Idealization is a special kind of abstraction, which is the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the research. As a result of such changes, for example, some properties, aspects, attributes of objects can be excluded from consideration. An example of this type of idealization is the idealization widely used in mechanics - material point, and by it can mean any body, from an atom to a planet.

Another type of idealization is endowing an object with some properties that are not feasible in reality. An example of such an idealization is a completely black body. Such a body is endowed with a property that does not exist in nature to absorb absolutely all the radiant energy that falls on it, reflecting nothing and passing nothing through itself.

The radiation spectrum of a completely black body is an ideal case, because it is not affected by either the nature of the emitter substance or the state of its surface. The problem of calculating the amount of radiation emitted by an ideal radiator - a completely black body, was taken up by Max Planck, who worked on it for 4 years. In 1900, he succeeded in finding a solution in the form of a formula that correctly described the spectral distribution of the energy of an emitted absolutely black body. So working with an idealized object helped lay the foundations quantum theory that marked a radical revolution in science.

The expediency of using idealization is determined by the following circumstances:

Firstly, idealization is expedient when the real objects to be studied are quite complex for the available theoretical means, in particular, mathematical analysis, and in relation to the idealized case, by applying these means, it is possible to construct and develop a theory that, under certain conditions and purposes, is effective for describing the properties and behavior of these real objects;

secondly, it is advisable to use idealization in those cases when it is necessary to exclude certain properties, connections of the object under study, without which it cannot exist, but which obscure the essence of the processes occurring in it. A complex object is presented as if in a "purified" form, which facilitates its study. An example is Sadi Carnot's ideal steam engine;

thirdly, the use of idealization is advisable when the properties, parties, and connections of the object under study that are excluded from consideration do not affect within the framework of this study to its essence. So, if in a number of cases it is possible and expedient to consider atoms in the form of a material point, then such idealization is inadmissible when studying the structure of an atom.

If there are different theoretical approaches, then it is possible and different variants idealization. As an example, we can cite three different concepts of "ideal gas", formed under the influence of various theoretical and physical concepts: Maxwell-Boltzmann, Bose-Einstein, Fermi-Dirac. However, all three variants of idealization obtained in this case turned out to be fruitful in the study of gas states different nature. So, ideal gas Maxwell-Boltzmann became the basis for studies of ordinary molecular rarefied gases at sufficiently high temperatures; the Bose-Einstein ideal gas was applied to study the photon gas, and the Fermi-Dirac ideal gas helped to solve a number of electron gas problems.

Idealization, in contrast to pure abstraction, allows an element of sensuous visualization. The usual process of abstraction leads to the formation of mental abstractions that do not have any visibility. This feature of idealization is very important for the implementation of such a specific method of theoretical knowledge as a thought experiment.

A thought experiment is a mental selection of certain provisions, situations that make it possible to detect some important features of the object under study. A mental experiment involves operating with an idealized object, which consists in the mental selection of certain positions, situations that make it possible to detect some important features of the object under study. This shows a certain similarity between a thought experiment and a real one. Moreover, any real experiment, before being carried out in practice, is first “played out” by the researcher mentally in the process of thinking, planning.

At the same time, the thought experiment also plays an independent role in science. At the same time, while maintaining similarity with the real experiment, it at the same time differs significantly from it. This difference is as follows:

A real experiment is a method associated with practical, "tool" knowledge of the surrounding world. In a mental experiment, the researcher operates not with material objects, but with their idealized images, and the operation itself is carried out in his mind, i.e. purely speculative, without any logistical support.

In a real experiment, one has to take into account the real physical and other limitations of the behavior of the object of study. In this regard, a thought experiment has a clear advantage over a real experiment. In a thought experiment, one can abstract from the action of undesirable factors by conducting it in an idealized, “pure” form.

In scientific knowledge, there may be cases when, in the study of certain phenomena, situations, conducting real experiments turns out to be impossible at all. This gap in knowledge can only be filled by a thought experiment.

