Functions.

1. The cognitive function is to identify patterns of historical development. She promotes intellectual development students and consists in the very study of the historical path of countries and peoples, in an objective reflection, from the position of historicism, of all phenomena and processes that make up the history of mankind.

2. The educational function contributes to the formation of civic, moral qualities and values ​​based on historical examples.

3. The prognostic function is the ability to predict the future based on the analysis of historical events of the past and present.

4. The function of social memory is that. that historical knowledge acts as a way of identifying and orienting society and the individual.

The method is a way of studying historical processes through their manifestations - historical facts, a way of obtaining new knowledge from the facts. Specific methods include:

1) general scientific;

2) actually historical;

3) special - borrowed from other sciences.

Common methods for all the humanities are: - logical; - historical.

To study and study the history of Russia, the following methods are usually used:

1. CHRONOLOGICAL - consists in the presentation of phenomena in strictly chronological order. okay;

2. CHRONOLOGICAL-PROBLEM - consists in the study and study of history by periods (epochs), within periods - by problems;

3. PROBLEM-CHRONOLOGICAL - explores some one side of the life and activities of the state in its gradual development;

4. SYNCHRONIC - used less frequently; with its help, you can establish a connection between individual phenomena and processes occurring at the same time, but in different parts of the country or outside it.

History Methodology

Method - in Greek means " the right way”, that is, a method or plan to achieve a specific goal. In the narrow scientific sense, “method” is understood as a method and procedure for studying a subject in order to obtain a more complete and true result. History as a science uses both general scientific methods and specific scientific methods corresponding to the subject of study.

1. The comparative (comparative) method involves comparing historical objects in space and time and identifying similarities and differences between them.

2. The system method involves the construction of a generalized model that reflects the relationship of the real situation. Consideration of objects as systems focuses on the disclosure of the integrity of the object, on the identification of diverse types of connections in it and their reduction into a single theoretical picture.

3. The typological method involves classification historical phenomena, events on the basis of their common essential features.

4. The retrospective method involves a consistent penetration into the past in order to identify the causes of an event or phenomenon.

5. The ideographic method consists in a consistent description of historical events and phenomena based on objective facts.

6. The problem-chronological method involves the study of the sequence of historical events in time..

Methodology of history.

Methodology- the doctrine of research methods, lighting historical facts, scientific knowledge. The methodology of history is based on scientific principles and approaches to the study of historical facts. The fundamental principles of the study of historical facts include:

1. the principle of historicism, which involves the study of historical phenomena in development, in accordance with the specific historical situation;

2. the principle of objectivity, which provides for the researcher's reliance on objective facts, consideration of the phenomenon in all its versatility and inconsistency;

3. the principle of the social approach involves the consideration of phenomena and processes, taking into account the social interests of various segments of the population, taking into account the subjective moment in practical activities parties, governments, individuals;

4. The principle of alternativeness determines the degree of probability of an event, phenomenon, process based on an objective analysis of the real situation.

Compliance with these principles ensures scientific validity and reliability in the study of the past. In the modern methodology of history there is no unitary (single) platform, it is characterized by a variety of methodological approaches that have developed as a result of the progressive development and formation of the theoretical foundations of historical knowledge. The most significant and widespread are the following methodological approaches to the study of history: theological, subjectivism, geographical determinism, evolutionism, Marxism and civilizational approach.

Objective knowledge of the history of Russia is provided by scientific methodology.

Methodology of the history of Russia is a system of principles and methods of historical research, which is based on the theory of historical knowledge.

For a long time, subjectivist or objective-idealistic methodology dominated historical science. In the middle of the XIX century. K. Marx formulated concept of materialistic explanation of history based on four main principles:

1) the principle of the unity of mankind and, consequently, the unity of the historical process;

2) the principle of historical regularity. K. Marx proceeded from the recognition of action in the historical process of common, stable, recurring essential connections and relationships between people and the results of their activities;

3) the principle of determinism - the recognition of the existence of causal relationships and dependencies. Of all the variety of historical phenomena, K. Marx considered it necessary to single out the main, determining ones. Such a main, determining factor in the historical process, according to K. Marx, is the method of production of material goods;

4) the principle of progress. Historical progress is the progressive development of society, rising to higher and higher levels.

The materialistic explanation of history is based on formational approach. concept socio-economic formation in teaching

K. Marx occupies a key place in explaining the driving forces of the historical process and the periodization of history. K. Marx proceeds from the following premise: if humanity develops naturally, progressively as a whole, then it must go through certain stages in its development. He called these stages socio-economic formations. The basis of the socio-economic formation is one or another mode of production.

The materialistic concept of history, based on the formational approach, was dominant in Soviet historical science.

Methodologies formational approach in modern historical science, to some extent, the methodology civilizational approach. The civilizational approach began to take shape in the 18th century. However, it received its fullest development only at the end of the 19th and 20th centuries. In foreign historiography, the followers of this approach are

M. Weber, A. Toynbee, O. Spengler and a number of major modern historians, united around the historical journal "Annals" (F. Braudel,

J. Le Goff and others), in Russian historical science - N.Ya. Danilevsky, K.N. Leontiev, P.A. Sorokin.

For a civilizational approach to the historical process, the understanding of civilization as an integral social system that includes various elements (religion, cultural, economic, political and social organization and

etc.), which are consistent with each other and are closely interconnected. Each element of this system bears the imprint of the originality of this or that civilization. This uniqueness is very stable.

The civilizational approach has a number strengths:

1) its principles are applicable to the history of any country or group of countries. This approach is focused on the knowledge of the history of society, taking into account the specifics of countries and regions. This is the universality of this methodology;

2) history is a multilinear, multivariate process;

3) the civilizational approach does not reject, but on the contrary, assumes the integrity, unity of human history. Civilizations as integral systems are comparable with each other. This makes it possible to widely use the comparative-historical method of research;

4) the allocation of certain criteria for the development of civilization allows historians to assess the level of achievements of certain countries, peoples and regions, their contribution to the development of world civilization;

5) the civilizational approach assigns a proper role in the historical process to the human spiritual, moral and intellectual factors. In this approach, religion, culture, and mentality are important for the characterization and evaluation of civilization.

development in general, but also specific processes of formation, development and

transformation of various countries and peoples in all their diversity and

originality:

social science

philosophy

Sociology

2. Specific ways of studying historical processes are:

principles

methodology

3. The essence of the cognitive function of history is:

educating society in the traditions of respect for one's country

influence on the worldview attitudes of the individual

@objective reflection of historical events, creation of concepts of the historical process

4. Identification of patterns of socio-economic and political

development of Russia, summarizing the experience of transformative activities

states is:

@subject of national history

method of national history

principles of national history

function of national history

5. The principle of objectivity in historical science implies the study

historical reality:

from the point of view of the interests of a particular state

in accordance with the interests of one social stratum

@regardless of any attitudes and predilections

according to the current political situation

6. The most complete information about the historical past is given by:

archaeological sites

photographic documents

pictorial sources

@written sources

7. Historical discipline studying as the main source

the history of the coin is:

@numismatics

heraldry

paleography

local history

8. Auxiliary historical discipline studying origins

geographical names:

local history

epigraphy

sphragistics

@toponymy

9. An approach based on the analysis of the laws of class struggle and

change of ownership:

civilizational

@formational

informational

cultural

10. An approach to the study of history that most fully takes into account development

all aspects of public life: the economy, the political system,

spirituality, culture:

@civilizational

formational

informational

cultural

11. The historical concept developed by N. Danilevsky, A. Toynbee,

O. Spengler:

@civilizational

formational

theocratic

voluntaristic

12. The function of history, contributing to the development of an objective, scientific

grounded vision of the processes of national history:

educational

axeological

13. The function of history, giving an assessment of the historical processes carried out

in the countries of transformation, the activities of historical figures:

educational

epistemological

regulatory

@axeological

14. The function of history, allowing people who know the laws and

regularities in the development of historical processes, to foresee

possible options developments in the country and the world:

methodological

educational

@prognostic

Regulatory

15. The function of history, which allows you to influence the behavior and actions of people:

educational

cognitive

@regulatory

axeological

16. The principle of historical science, requiring consideration of the historical

process as it was in reality, and not as it would be

we wanted:

historicism

@objectivity

social approach

dialectical

17. Principle requiring when considering historical processes

take into account national, class, social and other interests:

objectivity

historicism

@social approach

Dialectics

18. Method considering historical processes in their completed,

mature form, when the result is already clear:

historical

@logical

retrospective

sociological

19. Method considering historical processes in their development,

interaction and mutual influence:

historical

chronological

@dialectical

retrospective

20. A method based on a progressive study of development

events from their occurrence to completion:

dialectical

@chronological

retrospective

problem

21. System of principles and methods of historical research:

@methodology

classification

outlook

socialization

22. The main, fundamental provisions of science that exist not in

nature, but in the minds of people on the basis of the study of laws and

patterns of development of nature and society:

@principles

paradigms

23. Match the names and works of historians of the twentieth century:

1) M. Tikhomirnov

2) B. Rybakov

3) L. Gumilyov

A) "Ancient Moscow XVII-XV centuries."

