starting point) and the concrete, comprehended at the end of the cognitive process (it is called logical-concrete, emphasizing the role of abstract thinking in its comprehension), are fundamentally different from each other.

Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

Cognition - this is a specific type of human activity aimed at comprehending the world around and oneself in this world. “Cognition is, primarily due to socio-historical practice, the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion, and improvement

A person comprehends the world around him, masters it in various ways, among which two main ones can be distinguished. The first (genetically initial) - material and technical - the production of means of subsistence, labor, practice. The second is spiritual (ideal), within which the cognitive relations of subject and object are only one of many others. In turn, the process of cognition and the knowledge obtained in it in the course of the historical development of practice and cognition itself is increasingly differentiated and embodied in its various forms. Every form of social consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. correspond to specific forms of knowledge. Usually, the following ones are distinguished: everyday, playful, mythological, artistic-figurative, philosophical, religious, personal, scientific. Although the latter are related, they are not identical to each other, each of them has its own specifics. We will not dwell on the consideration of each of the forms of cognition. The subject of our research is scientific knowledge. In this regard, it is advisable to consider the features of only the latter.

Analysis - mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis - combining the elements learned as a result of the analysis into a single whole.

Generalization - the process of mental transition from the singular to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment "this metal conducts electricity" to the judgment "all metals conduct electricity", from the judgment: "the mechanical form of energy turns into heat" to to the proposition “every form of energy is converted into thermal energy”.

abstraction (idealization) - the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties, features of objects that are not essential for this study may be excluded from consideration. An example of such an idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point that has mass but no dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction - the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves the conclusion about all the objects of the set based on the knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction based on experimental research and including theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict formulation of the experiment, logical sequence and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction - the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general propositions are an established scientific truth, then the true conclusion will always be obtained by deduction. Especially great importance the deductive method has in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general provisions. These general provisions apply to solving particular, specific problems.

In the history of natural science, there have been attempts to absolutize the significance of the inductive method in science (F. Bacon) or deductive method(R. Descartes), give them a universal meaning. However, these methods cannot be used as separate, isolated from each other. each of them is used at a certain stage of the cognition process.

Analogy - a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in any feature, based on their established similarity in other features. The analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. So, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling - reproduction of the properties of the object of knowledge on its specially arranged analogue - the model. Models can be real (material), for example, aircraft models, models of buildings. photographs, prostheses, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) ones created by means of a language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually, this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system under study.

Classification - distribution of certain objects by classes (departments, categories) depending on their common features, fixing regular connections between classes of objects in a single system of a particular branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the studied objects, phenomena.

One of the first classifications in natural science was the classification of flora and fauna by the prominent Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). For representatives of wildlife, he established a certain gradation: class, detachment, genus, species, variation.

Actually theoretical methods of scientific knowledge

General logical methods

"Scientific Hypothesis"

always comes out

beyond the facts

which served as the basis

to build it"

V.I.Vernadsky

The actual theoretical methods of scientific knowledge include axiomatic, hypothetical and formalization. There are also methods that are used both at the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge, these are: general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), modeling, classification, abstraction, generalization, historical method.

1. Actually theoretical methods of scientific knowledge

Axiomatic Method - a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without evidence and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method is hypothetical-deductive a method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:

1) putting forward a guess (assumption) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects;

2) selection from a set of guesses of the most probable, plausible;

3) derivation from the selected assumption (premises) of the investigation (conclusion) using deduction;

4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

Formalization - displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of some artificial language (logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. Using an artificial formalized language in scientific research allows you to eliminate such shortcomings of natural language as polysemy, inaccuracy, uncertainty. When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of research, they operate with signs (formulas). Through operations with artificial language formulas, one can obtain new formulas, prove the truth of any proposition. Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

General logical methods

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction and analogy.

Analysis - this is a dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its constituent parts. Varieties of analysis are classification and periodization. The method of analysis is used both in real and mental activity.

Synthesis - this is a combination of individual aspects, parts of the object of study into a single whole. The result of synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are the result of their internal interconnection and interdependence.

Induction - the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves a conclusion about all the objects of the set based on knowledge of only a part of the object. Incomplete induction based on experimental research and including theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic. With a strict formulation of the experiment, logical sequence and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion.