A clear example of the role of a thought experiment is the history of the discovery of the phenomenon of friction. For a millennium, the concept of Aristotle dominated, stating that a moving body stops if the force pushing it stops. The proof was the movement of the cart or the ball, which stopped by itself if the impact was not renewed.

Galileo succeeded by means of a mental experiment by stage-by-stage idealization to present an ideal surface and discover the law of the mechanics of motion. “The law of inertia,” wrote A. Einstein and L. Infeld, “cannot be derived directly from experiment, it can be derived speculatively - by thinking associated with observation.” This experiment can never be done in reality, although it leads to a deep understanding of the actual processes.

A thought experiment can be of great heuristic value, helping to interpret new knowledge obtained in a purely mathematical way. This is confirmed by many examples from the history of science. One of them is a thought experiment by W. Heisenberg, aimed at explaining the uncertainty relation. In this thought experiment, the uncertainty relation was found through abstraction, dividing the integral structure of the electron into two opposites: a wave and a corpuscle. Thus, the coincidence of the result of a mental experiment with the result achieved mathematically meant proof of the objectively existing inconsistency of the electron as an integral material formation and made it possible to understand its essence.

The idealization method, which is very fruitful in many cases, has at the same time certain limitations. Development scientific knowledge forces sometimes to abandon pre-existing idealizations. For example, Einstein abandoned such idealizations as "absolute space" and "absolute time". In addition, any idealization is limited to a specific area of ​​phenomena and serves to solve only certain problems.

Idealization itself, although it can be fruitful and even lead to scientific discovery, is not yet sufficient to make this discovery. Here the decisive role is played by the theoretical principles from which the researcher proceeds. Thus, the idealization of the steam engine, successfully carried out by Sadi Carnot, led him to the discovery of a mechanical equivalent of heat, which he could not discover, since he believed in the existence of caloric.

The main positive value of idealization as a method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the theoretical constructions obtained on its basis make it possible then to effectively investigate real objects and phenomena. Simplifications achieved with the help of idealization facilitate the creation of a theory that reveals the laws of the studied field of phenomena. material world. If the theory as a whole correctly describes real phenomena, then the idealizations underlying it are also legitimate.

Formalization. The language of science.

Formalization is understood as a special approach in scientific knowledge, which consists in the use of special symbols that allow one to abstract from the study of real objects, from the content of the theoretical provisions that describe them, and instead operate with a certain set of symbols (signs). An example of formalization is a mathematical description.

To build any formal system, it is necessary:

1) setting the alphabet, i.e. a certain set of characters;

2) setting the rules by which "words", "formulas" can be obtained from the initial characters of this alphabet;

3) setting the rules by which one can move from one word, formula of a given system to other words and formulas (the so-called inference rules).

The advantage of formalization is to ensure the brevity and clarity of the recording of scientific information, which opens great opportunities to operate it. It is unlikely that it was possible to successfully use, for example, Maxwell's theoretical conclusions, if they were not compactly expressed in the form of mathematical equations, but described using the usual natural language.

Of course, a formalized language is not as rich and flexible as a natural language, but it is not polysemantic (polysemy), but has unambiguous semantics. Thus, a formalized language has the monosemic property. The growing use of formalization as a method of theoretical knowledge is connected not only with the development of mathematics. Chemistry also has its own symbolism along with the rules for operating it. It is one of the variants of a formalized artificial language.

Language modern science significantly different from natural human language. It contains many special terms, expressions, formalization tools are widely used in it, among which the central place belongs to mathematical formalization. Based on the needs of science, various artificial languages ​​\u200b\u200bare created to solve certain problems. The entire set of created and being created artificial formalized languages ​​is included in the language of science, forming a powerful means of scientific knowledge.