B) "From Russia to Russia"

C) "Paganism of Ancient Russia"

24. Description of historical events and phenomena is a method:

@ideographic

typological

systemic

comparative

25. Match the name of the historical school and the period of its formation:

1) noble historiography

2) revolutionary historiography

3) public school

A) mid 19th century

B) second half of the 18th century

B) late 18th century

26. The method of historical research, establishing relationships and

interactions of objects in their historical development:

historical genetic

@historical-comparative

historical-systemic

historical-typological

27. The systematic method of studying history is:

description of historical events and phenomena

@ disclosure of internal mechanisms of functioning and development

comparison of historical objects in space and time

studying the sequence of historical events in time

28. The function of forming civil, moral values ​​and qualities is the function of:

predictive

@educational

cognitive

social memory

29. The way of identification and orientation of society, personality is a function:

predictive

cognitive

30. What method allows you to solve the problem of identifying interconnectedness and

interdependence of the individual, special, general and universal:

genetic

statistical

@comparative

historical-typological

31. Comparison of historical objects in space and time is __________

method:

comparative

typological

@retrospective

ideographic

32. Method of historical research, consistently revealing

properties, functions and changes of the studied reality in the course of its

historical movement:

@historical-genetic

statistical

ideographic

typological

33. Identification of patterns of historical development is a function of:

social memory

practical-political

informative

@predictive

34. Compare historians and their works:

1) N. Karamzin

2) V. Klyuchevsky

3) M. Pokrovsky

A) “Historical Science and the Struggle of Classes

B) "History of the Russian State"

C) "Course of Russian history

35. An approach in which the course of history is determined by outstanding

people, got the name:

evolutionism

synthetic

@subjectivism

determinism

36. An approach that regards the mind as the only source of knowledge and

historical development:

@rationalism

Marxism

subjectivism

evolutionism

37. The concept that characterizes the totality of peoples having a common

mentality, similar spiritual values ​​and ideals, common features of the spiritual

cultures:

socio-economic formation

@civilization

hoax

internationalization

38. The Great Migration of Nations was:

mass migration primitive people during the ice age

@ resettlement of Turkic, Iranian, Finno-Ugrian, Germanic tribes to the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire

the arrival of the Normans and other Scandinavian tribes in the Slavic lands

resettlement of Slavic tribes from the Carpathian region to the Balkan

peninsula, in the region of the middle reaches of the Dnieper and on the coast of the Baltic Sea

39. The primary Eastern civilizations were geographically located:

in the highlands

on the coasts

@in the river valleys

in the steppe zones

40. The characteristic features of Eastern civilization are (indicate the wrong answer):

extensive production method

huge role of the state

Buddhism and Islam as the basis of the worldview

@individualism as the basis of human relationships

41. Not a characteristic feature of the primary Eastern civilizations:

static society

dominance of collectivism over individualism

human focus on the spiritual

@weak centralization of power

42. The most important features of Western civilization are (indicate incorrect answer):

intensive way of production

@ collectivism as the basis of people's lives

the state serves the people

encouragement by the Christian religion of entrepreneurial activity

43. Not a characteristic feature of the primary Western civilizations:

eurocentrism

democratic form of government

society dynamism

@weak development of private property

44. The period of existence of Kievan Rus (centuries):

45. The essence of the Norman theory of emergence Old Russian state:

@ the creation of a state by the Varangians who came from Scandinavia, led by

unification of Slavic tribes into a single state under the influence

Byzantium

the creation of a state as a result of the struggle against the steppe nomads

tribes

unification of Slavic tribes with steppe nomadic tribes

46. ​​Indicate what event in the history of Russia is associated with the beginning of the dynasty

Rurikovich:

@ with the calling of the Varangians

with the baptism of Russia

with a trip to Kiev Oleg

with the foundation of Moscow

47. According to the form of government, the Old Russian state was:

democratic republic

despotic tyranny

@early feudal monarchy

absolute monarchy

48. Islam in the Volga Bulgaria was adopted in:

49. The Khazar Kaganate was defeated by Prince Svyatoslav in (century):

50. Christianity in Kievan Rus was adopted in (year):

51. Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav is:

@princes of Kievan Rus

founders of the Moscow kingdom

founders of the Russian Orthodox Church

founders of the Romanov dynasty

52. The ruler of the Old Russian state, the first to accept

Christianity:

Vladimir

Svyatoslav

53. The consequences of the adoption of Christianity in Russia (Indicate the wrong answer):

brought Kievan Rus closer to the emerging Christian Western

civilization

Christian values ​​became the basis of morality and culture

destroyed the pagan worldview of the Eastern Slavs

@ led Kievan Rus to a certain dependence on the Vatican

54. The social structure of the Old Russian state included (specify

wrong answer):

vigilantes

free community members

55. Information about the legal norms of the Old Russian state contains

the following document:

"Table of Ranks"

« Cathedral code»

@Russkaya Pravda

"General regulation"

56. The reasons for feudal fragmentation are: (specify the wrong

answer):

strengthening of boyar and princely estates

distribution of state lands in specific possession to the sons of Kiev

@ invasion of the Mongol troops of Genghis Khan

57. Vladimir the Holy, Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh is:

organizers of the struggle against the Golden Horde

@Kiev princes, members of the Rurik dynasty

Rurik brothers

the first Moscow tsars

58. A. Rublev, Nestor, Daniil Zatochnik is:

princes of Kievan Rus

members of the Rurik dynasty

59. During the period of Kievan Rus began to take shape:

@personification of power

constitutional state

democracy

60. The Drevlyans killed the Kiev prince for the repeated collection of tribute:

Svyatoslav

Yaroslav

70. Kiev prince, who streamlined the collection of tribute, its size and place of collection:

Vladimir

Mstislav

Svyatopolk

71. The prince who killed Askold and Dir and united Novgorod and

Kiev land:

Svyatoslav

72. The dualistic nature of the power of Kievan Rus meant that it

owned at the same time:

prince and metropolitan

veche and posadnik

@prince and veche

posadnik and governor

73. The reasons for the weakening of the power of the Kiev princes are (specify

wrong answer):

strengthening the power of the feudal lords on the ground

creation of administrative centers in specific principalities

subsistence dominance

@ the growing role of the church in society

74. Choose the correct answers (2). Causes of feudal fragmentation

are as follows:

@Tribal Striving for Independence

@princes fight for the best principalities and territories

agreement between princes on separate ownership

the decline of the Kiev land from the raids of nomads

75. Choose the correct answers (2). The positive effects of feudalism

fragmentation are as follows:

strengthening of defense capability

@growth of cities, crafts, trade in principalities

stopping nomad raids

@cultural and economic development of new territories

76. Capitulation of Novgorod, cancellation of the veche, replacement of posadniks and thousands

Moscow governors happened when:

Ivan Kalita

Basil I

77. The development of Russian civilization in the 1240-1480s determined (lo):

strengthening the influence of the Vatican on Russia

separation of church and state

@ struggle for liberation from the Golden Horde dependence

struggle for access to the Baltic Sea

78. Land ownership on the rights of hereditary property in the 11th-16th centuries - it:

estate

79. Battle on the Kalka River, where the Russian princes first met with the Mongol-

Tatars, occurred in (year):

80. Victories of Russian troops under the leadership of Alexander Nevsky

provided:

@ political and spiritual independence from Western countries

the rise of the Catholic Church

strengthening friendship and mutual assistance with the Teutonic Order

independence from the Golden Horde

81. The Battle of Kulikovo took place in (year):

82. Moscow in specific reign received:

Ivan Kalita

Dmitry Donskoy

@Daniil Aleksandrovich

Daniel the Sharpener

83. Years: 1497, 1581, 1597, 1649 - reflect the main stages:

Russia's struggle for access to the sea

formation of the Russian centralized state

struggle of Russia with the Golden Horde for independence

@enslavement of peasants

84. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the veche played the leading role

role in political life:

@Pskov and Novgorod

Vladimir and Kiev

Chernihiv and Polotsk

Moscow and Vladimir

85. The policy of the Golden Horde in relation to the Russian principalities,

characterized by the following features (indicate the wrong answer):

tribute collection

preservation of the statehood of the Russian principalities

control over the activities of Russian princes

@persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church

86. Moscow prince, who received the Golden Label and the right to collect tribute from all

Russian lands in favor of the Golden Horde:

Alexander Nevskiy

@Ivan Kalita

Dmitry Donskoy

87. The reason for the rise of the Moscow principality did not (became):

relative remoteness from the borders with the Golden Horde and aggressive

Western states

@support of the Tver Principality

far-sighted and pragmatic policy of the Moscow princes

location at the crossroads of trade routes

88. Legislative act, which testified to the final

the establishment of serfdom in Russia:

Sudebnik of Ivan III

Russian Truth by Yaroslav the Wise

@ Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich

Table of Ranks of Peter I

89. Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky is:

@elected kings of the Time of Troubles

organizers of the centralized Moscow State

organizers of the church schism

kings of the Rurik dynasty

90. Mikhail Fedorovich, Alexei Mikhailovich is:

the first kings of the Rurik dynasty

@ the first tsars of the Romanov dynasty

figures of Russian culture

compilers of "Russian Truth"

91. The first to take the title "prince of all Russia":

Vasily III

Ivan Kalita

92. "Reserved years" are:

@prohibition of the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another

prohibition of internecine wars and local disputes

search term for fugitive peasants

years that forbade the cutting of old forests

93. By the end of the 17th century, the following type was established in Russia

statehood:

estate monarchy

early feudal monarchy

@autocracy

Republic

94. Zemsky Sobor is:

@ body of estate representation in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries

congress of the clergy in the era of Muscovite Russia

local governments in the XVII-XVIII centuries

collection of statutes by Boris Godunov

95. The completion of the centralization of the Moscow state refers to (century):

mid-ninth century

12th–13th centuries

@late 15th - early 16th century

early 17th century

96. The main goal of the oprichnina terror of Ivan the Terrible was to

the following:

weaken the service nobility

strengthen the clergy

strengthen the trade and craft class

@ limit the influence of the boyar class

97. During the reign of Ivan IV, the khanate had not yet become part of Russia:

Kazan Khanate

Astrakhan Khanate

Siberian Khanate

@Crimean Khanate

98. "Council Code" of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, adopted in 1649:

recorded the liberation from the Horde dependence

approved the entry of Novgorod and Pskov into the Moscow

states

@completed the enslavement of peasants

consolidated the constitutional order in the country

99. The "rebellious age" in the history of Russia was called:

100. Indicate the year with which the beginning of the Romanov dynasty is associated:

101. The result of the Time of Troubles was:

@election of a new royal Romanov dynasty

loss of the Volga region

oprichnina

conquest of the Crimean Khanate

102. F. Grek, A. Fiorovanti, P. Yakovlev and I. Barma are:

compilers of the first Russian alphabet

@workers of Russian culture of the XV-XVI centuries

103. The reign of the first Romanovs does not include:

adoption of the "Council Code"

salt riot

@annexation of the Novgorod Republic

annexation of Left-bank Ukraine

104. The monks resisted the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon:

@Solovki Monastery

Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery

Ferapontov monastery

Trinity-Sergius Lavra

105. During the reign of Ivan III, the following took place:

the creation of the archery army

the end of the formalization of serfdom

@the overthrow of the Horde yoke

introduction of oprichnina

106. Patriarch Nikon and his supporters during the church reform

relied on:

Polish samples

German samples

@greek samples

latin patterns

107. What year does the liberation of Moscow from Polish invaders refer to:

108. In what year was the first all-Russian Code of Law adopted:

109. In what year did the invasion of the Mongol troops in the North-

Eastern Russia:

110. In the reign of V. Shuisky, the first agreement between the tsar and his subjects was adopted:

@"cross-kissing record"

"Table of Ranks"

"Russian Truth"

"conditions"

111. Absolute monarchy is characterized by the following features (specify

wrong answer):

formation of a powerful bureaucracy

creation of a regular army

subordination of the church to the state

@ functioning of class-representative authorities

112. Synod is:

building of the Orthodox Patriarchy

state body for legislation and administration

@government body of the Orthodox Church

supreme judicial body Russian Empire

113. The abolition of the patriarchate by Peter I and the creation of a state body

church management - the Holy Synod, had the goal of:

grant the church significant independence from the state

provide the church with additional benefits and privileges

eliminate dependence on the Patriarch of Constantinople

@eliminate a certain autonomy of the church and integrate

it into the public administration system

114. The principle of manning the regular army, which was introduced by Peter I:

universal service

@recruitment duty

militia

contract

115. Poll tax is:

@ tax from all men of taxable estates

tax from the entire population of the Russian Empire

taxes from merchants for trading places

customs duties from foreign merchants

116. Ideological current based on the conviction of the decisive role of the mind and

science in the progress of mankind, criticizing religious fanaticism and

absolutist political regimes were called:

@Education

Reformation

Enlightened absolutism

rebirth

117. Years of reign of Peter I:

118. A. Menshikov, F. Apraksin, F. Lefort are known in history as:

@chicks of Petrov's nest

members palace coup 1762

participants of the last Zemsky Sobor

organizers of the conspiracy against Peter 1

119. Economic policy state aimed at protecting

national economy u1101 from foreign competition through

financial incentives for domestic industry is called:

@protectionism

socialism

isolationism

liberalism

120. Modernization is:

@ renewal in all areas of society

transition from manufactory to factories

changes in the structure of industrial production, the development of severe

industry as a priority

reorientation of industrial production to military needs

121. Petersburg became the capital of Russia in (year):

122. Merging ideas about statehood, fatherland and personality

autocrat into a single whole occurred when:

Nicholas I

Alexandra III

123. Russia was proclaimed an empire in (year):

124. As a result of the victory in the Northern War, Russia (indicate the wrong answer):

got a reliable access to the Baltic Sea

@ became the guarantor of the existence of the Ottoman Empire

significantly expanded economic ties with European countries

125. The peasant war during the reign of Catherine II was led by:

I. Bolotnikov

@E.Pugachev

T. Kosciuszko

126. The passport system in Russia was introduced by:

Elizaveta Petrovna

Catherine II

127. Name the Russian emperor, whose activity gave a powerful

impetus to the development of industry, the creation of a combat-ready army and

fleet, laying the foundations of secular culture and education:

Catherine II

Alexander I

Nicholas I

128. Carry out liberal reforms aimed at shaping the

Russia of the "new nature of people" as a social base for the European

type of development, intended:

Catherine I

Anna Ivanovna

Elizaveta Petrovna

@Catherine II

129. Period of reign of Catherine II:

130. The work of the Legislative Commission and the peasant war under

leadership of E. Pugachev belong to the reign of:

Alexander I

Nicholas I

@Catherine II

131. The statutory commission in 1767 was convened for the purpose of:

@creating new legislation

adoption of a constitution that limits the power of the monarch

solution of the agricultural problem

increase in tax collections from the population

132. The state, which was divided at the end of the XVIII century between

Prussia, Austria and Russia:

@Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Bessarabia

133. V.V. Rastrelli, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov are:

@Russian architects of the 18th century

Russian writers

Russian theatrical figures of the 18th century

134. V.I.Bazhenov, F.I.Shubin, F.G.Volkov are:

Russian writers of the 19th century

Russian travelers of the 18th century

Russian theatrical figures of the 19th century

@workers of Russian culture of the XVIII century

135. Choose the correct answers (2). Terms related to the sphere

international trade:

muridism

@protectionism

favoritism

@mercantilism

136. The main condition for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna was:

exemption of nobles from compulsory military service

concentration in the hands of the empress command of the guards

appointment of an heir

@ joint rule of the Empress with the Supreme Privy Council

137. Choose the correct answers (2). Privileged Estates XVIII

centuries were:

138. Conditions are:

a document that defines the procedure for the service of officials

document confirming the privileges of the nobility

Decree of Peter I on the succession to the throne

@conditions for limiting royal power proposed by Anna Ioannovna

139. Choose the correct answers (2). The provisions of the "Charter

nobility":

@ confirmation of all privileges given after the death of Peter I

@ creation of noble societies in provinces and counties

the right to have their own armed detachments to protect the estates

repeal of the decree on single inheritance

140. The highest body of state power in Russia, created in the XVIII century:

Boyar Duma

Zemsky Sobor

State Council

141. Choose the correct answers (2). Measures of Paul I in relation to

nobility:

@ the introduction of a tax on nobles to maintain the local administration

restoration of the obligatory service of the nobility

@ the possibility of applying corporal punishment to the nobles

the abolition of the right of nobles to make requests and complaints to the autocrat

142. At the beginning of the 18th century, the position of a profitmaker appeared in Russia. What is summer

Means

a person who cares about increasing the income of landowners

a person who takes into account all receipts for the maintenance of the royal family

@ a person who is obliged to invent new taxes or duties

Bank employee

143. Political system Russia at the beginning of the 19th century is:

@autocratic absolutism

parliamentarism

totalitarianism

democracy

144. In the first years of the reign of Alexander I, the author of the project

government reforms were:

S.Yu.Witte

P.A. Stolypin

@M.M.Speransky

A.D. Menshikov

145. Period of reign of Alexander I (years):

146. The State Council, created in 1810 by Alexander I on the project

M.M. Speransky, possessed:

legislative functions

@deliberative functions

investigative functions

supervisory functions

147. The main idea of ​​the project of reforms of the political system of M.M. Speransky

@introduction of the principle of separation of powers

strengthening the power of the autocracy

establishment of a multi-layered system

establishment of a democratic republic

148. Project of separation of powers, introduction of representative bodies,

equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle

The state structure was developed:

@MM. Speransky

N.N. Novosiltsev

A.A. Arakcheev

YES. Guriev

149. Draft Russian constitution "Charter of the Russian Empire"

created under the direction of:

MM. Speransky

@N.N. Novosiltseva

A.A. Arakcheeva

D.A Gurieva

150. The ministerial system of central government introduced by Alexander I

based on the principle:

collegiality

@unity of command

electivity

self-nomination

151. The dates 1801, 1825, 1855, 1881 refer to:

the process of liberation of peasants from serfdom

@ the beginning of the reigns of Russian emperors

public administration reforms

stages of the industrial revolution

152. The dates 1649, 1803, 1861, 1881 refer to history:

@development of the peasant question

solutions to the Eastern question

development of social thought

literature, art

153. Dates 1812, 1853-1956 1877-1878 connected with:

@foreign policy events

stages of the liberation of the peasants

development of literature, art

working class speeches

154. The industrial revolution in Russia began in (years):

@30-40s 19th century

1920s

50s of the 19th century

60s of XIX century

155. The essence of the industrial revolution in Russia is the transition:

from slave labor to feudalism

from feudal labor to capitalist

@from manual labor to the machine

from mechanized to automated

156. The essence of the decree of Alexander I on "free cultivators":

the abolition of serfdom in the Baltics

emancipation of the serfs

increase in allotments of land to state peasants

@ liberation of serfs under an agreement with the landowner

157. Into Russia after the defeat of Napoleon in 1812-15. entered (entered):

Bessarabia

158. The main goal of the project of economic transformations of M.M. Speransky

@development of market relations

development foreign trade

strengthening the role of the state

liquidation of the landownership

159. The first codification of Russian legislation was carried out in

(decades of the century):

@ in the 20-30s of the XIX century Nicholas I

at the beginning of the 19th century by Alexander I

at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Paul I

in the 50s Alexander II

160. The key idea of ​​the constitutional project "Constitution" N.M. Muravyov:

@a constitutional monarchy

Republican system

parliamentary system

presidential system

161. The key idea of ​​the constitutional project "Russian Truth" by P.I.Pestel:

@republican state system

aristocratic republic

parliamentary system

absolute monarchy

162. The main goal of the Decembrists is:

strengthening of serfdom

strengthening autocratic power

restoration of monarchical regimes in Europe

@ the abolition of serfdom and the elimination of autocracy

163. The essence of the ideology of autocracy in the early 30s of the XIX century (after

defeat of the Decembrists under Nicholas I):

@theory of official nationality (the formula "autocracy, Orthodoxy,

nationality")

introduction of a constitutional monarchy

establishment of a parliamentary system

democratization of the country

164. The famous III department of His Imperial Majesty's own u1042

office was engaged in:

support of creative intelligentsia

@ surveillance of writers, reprisals against dissidents

fight against foreign agents

fight against industrial espionage

165. During the reign of Nicholas I, the darkest and most hopeless time of the nineteenth

v. Russian literature:

degrades

trying to hold his ground

@rising and growing

comes to a complete standstill

166. The essence of Slavophilism is:

@Historical identity of Russia

Russia is part of Western civilization

Russia is part of the eastern civilization

Russia does not have its own civilizational identity

167. The essence of the ideology of Westernism is:

@The future of Russia lies in the Europeanization of the country

Russia is a special civilization

Russia is a Eurasian civilization

Russia is an intermediate civilization that does not belong to either Western or Eastern civilizations.