Deduction - the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general (knowledge from the general to the particular). It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general propositions are an established scientific truth, then the true conclusion will always be obtained by the method of deduction. The deductive method is especially important in mathematical analysis. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and build their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving particular, specific problems.

In the history of science there have been attempts to absolutize the significance of the inductive method (F. Bacon) or the deductive method (R. Descartes) in science, to give them a universal meaning. But these methods cannot be used as separate, isolated from each other, each of them is used at a certain stage of the process of cognition.

Analogy - a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in any feature, based on their established similarity in other features. An analogy with a simple phenomenon allows us to understand a more complex one. Analogy forms the basis of modeling.

Methods of theoretical and empirical levels of scientific knowledge

In addition to general logical methods, modeling, classification, abstraction, generalization, and the historical method are also used at the theoretical and empirical levels of scientific knowledge.

Modeling at the theoretical level of scientific knowledge is divided into: heuristic and sign. Mathematical modeling is the most important kind of sign modeling.

heuristic modeling is based on general ideas and considerations about real phenomena without the use of strictly fixed mathematical or other sign systems. Such an analysis is inherent in any research at its initial stage. Heuristic models are used in the study of complex systems for which it is difficult to build a mathematical model. In these cases, the researcher comes to the aid of intuition, accumulated experience, the ability to formulate certain steps of the algorithm for solving problems. In computational terms, complex algorithms are replaced by simplified ones without any evidence, based on subconscious decisions. Heuristic models are often referred to as event scenarios. They require a multi-stage approach: collection of missing information, repeated correction of the results.

At the core iconic modeling is the study of phenomena with the help of sign formations of various nature: diagrams, graphs, drawings, formulas, graphs, mathematical equations, logical relationships, written in symbols of natural or artificial languages. The most important form sign modeling is mathematical, which is usually understood as a system of equations describing the course of the process under study.

Mathematical model is a mathematical abstraction that characterizes a biological, physical, chemical, or some other process. Mathematical models with different physical nature are based on the identity of the mathematical description of the processes occurring in them and in the original.

Mathematical modeling– a method for studying complex processes based on a broad physical analogy, when the model and its original are described by identical equations. A characteristic feature and advantage of this method is the ability to apply it to individual sections. complex system, as well as to quantitatively investigate phenomena that are difficult to study on physical models.

Mathematical modeling assumes the presence of a complete picture of knowledge about the physical nature of the phenomenon under study. This picture is refined on the basis of specially designed experiments to a degree that makes it possible to capture the most important characteristic properties of the phenomena. Mathematical modeling is inextricably linked with the use of a special mathematical apparatus for solving problems. Exists analytical ways of solving to obtain the patterns under study in an explicit form, numerical– to obtain quantitative results when specifying specific values ​​of the initial data, quality– to find individual properties of the solution. Mathematical modeling can be conditionally divided into three stages:

1. algorithm

   program.

Classification - the distribution of certain objects by classes (departments, categories) depending on their common features, fixing regular connections between classes of objects in a single system of a particular branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the studied objects, phenomena.

Classification is the process of organizing information. In the process of studying new objects, in relation to each such object, a conclusion is made: does it belong to the already established classification groups. In some cases, this reveals the need to restructure the classification system. There is a special classification theory - taxonomy. It considers the principles of classification and systematization of complexly organized areas of reality, which usually have a hierarchical structure. One of the first classifications in biology was the classification of flora and fauna.

abstraction - mental abstraction from some properties and relations of the subject under study and the selection of properties and relations of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and relationships of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and relationships. There are two types of abstraction:

identification abstraction- the result of highlighting the common properties and relations of the objects under study, establishing the identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class;

isolating abstraction- the result of the selection of certain properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of study.

In theory, two more types of abstraction are distinguished: potential feasibility and actual infinity.

Generalization - the establishment of general properties and relations of objects and phenomena, the definition of a general concept, which reflects the essential, basic features of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the selection of insignificant, but any signs of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on philosophical categories general, special and singular.

historical method consists in revealing historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. The logical method is, in fact, the logical reproduction of the history of the object under study. Wherein history is freed from everything accidental, unimportant, i.e. it is the same historical method, but freed from its historical form.