However, it should be borne in mind that the creation of a single formalized language of science is not possible. At the same time, formalized languages ​​cannot be the only form of the language of modern science, because the desire for maximum adequacy requires the use of non-formalized forms of the language. But to the extent that adequacy is inconceivable without precision, the trend towards increasing formalization of the languages ​​of all and especially the natural sciences is objective and progressive.

Specificity and basic methods of theoretical knowledge: abstraction, idealization, formalization, thought experiment.

1. Abstraction. Rising from the abstract to the concrete.

The process of cognition always begins with the consideration of specific, sensually perceived objects and phenomena, their external signs, properties, relationships. Only as a result of studying the sensory-concrete does a person come to some kind of generalized ideas, concepts, to one or another theoretical position, i.e., scientific abstractions. Obtaining these abstractions is connected with the complex abstracting activity of thinking.

In the process of abstraction, there is a departure (ascension) from sensually perceived concrete objects (with all their properties, aspects, etc.) to abstract ideas about them reproduced in thinking. At the same time, sensory-concrete perception, as it were, “evaporates to the level of an abstract definition” 1 . Abstraction, therefore, consists in a mental abstraction from some - less significant - properties, aspects, features of the object under study with the simultaneous selection, formation of one or more essential aspects, properties, features of this object. The result obtained in the process of abstraction is called abstraction (or use the term "abstract" - as opposed to concrete).

In scientific knowledge, abstractions of identification and isolating abstractions are widely used, for example. The abstraction of identification is a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects (at the same time, they are abstracted from a number of individual properties, features of these objects) and combining them into a special group. An example is the grouping of the entire multitude of plants and animals living on our planet into special species, genera, orders, etc. Isolating abstraction is obtained by separating certain properties, relationships that are inextricably linked with objects of the material world, into independent entities (“stability ”, “solubility”, “electrical conductivity”, etc.).

The transition from the sensory-concrete to the abstract is always associated with a certain simplification of reality. At the same time, ascending from the sensory-concrete to the abstract, theoretical, the researcher gets the opportunity to better understand the object under study, to reveal its essence. At the same time, the researcher first finds the main connection (relationship) of the object under study, and then, step by step, tracing how it changes under various conditions, discovers new connections, establishes their interactions, and in this way displays the essence of the object under study in its entirety.

The process of transition from sensory-empirical, visual representations of the phenomena being studied to the formation of certain abstract, theoretical structures that reflect the essence of these phenomena underlies the development of any science.

Since the concrete (i.e., real objects, processes of the material world) is a set of many properties, aspects, internal and external connections and relations, it is impossible to know it in all its diversity, remaining at the stage of sensory cognition, limited to it. Therefore, there is a need for a theoretical understanding of the concrete, that is, an ascent from the sensually concrete to the abstract.

But the formation of scientific abstractions, general theoretical propositions is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but is only a means of a deeper, more versatile knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, further movement (ascent) of knowledge from the achieved abstract back to the concrete is necessary. The knowledge about the concrete obtained at this stage of the study will be qualitatively different in comparison with that which was available at the stage of sensory cognition. In other words, the concrete at the beginning of the process of cognition (sensory-concrete, which is its starting point) and the concrete, comprehended at the end of the cognitive process (it is called logical-concrete, emphasizing the role of abstract thinking in its comprehension), are fundamentally different from each other.

The logically concrete is the concrete theoretically reproduced in the researcher's thinking in all the richness of its content.

It contains in itself not only the sensuously perceived, but also something hidden, inaccessible to sensual perception, something essential, regular, comprehended only with the help of theoretical thinking, with the help of certain abstractions.

The method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete is used in the construction of various scientific theories and can be used both in public and in natural sciences. For example, in the theory of gases, having singled out the basic laws of an ideal gas - Clapeyron's equations, Avogadro's law, etc., the researcher goes to specific interactions and properties of real gases, characterizing their essential aspects and properties. As we go deeper into the concrete, more and more new abstractions are introduced, which act as a deeper reflection of the essence of the object. Thus, in the process of developing the theory of gases, it was found that the laws of an ideal gas characterize the behavior of real gases only at low pressures. This was due to the fact that the abstraction of an ideal gas neglects the attractive forces of molecules. Accounting for these forces led to the formulation of the van der Waals law. Compared with Clapeyron's law, this law expressed the essence of the behavior of gases more concretely and deeply.