168. An oath on the Sparrow Hills in Moscow to fight the autocracy for freedom,

for the liberation of the people gave:

M.A. Bakunin and P. Lavrov

Tkachev and S. Perovskaya

@A.I. Herzen and N.I. Ogarev

N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov

169. The creation of a separate corps of gendarmes and the participation of Russian troops in

suppression of revolutions in Europe in 1848 belong to the period

board:

@ Nicholas I

Nicholas II

Catherine II

Alexander I

170. N.M. Karamzin, V.A. Zhukovsky, K.P. Bryullov are:

Russian architects of the 18th century

@workers of Russian culture of the 19th century

Russian travelers of the 18th century

founders of Moscow University

171. V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky are:

Russian architects of the 18th century

Russian artists of the 19th century

Russian theatrical figures of the XVIII-XIX centuries

@ Russian democratic writers of the 19th century

172. The need to abolish serfdom, introduce a free press,

reforms of the court on the basis of publicity and competitiveness were discussed

at group meetings:

bakunin

Tkachevtsy

@petrashevites

Plekhanovites

173. During the reign of Nicholas I, the activities of the state were

aimed to:

@ Strengthening of autocracy and suppression of love of freedom

dosed expansion of democratic rights and freedoms

individual democratic transformations u1087

widespread ideas of revolutionary transformations

174. Government event 1837-1841:

@P.D.Kiselyov's reforms

the abolition of serfdom in the Baltic provinces

reform of the state apparatus

reform of the monetary system

175. In 1842, a decree was issued on (about):

liberation of peasants in Estonia, Livonia, Courland

"free ploughmen"

@"obliged peasants"

liberation of privately owned peasants

176. In the Crimean War of 1853-56. opposed Russia

Austria-Hungary and Prussia

@England, France, Turkey

Italy and Spain

Persia and Egypt

177. The reasons for the defeat of the Russian Army in the Crimean War were

(indicate the wrong answer):

the feudal serf system could not provide the army with everything

necessary

the sailing fleet and smoothbore guns were inferior to the steam fleet and

rifled weapons

the lack of railways made it difficult to deliver weapons for the army

@ Russian soldiers and sailors did not want to defend the autocratic-

feudal system

178. Peasant reform in Russia in 1861:

@ abolished serfdom and gave the peasants personal freedom and

general civil rights

slowed down the development of capitalism in the country

strengthened the economic position of the landowners

granted new privileges to the nobles

179. The essence of the Zemstvo and city reforms of 1864-71. it:

introduction of a new administrative division

creation of a management system for primary educational institutions

creation of structures of state control over local bodies

@introduction of local government system

180. The functions that were vested in local governments,

emerged in 1864:

@household

political

controlling

fiscal

181. General conscription in the Russian Empire was introduced in (year):

182. The principle of manning the army, which was introduced by Alexander II:

@universal conscription

recruitment duty

contract

militia

183. Period of reign of Alexander II:

184. The function performed by the jurors during the trial

proceedings:

charged

defended the accused

@delivered a verdict on the guilt or innocence of the accused

controlled the trial

185. Period of reign of Alexander III

186. Conditions under which serfs were released as a result of

reforms of 1861:

without land

by agreement with the landlord

@ with land for ransom

with land free of charge

187. Agriculture after the agrarian reform in Russia in 1861

evolved along the way:

@in Prussian

in American

in Spanish

in Japanese

188. The essence of the ideology of the populists (70s of the XIX century - M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov, P.N. Tkachev):

@transition to socialism based on the peasant community through the revolution

transition to capitalism

transition to a constitutional order

transition to parliamentary democracy

189. Supporters of the ideology of the peasant revolution in Russia:

@populists

conservatives

Westerners

Slavophiles

190. People's Volunteers in Russia (the end of the 19th century - A.D. Mikhailov, N.A. Morozov, A.I. Zhelyabov, S.L. Perovskaya) called for:

@ to overthrow the autocracy through terror

to the establishment of a democratic system

to strengthen autocracy

to the establishment of a totalitarian system

191. Counter-reforms of the 1880-90s and the annexation of Central Asia to Russia

related to kingship

@Alexander III

Nicholas I

Catherine II

192. D.I.Mendeleev, A.M.Butlerov, I.P.Pavlov is:

Russian writers-democrats of the 19th century

Russian travelers of the 19th century

@great Russian scientists

public and political figures

193. Famous phrase: It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait

its cancellation from below in a variety of forms belongs to:

Alexander I

Nicholas I

@Alexander II

Alexander III

194. When serfdom was abolished, the problem of the community was important, the fate of

which did NOT include one of the following sentences:

release the peasants with land for ransom, destroy the community

the community will die out in the future, but now it cannot be destroyed: it saves

the poor from hunger, and the country from the revolution

@when serfdom is abolished, a peasant war will flare up inside

land allotments

give freedom to the community and out of it socialism is born

195. Reforms of 1861-70s express the position of Alexander II as:

Slavophile

@westerner

soil worker

neutral person

196. Counter-reforms 1880-1890 characterize Alexander III as:

Slavophile

westerner

@soiler

neutral person

197. University Charter 1884:

introduced the election of rectors, deans, professors and expanded autonomous

university law

@liquidated the election of rectors, deans, professors and narrowed

autonomous rights of universities

eliminated the election of rectors, but expanded the rights of universities

introduced only minor changes in the rights of universities

198. Higher education for women under Alexander III:

flourished

the former

a few have been cut

@actually eliminated

199. The right to study and education under Alexander III was made dependent

ability to teach and learn

sufficient qualifications of teachers and preparedness

students

their belief in the benefits of the Western European way of life

@"integrity" and acceptance of the existing regime

200. Decree of 1887 on the "Kukharkin's children":

gave advantages in admission to all educational institutions

gave the advantage of enrolling only in higher educational institutions

gave advantages in admission only to the gymnasium

@ forbade the children of coachmen, laundresses, small children to be admitted to the gymnasium

shopkeepers and the like

201. Three legislative acts: "Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo

institutions" (1890), "Regulations on zemstvo district chiefs"

(1889), and "City Regulations" (1892), significantly:

strengthened local self-government

@limited local self-government by strengthening the role of the nobility

left local government virtually unchanged

abolished local government

202. The founder of Russian and European anarchism was:

P.N. Tkachev

@M.A.Bakunin

G.V. Plekhanov

P.A. Lavrov

203. Choose the correct answers (2). On the preservation of vestiges

serfdom in the Russian village in 1861-1881. testified

phenomena:

@workout system

@temporarily obliged position of peasants

peasant entrepreneurship

the right of peasants to buy land

204. The concept of "Russian socialism" has become theoretical basis movements:

Marxists

@revolutionary populists

Slavophiles

Westerners

205. Choose the correct answers (2). The components of the reform of 1861 were:

providing money for the development of serf entrepreneurship

@ personal freedom from the power of the landowner

@right to redeem allotment lands

transfer of land to private ownership

206. Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries in its political structure was:

constitutional monarchy

@absolute monarchy

unitary republic

federal republic

207. The process of Western Europe entering the stage of transition from free

competition of capital owners to create monopolies is called:

federalism

colonialism

@imperialism

Socialism

208. Change of preferential export of goods to export of capital,

the formation of financial capital, extremely uneven,

spasmodic development of countries is typical for:

pre-monopoly capitalism

@ monopoly capitalism

socialism

post-industrial society

209. In the Russian Empire, the gold backing of the ruble was introduced in (year):

@ the destruction of the centuries-old faith of the people in the "good king"

weakening the influence on the masses of the radical

political parties

strengthening the monarchy

depoliticization of Russian society

211. For the Russian economy at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. was not typical

concentration of production

formation of monopolies

the attachment foreign investment to industry

@advance agriculture(according to the pace of development) industry

212. Indicate the years of the reign of Nicholas II:

213. The variant of industrialization in terms of its sources

financing, which was chosen by the Russian government at the end

19th century:

reliance on internal forces and means

@ attracting foreign capital and developing foreign trade with

purchase of equipment and technologies for these funds

exploitation of colonies and dependent territories

reparations and indemnities received from defeated countries

adopt the Russian constitution

transfer state, specific and monastic lands and segments

peasants

@ convene a legislative State Duma

reorganize the zemstvos and convene the State Council

215. S.Yu. Witte provided:

introduction of the silver standard of the Russian ruble

@ the introduction of a state monopoly on the production of alcohol

creation of the Noble Bank

conducting agrarian reform aimed at destroying

Russia was:

Nicholas II

P. Stolypin

A. Bulygin

217. Political party of the early 20th century that expressed the interests

big bourgeoisie:

Cadets (Constitutional Democrats)

Socialist-Revolutionaries (Socialist Revolutionaries)

"Union of the Russian people"

218. Name the Russian political party whose program goal is

was a constitutional monarchy

Bolsheviks

Mensheviks

219. The liberal movement in Russia in the revolution of 1905-1907. represented

the consignment:

social democrats

monarchists

220. Revolutionary movement in Russia in 1905-1907. party represented:

Octobrists

monarchists

221. The Black Hundred Monarchist Party, which arose during the revolution of 1905-

1907:

@ Union of the Russian People

222. Moderate liberal party that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907:

"Union of the Russian people"

Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets)

Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)

223. Russia as a result of the revolution of 1905-1907. in its political

device:

@took a step towards a constitutional monarchy

remained an absolute monarchy

became an enlightened monarchy

turned into a great power monarchy

224. Stolypin's agrarian reform assumed:

distribution among the peasants of landed estates, closing

Noble Bank

@ permission for peasants to leave the community, the creation of farms,

resettlement beyond the Urals

nationalization of all land

municipalization of land

225. Integral part agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin was not:

creation of farms and cuts

revitalization of the Peasants' Bank

creating conditions for the resettlement of peasants beyond the Urals

@ creating conditions for strengthening the peasant community

226. The program of democratization of Russia put forward by the First State

The Duma did not provide for:

introduction of ministerial responsibility to the Duma

guarantee of civil liberties and agrarian reform

introduction of universal free education

@replacement of the monarchy by a democratic republic

227. In the State Duma, the program for the complete destruction of private

land ownership and declaration of natural resources

put forward as a national treasure:

monarchists

liberals

@trudoviki

Octobrists

@banned strikes and strikes

granted freedom of speech, assembly, press

allowed the creation of political parties

promised to create a State Duma with legislative rights

block (specify an extra option):

government (monarchists, Black Hundreds)

liberal (Kadets, Octobrists)

radical (SRs, social democrats, anarchists)

@neutral (parties are opponents of revolutionary actions)

230. V.M.Vasnetsov, V.G.Perov, V.A.Serov are:

Russian theatrical figures

Russian composers

@Russian artists

Russian scientists

231. The priority task of Russia's foreign policy in the Far East is

at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. It was:

return of Sakhalin Island, which is part of Japan

@turning all of China into a Russian protectorate

creation of a single anti-Japanese bloc of European states

fair demarcation of the border between Russia and China

because:

The 2nd State Duma was dissolved

methods were used that actually turned the dissolution of the Second Duma into

the government provoked the crisis by demanding expulsion from the Duma

55 delegates of the Social Democratic faction

@dissolution of the Duma, accompanied by a change in the electoral law without

Duma approval, which was a violation of the provisions of Manifesto 17

October 1905

233. One of the goals of the Stolypin agrarian reform was (o):

liquidation of landownership in the interests of the bourgeois

village elements

@destruction of the peasant community

expansion of landownership through the resettlement of peasants in

strengthening the peasant community by transferring to it part of the landlord

234. Which of the definitions of the concept of "latifundia" is correct:

horse farm

@ landowner's land holdings, with an area of ​​over 500 acres

farms of wealthy peasants

lands belonging to monasteries

235. Specify the correct correspondence of the political party of the early twentieth century. and her

leader:

1) RSDLP (b)

A) P.N. Milyukov

B) V.M. Chernov

C) V.I. Lenin

236. One of the main provisions of Marxism in Russia was the thesis:

@ the main driving force of the socialist revolution is the proletariat

the basis of Russian statehood is Orthodoxy, autocracy,

nationality

Russia will move to socialism, bypassing capitalism and feudalism

237. Indicate the correct correspondence of the political party of the early twentieth century. and

date of creation:

2) RSDLP (b)

B) 1901-1902

238. Indicate the correct correspondence of the direction of public

political thought and political party of the early twentieth century:

1) Revolutionary-democratic

2) Liberal opposition

3) Conservative-protective

B) "Party of Socialists - Revolutionaries" (Socialist-Revolutionaries)

C) "Union of the Russian people"

239. Russia's allies in the Entente were:

@UK and France

Germany and Austria-Hungary

Bulgaria and Romania

Japan and Korea

240. Deterioration of the international situation on the eve of the First World War

was associated with:

@ the struggle of the great powers for influence in the world and the redistribution of colonies

the struggle of the peoples of the colonies and semi-colonies for the liberation

advent of weapons of mass destruction

the rise of the revolutionary movement

241. First world war Russia conducted military operations against:

Serbia and Bosnia

Finland and Poland

@Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey

242. In the First World War in 1914, Russian troops:

went to Constantinople

were knocked out German troops from Kiev

entered Berlin

@were defeated in East Prussia

243. In the IV State Duma against Russia's participation in the First World

the war were:

progressives

@bolsheviks

Mensheviks

244. Nicholas II abdicated:

245. After the abdication of Nicholas II from the throne:

negotiations began with Germany on a separate peace

dual power ended

Mikhail Alexandrovich took the throne

@ there was a dual power

246. The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was:

@murder in Serbia of the Austrian heir to the throne

creation of the military-political bloc "Entente"

creation of a "triple alliance"

Russian claim to the Bosphorus and Dardanelles

amphibious landings in the Balkans in support of Serbia

@Russia's announcement of general mobilization

Russia's refusal to pay Germany's debts

Russian offensive in Prussia

248. Russia in World War I was supported by:

Romania and Poland

Japan and China

@England and France

USA and Turkey

249. At the beginning of World War I, with a request to Russia to urgently begin

offensive action against Germany appealed to the government:

250. During World War I, by the death of its troops in East Prussia, Russia:

@saved allies from defeat

received comprehensive assistance and support from the United States

251. The results of the hostilities in 1914 showed that

Germany close to victory

Russia is in danger of complete defeat

@Entante managed to thwart the German war plans

Trinity collapsed

252. To achieve victory in 1915, Germany sought:

@ inflict a decisive defeat on the Russian army and withdraw Russia from the war

to unleash all the power of their blows on France and force her

capitulate

implement a blockade of England and cut it off from the colonies

conclude a military-political alliance with the United States

253. In 1916, Austria-Hungary was on the verge of defeat, and Romania

took the side of the Entente as a result of successful offensive

actions:

US entered the war

254. The course of hostilities in 1917-1918. changed drastically due to

(highlight the main):

The United States actively joined the war on the side of the Entente

@ The February and October revolutions were limited, and then brought out

Russia from the war

France and England established a clear strategic and tactical

cooperation in military operations

many countries of the world joined the fighting on the side of the Entente

255. Russia's participation in the First World War had a strong impact on its

internal situation:

industry began to develop at an accelerated pace, especially

defense

the need for food has expanded the area under crops and livestock

@ devastation, famine began in the country, which activated the revolutionary

speeches

there was a consolidation of all strata of Russian society

256. Under the slogan "Turn the imperialist, predatory war into

civil war" were:

Octobrists

@bolsheviks

257. Indicate the correct correspondence between the convocation of the State Duma and its

fate:

3) fourth

A) the day of dissolution went down in history as the third of June state

coup

B) disbanded during the February Revolution of 1917

C) disbanded at the stage of recession of the First Russian Revolution

258. About the growth of the national crisis in Russia during the I World

war testified (oh, a, and):

establishment of dual power

@government's inability to cope with the situation in the country

Bloody Sunday events

dissolution with the beginning of the war of the State Duma

259. About the termination of the IV State Duma in the oppositional center

evidenced by the creation in 1915:

tripartite alliance

Progressive block

@ bloc of the Entente

French attack on Germany

@Germany's declaration of war on Russia

German attack on Russia

Russian declaration of war on Austria-Hungary

261. Decision on the establishment of elected soldiers' committees and on equalization in

rights of soldiers and officers was adopted in March 1917:

headquarters of the Supreme Commander

@ Petrograd Soviet

Provisional Government

Democratic Conference

262. At the VI Congress (June-August 1917) the Bolsheviks returned to the slogan

"Armed uprising", because. (indicate the wrong answer):

@ dual power ended with the establishment of the autocracy of the Provisional

governments

there was a real danger of the restoration of the monarchy

the attack on the Bolsheviks began and the announcement of the arrest of Lenin

there is now no possibility of a peaceful takeover of power by the Soviets

263. An attempt to remove the provisional government and establish a military

the dictatorship was undertaken by the general:

@Kornilov

264. The slogan "Wage war to a victorious end" proclaimed (li):

constituent Assembly

@Provisional Government

Petrograd Soviet of Workers' Deputies

Tsarist government

265. The Provisional Government proclaimed in relation to the war the slogan:

a world without annexations and indemnities

@war to the bitter end

266. The Provisional Government decided to postpone until the Constituent Assembly:

the question of the world

question of rights and freedoms

@agrarian and national issues

question of political amnesty

267. The Provisional Government resolved the following issues:

@about rights, freedoms, the abolition of the national-confessional and class

inequality, abolition death penalty and political

amnesties

about the state structure

about war and peace

268. Social support of the Bolshevik Party:

bourgeoisie in alliance with the nobility

peasantry in alliance with the intelligentsia

intelligentsia in alliance with the clergy

@proletariat in alliance with the peasantry

269. P.N.Milyukov, A.F.Kerensky, A.I.Guchkov are:

@workers of the Provisional Government

tsarist ministers

members of the Council of People's Commissars

Black Hundred leaders

270. An alternative to the political development of Russia, which was

unlikely after the February Revolution:

@ the return of the autocratic system

establishment of a democratic system

establishment of a right-wing military dictatorship

establishment of a proletarian dictatorship

271. Bolshevization of the Soviets is:

Union of Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies

the day before October revolution

@ the process of strengthening the representation of the Bolshevik Party in the Soviets

after the defeat of the Kornilov rebellion

the process of strengthening the representation of the Bolshevik Party in the Soviets

on the eve of the Kornilov rebellion

transfer of most organizational and managerial functions from

Provisional Government to the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies

272. In order to prepare for the armed uprising of 1917, the Bolsheviks and their

allies created:

All-Russian Democratic Conference

Democratic Council (Pre-Parliament)

@Military Revolutionary Committee

Revolutionary War Council

273. The Peace Decree proposed:

no war, no peace, but disband the army

@universal peace without annexations and indemnities

war to the bitter end

turn the imperialist war into a civil war

@ confiscation and nationalization of landowners, specific, monastic and

other lands, the abolition of private ownership of land and the introduction

egalitarian land use

permission to leave the community, the creation of farms, the creation of land

fund from a part of state and landlord lands and registration of loans

Peasant Bank, resettlement beyond the Urals

solution of the land question by allotment to the head of all members

rural community and organization of volost self-government with the transfer

him the functions of conciliators

municipalization of land and the creation of land committees to allocate

1. The method of identifying and orienting society and the individual is a function ...

social memory

worldview

educational

cognitive

Solution:

One of the socially significant functions of historical science is the function of social memory. It consists in the transfer of socially significant information from generation to generation. In this case, historical knowledge acts as a way of identifying and orienting society and the individual.

2. The essence of the practically political function of historical knowledge consists in (in) ...

evidence-based policy making

influence on the worldview attitudes of the individual

vision of the future

description of historical events

Solution:

One of the functions of historical knowledge is practically a political function. Its essence lies in the fact that history, revealing the patterns of development of society, helps to develop a scientifically based course of external and inner life country, international relations to guide the activities of historical and political figures.

3. The formation of civil, moral values ​​and qualities refers to the ___________ function of history.

educational

cognitive

predictive

transformative

Solution:

An important socially significant function of history is educational. Study of national history contributes to the formation of civil, patriotic values ​​in society, the development of the moral feelings of peoples on historical examples. Historical knowledge helps them to realize themselves as part of a single humanity, to understand such categories as honor, duty to society, human happiness and goodness.

4. The function of history, which allows people who know the laws of historical development to foresee possible scenarios for the development of events in the country and the world, is called ...

predictive

socio-technological

educational

educational

Solution:

The prognostic function of historical knowledge is to foresee, predict the future, to substantiate the prospects for the development of certain modern processes based on an analysis of historical events of the past and present. The predictive function of history is based on its ability to identify patterns community development that determine the long-term trends in the development of history.

5. Identification of patterns of historical development refers to the _______ function of history.

cognitive

managerial

transformative

communicative

Solution:

The cognitive function of history consists, first of all, in the concrete study of the historical path of Russia and its peoples, in the theoretical generalization of the historical facts and events of the Russian state, in identifying the patterns of development of society.

6. The development of a scientific view of the world, society, the laws of its development refers to the _____________ function of history.

worldview

cognitive

managerial

communicative

Solution:

History gives documented accurate data about the events of the past. Their comprehension develops a view of the world, society, the laws of its development. A worldview can be scientific if it is based on objective reality, on specific historical facts. It is history, its factual side, that is the foundation on which the science of society is based.

7. One of the functions of historical knowledge is ...

predictive

statistical

applied

transformative

Solution:

One of the social significant functions history is prognostic, consisting in foresight, forecasting the future based on the analysis of historical events of the past and present. The prognostic function of historical science is also based on its ability to reveal the patterns of social development that determine the long-term trends in the movement of history.
Topic 2: Sources of historical research

1. The appearance of such written sources as decrees is associated with ...

activities of the Council of People's Commissars and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR

activities of the Ufa Directory

the beginning of Khrushchev's "thaw"

beginning of perestroika

Solution:

After the October Revolution in Russia, other Soviet republics and the USSR, certain legislative acts of the Congress of Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR were called decrees. The USSR Constitution of 1924 granted the right to issue decrees to the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. The USSR Constitution of 1936 no longer provided for the issuance of legislative acts called decrees.

2. Historical sources that tell about the past based on personal experience author are called...

memoirs

annals

chronographs

epics

Solution:

Memoirs are the author's memoirs about historical events in which he was a participant or eyewitness. Reflecting the past in its concreteness, the memoirs contain a lot of material for studying the psychology and life of society as a whole, as well as its individual areas. Thanks to memoirs, the historical background against which events unfolded, the atmosphere and color of a particular era can be recreated, the logic of people's behavior can be clarified. In some cases, memoirs are the only source from which one can learn about the events of the past or its individual aspects.

3. The emergence of the first audiovisual documents dates back to the _____ century.

Solution:

One of the types of historical sources are audiovisual documents (photo, film, video, audio documents). They reflect a significant period of modern and recent history. As you know, the first photographs appeared in the middle, and cinema - in the very late XIX century. The first phonograph was invented in 1877 by the American T. Edison. Thus, the emergence of audiovisual historical sources can be attributed to the 19th century.

4. A church essay about the life of spiritual or secular figures, canonized by the Church as saints, is called ...

chronicle

legend

confession

Solution:

Lives are church writings about outstanding people of Russia. Their heroes were only individuals whose activities were truly an epoch in the history of Russia, or those whose life feat became an example for many generations of Russian people. The church declared them saints.

5. A valuable source on the history of the struggle of the Russian people against the Mongol-Tatars is ...

"Zadonshchina"

"The Tale of Bygone Years"

"Journey Beyond Three Seas"

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

Solution:

Among the works devoted to the struggle of the Russian people with the Mongol-Tatars, one can single out "The Tale of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich and his brother Vladimir Andreevich, as if they defeated the adversary of their Tsar Mamai." Another name for this poem is “Zadonshchina”, historians consider Zephanius of Ryazansky to be its probable author. It is dedicated to the victory of Russian troops over the Horde in 1380 on the Kulikovo field. Zephanius called his poem "praise and pity." Praise to Prince Dmitry and the joy of victory in this work are intertwined with grief for the dead soldiers. The ideological meaning of the poem is a call for the unity of the Russian principalities in order to save the country from the invaders.

6. The emergence in Russia of such a historical source as a periodical press dates back to the _____ century.

Solution:

One of the characteristic features of the periodical press is its circulation. In Russia, the formation of the periodical press begins in the first quarter of the 18th century. By decree of Peter I, from January 2, 1703, the newspaper Vedomosti began to be published with a circulation of up to 4 thousand copies. In the 17th century at the court of the first Romanovs, there was a handwritten newspaper called Chimes. But it cannot be regarded as a periodical, since it was not intended for replication. The newspaper "Vedomosti" was published by the state for the ideological impact on the subjects in the right direction through the dissemination of official information.

7. The most complete information about the Eastern Slavs, Ancient Russia is contained in ...

"Tales of Bygone Years"

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

"Zadonshchina"

"Power book"

Solution:

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is an all-Russian chronicle compiled in the second decade of the 12th century by Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery. Became the main source on the history of the Eastern Slavs, Ancient Russia. Nestor considered such issues as origin, settlement, occupation, religious beliefs, customs of the Eastern Slavs, their relations with other tribes, etc. Solving the issue of the origin, formation of the Old Russian state, its development, Nestor sought to show Russian history against the backdrop of world history, to present a broad and complete picture of the history of Ancient Russia.

8.Valuable source on history Russia XVII century is…

"Cathedral Code"

"Russian Truth"

"Royal book"

"Charter to the nobility"

Solution:

"Cathedral Code" - a code of laws of Russia, approved by the Zemsky Sobor in January 1649. The code covered all departments of the current law (state, civil, criminal). It regulated not only certain groups of social relations, but also all aspects of the socio-political life of the country. It completed the legal enslavement of the peasantry, formalized the class structure of society, and consolidated the process of establishing an absolute monarchy in Russia. The Code is not only a monument of Russian legislation, but also a valuable source on the history of Russia in the 17th century.

9. The science that studies the measures of length, area, volume, weight used in the past in their historical development is called ...

metrology

genealogy

onomastics

paleography

Solution:

Special historical disciplines allow you to master the basic techniques of working with historical sources. Metrology, the science of measures, is one of these disciplines. She explores the origin of the names of measures, their relationship with each other; seeks to establish their real content by comparison with modern analogous measures. Historical metrology provides the researcher with invaluable data, without which it is hardly possible to study problems of a socio-economic nature.

10. Geographical names, personal names, traces of ancient languages ​​in oral speech modern peoples refer to _______ sources.

linguistic

written

folklore

ethnographic

Solution:

The memory of the past is kept not only by people, but also by the languages ​​they speak, therefore, as a separate source, it is customary to single out linguistic sources. These include geographical names, personal names, traces of ancient languages ​​in the oral speech of modern peoples, various linguistic influences and borrowings. These materials help historians to study migration processes, social relations, and so on.
Topic 3: Methodology of historical science

1. Historical science in the USSR was based on the __________ approach to history.

Marxist

evolutionary

theological

subjective

Solution:

Soviet historical science was based on the methodological principles of Marxism. According to this approach, the determining factor of all historical development is not the ideas or views of people, but the conditions of the material life of society, social production, production relations. On this basis, a political superstructure (the state, political organizations) rises and various forms of social consciousness develop.

2. Specific ways of studying historical processes are called ...

principles

historical and philosophical approaches

Solution:

Specific research methods are used to reveal an objective picture of the historical process. The method is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations - historical facts, a way of extracting new knowledge from facts. A method is a way of knowing, a way of researching and substantiating knowledge. The choice of the method of cognition should ensure scientific validity and reliability in the study of the past.

3. Through the historical-genetic method, historical phenomena are studied ...

in the process of their development

in chronological order

in connection with other phenomena and processes

in comparison of historical processes in space and time

Solution:

The historical-genetic method refers to the special-historical methods of historical knowledge. By means of this method, historical phenomena are studied in the process of their development - from the birth to death or the current state. By its logical nature, this method is analytical-inductive (ascent from specific phenomena and facts to general conclusions), and in terms of the form of information expression, it is descriptive. The historical-genetic method is aimed at analyzing the dynamics of historical processes. It allows you to identify their causal relationships and patterns of historical development.

4. Comparison of historical objects in space and time, identification of similarities and differences between them is associated with the ___________ method.

historical and comparative

historical and systemic

historical and genetic

historical and typological

Solution:

The historical-comparative method consists in comparing historical objects in space and time and identifying similarities and differences between them. The method involves the use of various techniques to compare the essence of heterogeneous historical phenomena. Through this method, the researcher receives additional information about little-studied historical phenomena.

5. Proponents of demographic determinism assign the main role in the development of society to ...

population

economy

class struggle

Solution:

Proponents of demographic determinism assign the main role in the development of society to the population, which they consider as the main force that determines the nature of social order. One of the founders of demographic determinism was the French materialist philosopher of the 18th century. K.A. Helvetius. English economist T.R. Malthus considered population as a factor hindering the progress of society and leading to social disasters.

6. The historical-system method consists in ...

establishing the relationship and interaction of objects in their historical development

classification of phenomena, events and objects

comparison of historical objects in space and time

studying chronological order events

Solution:

At present, the historical-system method is widely used in the practice of scientific and historical research. This is due to the attempts of an in-depth analysis of socio-historical systems, the disclosure of the internal mechanisms of their functioning and development. The historical-system method also consists in establishing the relationship and interaction of objects in their historical development.

7. The historical and philosophical approach, which considers the mind as the only source of knowledge and historical development, is called ...

rationalism

subjectivism

Marxism

With all the variety of research approaches, there are certain general research principles, such as consistency, objectivity, historicism.

The methodology of historical research is the technique by which methodology is implemented in historical research.

In Italy, during the Renaissance, the scientific apparatus of research began to take shape, and the system of footnotes was first introduced.

In the process of processing specific historical material, the researcher needs to use various research methods. The word "method" in Greek means "way, way". Scientific research methods are methods of obtaining scientific information in order to establish regular connections, relationships, dependencies and build scientific theories. Research methods are the most dynamic element of science.

Any scientific and cognitive process consists of three components: the object of cognition - the past, the cognizing subject - the historian and the method of cognition. Through the method, the scientist learns the problem, event, era under study. The scope and depth of new knowledge depend primarily on the effectiveness of the methods used. Of course, each method can be applied correctly or incorrectly, i.e. the method itself does not guarantee the acquisition of new knowledge, but without it no knowledge is possible. Therefore, one of the most important indicators of the level of development of historical science is research methods, their diversity and cognitive effectiveness.

There are many classifications of scientific research methods.

One of the most common classifications involves dividing them into three groups: general scientific, special and private scientific:

• general scientific methods used in all sciences. Basically, these are methods and techniques of formal logic, such as: analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, hypothesis, analogy, modeling, dialectics, etc.;
• special methods used in many sciences. The most common ones include: functional approach, systemic approach, structural approach, sociological and statistical methods. The use of these methods makes it possible to reconstruct the picture of the past more deeply and more reliably, to systematize historical knowledge;
• private scientific methods have not universal, but applied value and are used only in a specific science.