2. Idealization. Thought experiment.

The mental activity of a researcher in the process of scientific knowledge includes a special kind of abstraction, which is called idealization. Idealization is the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the research.

As a result of such changes, for example, some properties, aspects, attributes of objects can be excluded from consideration. Thus, the idealization widespread in mechanics, called a material point, implies a body devoid of any dimensions. Such an abstract object, the dimensions of which are neglected, is convenient in describing the movement of a wide variety of material objects from atoms and molecules to the planets of the solar system.

Changes in an object, achieved in the process of idealization, can also be made by endowing it with some special properties that are not feasible in reality. An example is the abstraction introduced into physics by idealization, known as an absolutely black body (such a body is endowed with a property that does not exist in nature to absorb absolutely all the radiant energy that falls on it, reflecting nothing and passing nothing through itself).

The expediency of using idealization is determined by the following circumstances:

Firstly, “idealization is expedient when the real objects to be studied are quite complex for the available means of theoretical, in particular mathematical, analysis, and in relation to the idealized case, by applying these means, it is possible to build and develop a theory that, under certain conditions and purposes, is effective. , to describe the properties and behavior of these real objects. The latter, in essence, certifies the fruitfulness of idealization, distinguishes it from fruitless fantasy” 2 .

Secondly, it is advisable to use idealization in those cases when it is necessary to exclude certain properties, connections of the object under study, without which it cannot exist, but which obscure the essence of the processes occurring in it. A complex object is presented as if in a "purified" form, which facilitates its study.

Thirdly, the use of idealization is advisable when the properties, sides, and connections of the object under study that are excluded from consideration do not affect its essence within the framework of this study. Wherein right choice the admissibility of such an idealization plays a very important role.

It should be noted that the nature of idealization can be very different if there are different theoretical approaches to the study of a phenomenon. As an example, we can point to three different concepts of "ideal gas", formed under the influence of various theoretical and physical concepts: Maxwell-Boltzmann, Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac. However, all three variants of idealization obtained in this way turned out to be fruitful in the study of gas states of various nature: the Maxwell-Boltzmann ideal gas became the basis for studies of ordinary molecular rarefied gases at sufficiently high temperatures; the Bose-Einstein ideal gas was applied to study the photon gas, and the Fermi-Dirac ideal gas helped solve a number of electron gas problems.

Being a kind of abstraction, idealization allows an element of sensory visualization (the usual process of abstraction leads to the formation of mental abstractions that do not have any visualization). This feature of idealization is very important for the implementation of such a specific method of theoretical knowledge as a thought experiment (it is also called mental, subjective, imaginary, idealized).

A thought experiment involves operating with an idealized object (replacing a real object in abstraction), which consists in the mental selection of certain positions, situations that allow us to detect some important features of the object under study. This shows a certain similarity between a mental (idealized) experiment and a real one. Moreover, any real experiment, before being carried out in practice, is first “played out” by the researcher mentally in the process of thinking, planning. In this case, the thought experiment acts as a preliminary perfect plan real experiment.

At the same time, the thought experiment also plays an independent role in science. At the same time, while maintaining similarity with the real experiment, it at the same time differs significantly from it.

In scientific knowledge, there may be cases when, in the study of certain phenomena, situations, conducting real experiments is generally impossible. This gap in knowledge can only be filled by a thought experiment.

The scientific activity of Galileo, Newton, Maxwell, Carnot, Einstein and other scientists who laid the foundations of modern natural science testifies to the essential role of a thought experiment in the formation of theoretical ideas. The history of the development of physics is rich in facts about the use of thought experiments. An example is Galileo's thought experiments, which led to the discovery of the law of inertia. “... The law of inertia,” A. Einstein and L. Infeld wrote, “cannot be deduced directly from experiment, it can be deduced speculatively - by thinking associated with observation. This experiment can never be carried out in reality, although it leads to a deep understanding of actual experiments” 3 .