In historical science, one of the most authoritative in Russian historiography is the classification proposed in the 1980s. Academician I.D. Kovalchenko. The author has been fruitfully studying this problem for more than 30 years. His monograph "Methods of historical research" is a major work, in which for the first time in Russian literature a systematic presentation of the main methods of historical knowledge is given. Moreover, this is done in organic connection with the analysis of the main problems of the methodology of history: the role of theory and methodology in scientific knowledge, the place of history in the system of sciences, historical source and historical fact, the structure and levels of historical research, methods of historical science, etc. Among the main methods of historical knowledge Kovalchenko I.D. relates:

• historical and genetic;
• historical and comparative;
• historical and typological;
• historical-systemic.

Let's consider each of these methods separately.

Historical-genetic method is one of the most common in historical research. Its essence lies in the consistent disclosure of the properties, functions and changes of the studied reality in the process of its historical movement. This method allows you to get as close as possible to reproducing real history object of study. At the same time, the historical phenomenon is reflected in the most concrete form. Cognition proceeds sequentially from the individual to the particular, and then to the general and universal. By nature, the genetic method is analytical-inductive, and by the form of information expression it is descriptive. The genetic method makes it possible to show causal relationships, patterns of historical spillage in their immediacy, and historical events and personalities to characterize in their individuality and imagery.

Historical comparative method has also long been used in historical research. It is based on comparisons - an important method of scientific knowledge. No scientific study is complete without comparison. The objective basis for comparison is that the past is a repetitive, internally conditioned process. Many phenomena are identical or similar internally.

its essence and differ only in the spatial or temporal variation of forms. And the same or similar forms can express different content. Therefore, in the process of comparison, an opportunity opens up for explaining historical facts, revealing their essence.

This feature of the comparative method was first embodied by the ancient Greek historian Plutarch in his "biographies". A. Toynbee sought to discover as many laws as possible, applicable to any society, and sought to compare everything. It turned out that Peter I was the twin of Akhenaten, the era of Bismarck was a repetition of the era of Sparta from the time of King Cleomenes. The condition for the productive application of the comparative-historical method is the analysis of single-order events and processes.

• 1. Initial stage comparative analysis is an analogy. It involves not analysis, but the transfer of representations from object to object. (Bismarck and Garibaldi played an outstanding role in unifying their countries).
• 2. Identification of the essential-substantial characteristics of the studied.
• 3. Acceptance of typology (Prussian and American type of development of capitalism in agriculture).

The comparative method is also used as a means of developing and verifying hypotheses. Based on it, it is possible retro alternative vistics. History as a retro-telling implies the ability to move in time in two directions: from the present and its problems (and at the same time the experience accumulated by this time) to the past, and from the beginning of an event to its finale. This brings into history the search for causality, an element of stability and strength that should not be underestimated: the final point is set, and in his work the historian proceeds from it. This does not eliminate the risk of delusional constructions, but at least it is minimized. The history of an event is actually a social experiment that has taken place. It can be observed by circumstantial evidence, hypotheses can be built, tested. The historian may offer all sorts of interpretations of the French Revolution, but in any case, all his explanations have a common invariant to which they must be reduced: the revolution itself. So the flight of fancy has to be restrained. In this case, the comparative method is used as a means of developing and verifying hypotheses. Otherwise, this technique is called retro-alternativism. To imagine a different development of history is the only way to find the causes of real history. Raymond Aron called for rational weighing possible reasons of certain events by comparing what was possible: “If I say that Bismarck’s decision caused the war of 1866 ... then I mean that without the decision of the Chancellor, the war would not have started (or at least wouldn't have started at that moment)" 1 . The actual causality is revealed only by comparison with what was in the possibility. Any historian, in order to explain what was, asks the question of what could have been. To carry out such a gradation, we take one of these antecedents, mentally assume it to be non-existent or modified, and try to reconstruct or imagine what would happen in this case. If you have to admit that the phenomenon under study would be different in the absence of this factor (or if it were not so), we conclude that this antecedent is one of the causes of some part of the phenomenon-effect, namely that part of it. parts in which we had to assume changes. Thus, logical research includes the following operations: 1) dismemberment of the phenomenon-consequence; 2) establishing a gradation of antecedents and highlighting the antecedent whose influence we have to evaluate; 3) constructing an unreal course of events; 4) comparison between speculative and real events.

If, examining the causes of the French Revolution, we want to weigh the significance of various economic (the crisis of the French economy at the end of the 18th century, the poor harvest of 1788), social (the rise of the bourgeoisie, the reaction of the nobility), political (the financial crisis of the monarchy, the resignation of Turgot) , then there can be no other solution but to consider all these different causes one by one, assuming that they could be different, and try to imagine the course of events that might follow in this case. As M. Weber says, in order to "unravel real causal relationships, we create unreal ones." Such an “imaginary experience” is the only way for the historian not only to identify the causes, but also to unravel, weigh them, as M. Weber and R. Aron put it, that is, to establish their hierarchy.

Historical-typological method, like all other methods, has its own objective basis. It consists in the fact that in the socio-historical process, on the one hand, they differ, on the other hand, the individual, special, general and universal are closely interconnected. Therefore, an important task of understanding historical phenomena, revealing their essence, is to identify the one that was inherent in the diversity of certain combinations of the individual (single). The past in all its manifestations is a continuous dynamic process. It is not a simple sequential course of events, but the change of some qualitative states by others, has its own significantly different stages, the selection of these stages is also

important task in the study of historical development. The first step in the historian's work is the compilation of a chronology. The second step is periodization. The historian cuts history into periods, replaces the continuity of time with some semantic structure. The relations of discontinuity and continuity are revealed: continuity takes place within periods, discontinuity - between periods.

Particular varieties of the historical-typological method are: the method of periodization (allows you to identify a number of stages in the development of various social, social phenomena) and the structural-diachronic method (aimed at studying historical processes at different times, allows you to identify the duration, frequency of various events).

Historical-system method allows you to understand the internal mechanisms of the functioning of social systems. A systematic approach is one of the main methods that is used in historical science, since society (and the individual) is complex. organized system. The basis for the application of this method in history is the unity in the socio-historical development of the individual, particular and general. Really and concretely, this unity appears in historical systems. different levels. The functioning and development of societies includes and synthesizes those main components that make up historical reality. These components include separate unique events (say, the birth of Napoleon), historical situations (for example, the French Revolution) and processes (the influence of the ideas and events of the French Revolution on Europe). Obviously, all these events and processes are not only causally conditioned and have cause-and-effect relationships, but are also functionally interconnected. The task of system analysis, which includes structural and functional methods, is to give a whole complex picture of the past.

The concept of a system, like any other cognitive means, describes some ideal object. From the point of view of its external properties, this ideal object acts as a set of elements between which certain relationships and connections are established. Thanks to them, a set of elements turns into a coherent whole. In turn, the properties of the system turn out to be not just the sum of the properties of its individual elements, but are determined by the presence and specificity of the connection and relationships between them. The presence of connections and relationships between elements and the integrative connections generated by them, the integral properties of the system provide a relatively independent isolated existence, functioning and development of the system.

The system as a relatively isolated integrity opposes the environment, the environment. In fact, the concept of the environment is implicit (if there is no environment, then there will be no system) is contained in the concept of the system as a whole, the system is relatively isolated from the rest of the world, which acts as an environment.

The next step in a meaningful description of the properties of the system is to fix its hierarchical structure. This system property is inextricably linked with the potential divisibility of the elements of the system and the presence of a variety of connections and relationships for each system. The fact of the potential divisibility of the elements of the system means that the elements of the system can be considered as special systems.

Essential properties of the system:

• from the point of view of the internal structure, any system has a corresponding orderliness, organization and structure;
• the functioning of the system is subject to certain laws inherent in this system; at any given moment the system is in some state; a successive set of states constitutes its behavior.

The internal structure of the system is described using the following concepts: "set"; "element"; "attitude"; "property"; "connection"; "channels of connection"; "interaction"; "integrity"; "subsystem"; "organization"; "structure"; "leading part of the system"; "subsystem; decision maker; hierarchical structure of the system.

The specific properties of the system are characterized through the following features: "isolation"; "interaction"; "integration"; "differentiation"; "centralization"; "decentralization"; "Feedback"; "equilibrium"; "control"; "self-regulation"; "self management"; "competition".

The behavior of the system is defined through such concepts as: "environment"; "activity"; "functioning"; "the change"; "adaptation"; "growth"; "evolution"; "development"; "genesis"; "education".

V modern research many methods are used to extract information from sources, process it, systematize and construct theories and historical concepts. Sometimes the same method (or its varieties) is described by different authors under different names. An example is the descriptive-narrative - ideographic - descriptive - narrative method.

Descriptive-narrative method (ideographic) - the scientific method used in all socio-historical and natural sciences and standing in the first place in terms of breadth of application. Assumes a number of requirements:

• a clear idea of ​​the chosen subject of study;
• description sequence;
• systematization, grouping or classification, characteristics of the material (qualitative, quantitative) in accordance with the research task.

Among other scientific methods, the descriptive-narrative method is the starting one. To a large extent, it determines the success of work using other methods, which usually "view" the same material in new aspects.

The well-known German scientist L. von Ranke (1795-1886) acted as a prominent representative of the narrative in historical science. began to study history and published a number of works that had a resounding success. Among them are "The History of the Romanesque and Germanic Peoples", "The Sovereigns and Peoples of Southern Europe in the 16th-17th Centuries", "The Popes of Rome, Their Church and State in the 16th and 17th Centuries", 12 books on Prussian history.

In works of a source study nature are often used:

• conditionally documentary and grammatical-diplomatic methods, those. methods of dividing the text into constituent elements are used to study office work and office documents;
• textual methods. So, for example, logical text analysis allows interpreting various "dark" places, identifying contradictions in a document, existing gaps, etc. The use of these methods makes it possible to identify missing (destroyed) documents, to reconstruct various events;
• historical and political analysis allows you to compare information from various sources, recreate the circumstances political struggle that gave rise to the documents, to specify the composition of the participants who adopted this or that act.