A thought experiment can be of great heuristic value, helping to interpret new knowledge obtained in a purely mathematical way. This is confirmed by many examples from the history of science.

The idealization method, which turns out to be very fruitful in many cases, has at the same time certain limitations. In addition, any idealization is limited to a specific area of ​​phenomena and serves to solve only certain problems. This is clearly seen at least in the example of the above idealization of "absolutely black body".

The main positive value of idealization as a method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the theoretical constructions obtained on its basis make it possible then to effectively investigate real objects and phenomena. The simplifications achieved with the help of idealization facilitate the creation of a theory that reveals the laws of the studied area of ​​the phenomena of the material world. If the theory as a whole correctly describes real phenomena, then the idealizations underlying it are also legitimate.

3. Formalization.

Formalization is understood as a special approach in scientific knowledge, which consists in the use of special symbols that allow one to abstract from the study of real objects, from the content of the theoretical provisions that describe them, and instead operate with a certain set of symbols (signs).

This technique consists in the construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas). The relations of signs replace statements about the properties and relations of objects. In this way, a generalized sign model of a certain subject area is created, which makes it possible to discover the structure of various phenomena and processes, while abstracting from the qualitative characteristics of the latter. The derivation of some formulas from others according to the strict rules of logic and mathematics is a formal study of the main characteristics of the structure of various phenomena, sometimes very distant in nature.

A striking example of formalization is the mathematical descriptions of various objects and phenomena widely used in science, based on the corresponding meaningful theories. At the same time, the mathematical symbolism used not only helps to consolidate the already existing knowledge about the objects and phenomena under study, but also acts as a kind of tool in the process of their further knowledge.

To build any formal system, it is necessary: ​​a) to specify an alphabet, that is, a certain set of characters; b) setting the rules by which "words", "formulas" can be obtained from the initial characters of this alphabet; c) setting the rules by which one can move from one word, formula of a given system to other words and formulas (the so-called inference rules).

As a result, a formal sign system is created in the form of a certain artificial language. An important advantage of this system is the possibility of carrying out within its framework the study of an object in a purely formal way (operating with signs) without directly referring to this object.

Another advantage of formalization is to ensure the brevity and clarity of the recording of scientific information, which opens up great opportunities for operating with it.

Work description

The process of cognition always begins with the consideration of specific, sensually perceived objects and phenomena, their external features, properties, connections. Only as a result of studying the sensory-concrete does a person come to some kind of generalized ideas, concepts, to one or another theoretical position, i.e., scientific abstractions. Obtaining these abstractions is connected with the complex abstracting activity of thinking.

100 r first order bonus

Choose the type of work Thesis Course work Abstract Master's thesis Report on practice Article Report Review Test Monograph Problem solving Business plan Answers to questions creative work Essay Drawing Essays Translation Presentations Typing Other Increasing the uniqueness of the text Candidate's thesis Laboratory work On-line help

Ask for a price

Methods for constructing a theory

1. Private, used only in a particular area (for example, the excavation method in archaeology)

2. General scientific, used by different sciences, making it possible to link together all aspects of the process of cognition:

– general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy)

– methods empirical knowledge(observation, experiment, measurement, simulation)

– methods of theoretical knowledge (abstraction, idealization, formalization)

4. Universal (dialectic, metaphysics, trial and error)

abstraction- a mental distraction from non-essential properties, connections of a cognizable object with simultaneous fixation of attention on those aspects of it that are important at the moment.

The result of abstraction is abstraction.

Identification abstraction - a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects and combining them into a special group (in the living world - detachments, classes).

Isolating abstraction - the allocation of certain properties associated with objects of the material world into independent entities ("stability", "solubility", "electrical conductivity").

The formation of scientific abstractions is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but a means of deeper knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, then there is a return to the concrete. The concrete at the beginning and at the end of the cognitive process is fundamentally different from each other. The researcher receives as a result a complete picture of the object under study.

Formalization (structural method)– identification of relationships between parts, elements that characterize the shape of an object. Formalization reflects the structure of the subject in a symbolic form in the language of mathematics.

Idealization- a kind of abstraction, the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the research, the exclusion from consideration of some properties, features of objects. (a material point is devoid of any dimensions), allows you to replace the real. objects in study (atoms around the nucleus = planets around the sun). Properties that do not exist in reality (abs. black body) can also be assigned. Important for a thought experiment.

thought experiment– operating with an idealized object. A thought experiment acts as a preliminary ideal plan for a real experiment, but it also plays an independent role in science.

Methods of scientific knowledge -"a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality"

It is customary to divide the methods of cognition into empirical and theoretical.

Abstraction, idealization, formalization, modeling refers to theoretical knowledge and is aimed at forming a holistic picture of the process, knowledge of the essence of the objects under study.

Idealization, abstraction – replacement individual properties of an object or the entire object symbol or sign, a mental distraction from something in order to isolate something else. Ideal objects in science reflect sustainable connections and properties of objects: mass, speed, force, etc. But ideal objects can and not have real prototypes in the objective world, i.e. as scientific knowledge develops, some abstractions can be formed from others without recourse to practice. Therefore, they distinguish empirical and ideal theoretical objects.

Idealization is the necessary preliminary condition theory building, since the system of idealized, abstract images determines the specifics of this theory. In the theory system, there are main and derivatives idealized concepts. For example, in classical mechanics the main idealized object is mechanical system how interaction of material points.

Generally idealization allows accurately delineate signs of an object, to be distracted from unimportant and vague properties. This provides a huge capacity expressions of thoughts. As a result, there are formed special languages ​​of science, which contributes to the construction of complex abstract theories and the whole process of cognition.

Formalization - operating with signs reduced to generalized models, abstract mathematical formulas. The derivation of some formulas from others is carried out according to strict the rules of logic and mathematics, which is a formal study of the main structural characteristics of the object under study.

Modeling.Model- mental or material replacement of the most significant parties object under study. A model is an object or system specially created by a person, a device that, in a certain respect, imitates, reproduces real-life objects or systems that are an object scientific research.

Modeling is based on the analogy of properties and relationships between the original and the model. Having studied the relationships that exist between the quantities that describe the model, they are then transferred to the original and thus make a plausible conclusion about the behavior of the latter.

Modeling like method of scientific knowledge based on human ability abstract studied traits or properties various items, phenomena and install certain ratios between them.

Although scientists have been using for a long time this method, only from the middle of the XIX century. modeling conquers lasting recognition from scientists and engineers. In connection with the development of electronics and cybernetics, modeling is turning into extremely efficient research method.

Thanks to the use of modeling the patterns of reality, which could be studied in the original just by observing, they become available for experimental research. Opportunity arises multiple repetition in the model of phenomena corresponding to the unique processes of nature or social life.

If we consider the history of science and technology from the point of view of the application of certain models, then we can state that at the beginning of the development of science and technology, material, visual models were used. Subsequently, they gradually lost, one after another, the specific features of the original, their correspondence to the original became more and more abstract character. Everything is currently greater value acquires a search for models based on logical grounds. Exists many options model classifications. In our opinion, the most convincing is the following option:

a) natural models (existing in nature in its natural form). So far, none of the designs created by man, can't compete with natural structures according to the complexity of the tasks to be solved. There is a science bionics, the purpose of which is the study of unique natural models in order to further use the knowledge gained in the creation artificial devices. It is known, for example, that the creators of the submarine shape model took the shape of a dolphin's body as an analogue; when designing the first flying vehicles, the wingspan model of birds was used, etc.;

b) material and technical models (reduced or enlarged, fully reproducing the original). At the same time, experts distinguish between: a) models created in order to reproduce the spatial properties of the object under study (models of houses, building districts, etc.); b) models that reproduce the dynamics of the objects under study, regular relationships, quantities, parameters (models of aircraft, ships, platinum, etc.).