Historiographic studies often use:

Chronological method- focusing on the analysis of the movement on scientific thoughts, the change of concept, views and ideas in chronological order, which allows you to reveal the patterns of accumulation and deepening of historiographic knowledge.

Problem-chronological method involves the division of broad topics into a number of narrow problems, each of which is considered in chronological order. This method is used both when studying the material (at the first stage of analysis, together with the methods of systematization and classification), and when compiling and presenting it within the text of a work on history.

Periodization method- is aimed at highlighting individual stages in the development of historical science in order to discover the leading directions of scientific thought, to identify new elements in its structure.

Method of retrospective (return) analysis allows you to study the process of movement of thought of historians from the present to the past in order to identify elements of knowledge that has been strictly preserved in our days, to verify the conclusions of previous historical research and the data of modern science. This method is closely related to the method of "survivals", i.e. a method of reconstructing objects that have gone into the past according to the remains that have survived and have come down to the modern historian of the era. The researcher of primitive society E. Taylor (1832-1917) used ethnographic material.

Perspective analysis method determines promising directions, topics for future research based on an analysis of what has been achieved modern science level and when using knowledge of the patterns of development of historiography.

Modeling- this is the reproduction of the characteristics of some object on another object, specially created for its study. The second of the objects is called the model of the first. Modeling is based on a certain correspondence (but not identity) between the original and its model. There are 3 types of models: analytical, statistical, simulation. Models are resorted to in case of a lack of sources or, conversely, sources of satiety. For example, a model of an ancient Greek polis was created in the computer center of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Methods of mathematical statistics. Statistics arose in the second half of the 17th century. in England. In historical science, statistical methods began to be used in the 19th century. Events to be statistically processed must be homogeneous; quantitative and qualitative features should be studied in unity.

There are two types of statistical analysis:

• 1) descriptive statistics;
• 2) sample statistics (used in the absence of complete information and gives a probabilistic conclusion).

Among the many statistical methods, we can distinguish: the method of correlation analysis (establishes a relationship between two variables, the change in one of them depends not only on the second, but also on chance) and entropy analysis (entropy is a measure of the diversity of the system) - allows you to track social connections in small ( up to 20 units) in groups that do not obey probabilistic-statistical laws. For example, Academician I.D. Kovalchenko subjected the tables of zemstvo household censuses of the post-reform period of Russia to mathematical processing and revealed the degree of stratification among estates and communities.

Method of terminological analysis. The terminological apparatus of sources borrows its subject content from life. The connection between a change in language and a change in social relations has long been established. A brilliant application of this method can be found in

F. Engels "Frankish Dialect" 1 , where, having analyzed the movement of consonant letters in cognate words, he established the boundaries of German dialects and drew conclusions about the nature of the migration of tribes.

A variation is toponymic analysis - geographical names. Anthroponymic analysis - name-formation and name-creativity.

Content analysis- a method of quantitative processing of large arrays of documents, developed in American sociology. Its application makes it possible to identify the frequency of occurrence in the text of characteristics that are of interest to the researcher. Based on them, one can judge the intentions of the author of the text and the possible reactions of the addressee. The units are a word or a theme (expressed through modifier words). Content analysis involves at least 3 stages of research:

• dismemberment of the text into semantic units;
• counting the frequency of their use;
• interpretation of the results of text analysis.

Content analysis can be used in the analysis of periodical

press, questionnaires, complaints, personal (judicial, etc.) files, biographies, census sheets or lists in order to identify any trends by counting the frequency of recurring characteristics.

In particular, D.A. Gutnov applied the method of content analysis in the analysis of one of the works of P.N. Milyukov. The researcher identified the most common text units in the famous "Essays on the History of Russian Culture" by P.N. Milyukov, constructing graphics based on them. Recently, statistical methods have been actively used to build a collective portrait of historians of the post-war generation.

Media analysis algorithm:

• 1) the degree of objectivity of the source;
• 2) the number and volume of publications (dynamics by years, percentage);
• 3) authors of the publication (readers, journalists, military, political workers, etc.);
• 4) the frequency of occurring value judgments;
• 5) the tone of publications (neutral informational, panegyric, positive, critical, negatively emotionally colored);
• 6) the frequency of use of artistic, graphic and photographic materials (photographs, cartoons);
• 7) ideological goals of the publication;
• 8) dominant themes.

Semiotics(from Greek - sign) - a method of structural analysis of sign systems, a discipline that deals with the comparative study of sign systems.

The foundations of semiotics were developed in the early 1960s. in the USSR Yu.M. Lotman, V.A. Uspensky, B.A. Uspensky, Yu.I. Levin, B.M. Gasparov, who founded the Moscow-Tartus semiotic school. A history and semiotics laboratory was opened at the University of Tartu, which was active until the early 1990s. Lotman's ideas have found application in linguistics, philology, cybernetics, information systems, art theory, etc. The starting point of semiotics is the idea that the text is a space in which the semiotic character of a literary work is realized as an artifact. For the semiotic analysis of a historical source, it is necessary to reconstruct the code used by the creator of the text and establish their correlation with the codes used by the researcher. The problem is that the fact conveyed by the author of the source is the result of choosing from the mass of surrounding events an event that, in his opinion, has a meaning. The use of this technique is effective in the analysis of various rituals: from household to state 1 . As an example of the application of the semiotic method, one can cite the study of Lotman Yu.M. “Conversations about Russian culture. Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII - early XIX centuries)”, in which the author considers such significant rituals of noble life as a ball, matchmaking, marriage, divorce, duel, Russian dandyism, etc.

Modern research uses methods such as: method of discursive analysis(analysis of text phrases and its vocabulary through discursive markers); dense description method(not a simple description, but an interpretation of various interpretations of ordinary events); narrative story method"(consideration of familiar things as incomprehensible, unknown); case study method (study of a unique object or extreme event).

The rapid penetration of interview materials into historical research as a source led to the formation of Oral History. Working with interview texts required historians to develop new methods.

construction method. It lies in the fact that the researcher works through as many autobiographies as possible from the point of view of the problem he is studying. Reading autobiographies, the researcher gives them a certain interpretation, based on some general scientific theory. The elements of autobiographical descriptions become for him "bricks" from which he constructs a picture of the phenomena under study. Autobiographies provide facts for building a general picture, which are related to each other according to the consequences or hypotheses that follow from the general theory.

Method of examples (illustrative). This method is a variation of the previous one. It consists in illustrating and confirming certain theses or hypotheses with examples selected from autobiographies. Using the method of illustrations, the researcher looks for confirmation of his ideas in them.

Typological analysis- consists in identifying certain types of personalities, behavior, schemes and patterns of life in the studied social groups. To do this, autobiographical material is subjected to a certain cataloging and classification, usually with the help of theoretical concepts, and all the richness of reality described in biographies is reduced to several types.

Statistical processing. This type of analysis is aimed at establishing the dependence various characteristics authors of autobiographies and their positions and aspirations, as well as the dependence of these characteristics on various properties of social groups. Such measurements are useful, in particular, in cases where the researcher compares the results of the study of autobiographies with the results obtained by other methods.

Methods used in local studies:

• excursion method: departure to the studied area, acquaintance with architecture, landscape. Locus - a place - is not a territory, but a community of people engaged in a specific activity, united by a connecting factor. In the original sense, an excursion is a scientific lecture of a motor (mobile) nature, in which the element of literature is reduced to a minimum. The main place in it is occupied by the sensations of the excursionist, and the information is commentary;
• the method of complete immersion in the past involves a long stay in the region in order to penetrate the atmosphere of the place and better understand the people inhabiting it. This approach is very close in terms of views to the psychological hermeneutics of W. Dilthey. It is possible to reveal the individuality of the city as an integral organism, to reveal its core, to determine the realities of the current state. On the basis of this, a whole state is formed (the term was introduced by the local historian N.P. Antsiferov).
• identification of "cultural nests". It is based on a principle put forward in the 1920s. N.K. Piksanov about the relationship between the capital and the province in the history of Russian spiritual culture. In a generalizing article by E.I. Dsrgacheva-Skop and V.N. Alekseev, the concept of "cultural nest" was defined as "a way of describing the interaction of all areas of the cultural life of the province during its heyday ...". Structural parts of the "cultural nest": landscape and cultural environment, economic, social system, culture. Provincial "nests" influence the capital through "cultural heroes" - bright personalities, leaders acting as innovators (urban planner, book publisher, innovator in medicine or pedagogy, philanthropist or philanthropist);
• topographic anatomy - research through names that are carriers of information about the life of the city;
• anthropogeography - the study of the prehistory of the place where the object is located; logic line analysis: place - city - community 3 .

Methods used in historical and psychological research.

Method of psychological analysis or a comparative psychological method is a comparative approach from identifying the reasons that prompted an individual to certain actions, to the psychology of entire social groups and the masses as a whole. To understand the individual motives of a particular position of a person, it is not enough traditional characteristics. It is required to identify the specifics of thinking and the moral and psychological character of a person, which determine

which determined the perception of reality and determined the views and activities of the individual. The study touches upon the peculiarities of the psychology of all aspects of the historical process, comparing general group characteristics and individual characteristics.

Method of socio-psychological interpretation - suggests a description psychological features in order to identify the socio-psychological conditionality of people's behavior.

The method of psychological design (experiencing) - interpretation of historical texts through recreation inner peace their author, penetration into the historical atmosphere in which they were.

For example, Senyavskaya E.S. proposed this method for studying the image of the enemy in the conditions of a "boundary situation" (the term of Heidegger M., Jaspers K.), meaning by it the restoration of certain historical types behavior, thinking and perception 1 .

Researcher M. Hastings, while writing the book "Overlord", tried to mentally make a jump at that distant time, even took part in the teachings of the English Navy.

Methods used in archaeological research: magnetic exploration, radioisotope and thermoluminescent dating, spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and X-ray spectral analysis, etc. Knowledge of anatomy (Gerasimov's method) is used to recreate the appearance of a person from bone remains. Girts Prince. "Intense Description": In Search of an Interpretive Theory of Culture // Anthology of Cultural Studies. TL. Interpretations of culture. SPb., 1997. pp. 171-203. Schmidt S.O. Historical local history: questions of teaching and studying. Tver, 1991; Gamayunov S.A. Local history: problems of methodology // Questions of history. M., 1996. No. 9. S. 158-163.