Finally, there is a third kind of models - c) iconic models, including mathematical ones. Iconic modeling allows simplify the subject under study, highlight in it those structural relationships that most interested researcher. Losing to real-technical models in visibility, iconic models win due to a deeper penetration into the structure of the studied fragment of objective reality.

Yes, with the help sign systems able to understand the essence such complex phenomena like the device of an atomic nucleus, elementary particles, Universe. Therefore, the use of iconic models especially important in those areas of science, technology, where they deal with the study extremely general connections, relationships, structures.

The possibilities of sign modeling were especially expanded in connection with the advent of computers. Options for constructing complex sign-mathematical models have appeared that make it possible to choose the most optimal values ​​for the values ​​of complex real processes under study and to carry out computational experiments on them.

In the course of research, it often becomes necessary to build various models of the processes under study, ranging from material to conceptual and mathematical models.

In general, "the construction of not only visual, but also conceptual, mathematical models accompanies the process of scientific research from its beginning to end, making it possible to cover the main features of the processes under study in a single system of visual and abstract images."

15. Levels of scientific knowledge: facts, idea, hypothesis, theory, scientific picture of the world.

The science - this is a form of spiritual activity of people aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws based on the generalization of real facts in their interconnection, in order to anticipate trends in the development of reality and contribute to its change.

On the empirical level living contemplation (sensory cognition) prevails, the rational moment and its forms (judgments, concepts) are present here, but have a subordinate meaning. Signs of empirical knowledge: collection of facts, their generalization, description of observed and experimental data, their systematization.

Theoretical level knowledge characterized by the predominance of concepts, theories, laws. Sense cognition is not eliminated, but becomes a subordinate aspect.

The elementary form of scientific knowledge is scientific fact. As a category of science, a fact can be considered as reliable knowledge about a single one. Scientific facts are genetically related to the practical activities of man, the selection of facts that form the foundation of science is also associated with everyday human experience. In science, not every result obtained is recognized as a fact, since in order to come to objective knowledge about the phenomenon, it is necessary to carry out many research procedures and their statistical processing.

Idea represents an inseparable unity of the subjective form of the concept and its objective form. Such unity is achieved in highly developed living organisms. Such an organism, on the one hand, is a real object, and on the other hand, it acts only on the basis of its subjective idea of ​​itself and the world around it.

Hypothesis - this is the intended solution to the problem. As a rule, a hypothesis is preliminary, conditional knowledge about a regularity in the studied subject area or about the existence of some object. The main condition that a hypothesis must satisfy in science is its validity; this property distinguishes a hypothesis from an opinion.

Theory - the highest, most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic display of the laws of a certain sphere of reality and is a symbolic model of this sphere. This model is built in such a way that the characteristics that have the most common nature, form the basis of the model, while others obey the main provisions or are derived from them according to logical laws.

Scientific picture of the world is a system of scientific theories describing reality. scientific theory- is a systematized knowledge in their totality. Scientific theories explain a lot of accumulated scientific facts and describe a certain fragment of reality (for example, electrical phenomena, mechanical movement, transformation of substances, evolution of species, etc.) through a system of laws. The main difference between a theory and a hypothesis is reliability, proof. The term theory itself has many meanings. A theory in a strictly scientific sense is a system of already confirmed knowledge that comprehensively reveals the structure, functioning and development of the object under study, the relationship of all its elements, aspects and theories.

The functions of science.

The science- this is a historically established form of human activity, aimed at the knowledge and transformation of objective reality, such spiritual production, which results in purposefully selected and systematized facts, logically verified hypotheses, generalizing theories, fundamental and particular laws, as well as research methods. Science is both a system of knowledge and its spiritual production, and Practical activities based on them.

The functions of science are distinguished depending on the general purpose of its branches and their role in the development of the surrounding world with a constructive purpose.

The functions of science are distinguished according to the main activities of researchers, their main tasks, as well as the scope of the acquired knowledge. Thus, the main functions of science can be defined as cognitive, ideological, industrial, social and cultural.

Cognitive the function is fundamental, given by the very essence of science, the purpose of which lies in the knowledge of nature, man and society as a whole, as well as in the rational-theoretical comprehension of the world, the explanation of processes and phenomena, the discovery of patterns and laws, the implementation of forecasting, etc. This function is reduced to the production of new scientific knowledge.

worldview function is largely intertwined with cognitive. They are interrelated, since its goal is to develop a scientific picture of the world and the worldview corresponding to it. Also, this function implies the study of a rationalistic attitude of a person to the world, the development of a scientific worldview, which means that scientists (along with philosophers) must develop scientific worldview universals and corresponding value orientations.

Production a function, which can also be called a technical and technological function, is necessary for the introduction of innovations, new forms of organization of processes, technologies and scientific innovations in manufacturing industries. In this regard, science turns into a productive force working for the benefit of society, a kind of shop where new ideas and their implementation are developed and implemented. In this regard, scientists are even sometimes referred to as production workers, which most fully characterizes the production function of science.

Social function began to stand out especially significantly in recent times. It has to do with achievements. scientific and technological revolution. In this regard, science turns into a social force. This is manifested in situations where the data of science are used in the development of programs for social and economic development. Since such plans and programs are complex in nature, their development involves close interaction various industries natural, social and technical sciences.

Cultural The function of science (or educational) boils down to the fact that science is a kind of cultural phenomenon, an important factor in the development of people, their education and upbringing. Achievements of science significantly influence the educational process, the content of educational programs, technologies, methods and form of education. This function is implemented through the education system, the media, journalistic and educational activities of scientists.

In addition to the listed functions, one should not forget the group   of traditional functions inherent in it. Among them:

Descriptive function - collection and accumulation of data, facts. Any science begins with this function (stage). it can only be based on in large numbers actual material. So, for example, scientific chemistry could appear only when its predecessors, the alchemists, accumulated a huge amount of factual material about chemical properties various substances.

Explanatory function - aimed at identifying cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies, building the so-called "world lines" (explanation of phenomena and processes, their internal mechanisms)

epistemological function; is aimed at building a system of objective knowledge about the properties of relations and processes of objective reality. The epistemological function is organically inherent in science as a creative activity in obtaining new knowledge. The task of science is to explain - to reveal the essence of the object being explained, which can be carried out only through the knowledge of its relations and connections with other entities or its internal relations and connections. Cognition can also manifest itself in the form of worldly knowledge, artistic and even religious exploration of the world.

The generalizing function is the formulation of laws and patterns that systematize and absorb numerous disparate phenomena and facts. As classic examples we can cite the classification of biological species by K. Linnaeus, the theory of evolution by Ch. Darwin, the periodic law of D.I. Mendelev.

predictive function - scientific knowledge make it possible to foresee previously unknown new processes and phenomena. So, for example, the planets Uranus, Neptune, Pluto were discovered, astronomers can calculate the collision of the Earth with any comet with an accuracy of seconds, etc. The position of science in relation to practice, as a rule, is ahead. Science has always been the basis of engineering and technology. For example, the use of computers, lasers, electrochemical processing methods, composite materials, etc. made possible only through scientific research. At the same time, in the field of the humanities and social sciences, the leading function of science may not always be realized due to the extremely complex object of study. Or predictive the function manifests itself in the creation according to the criteria scientific rationality perspective models of the studied, any possible objects.

Abstraction and formalization

Abstraction - This is a method of scientific research based on the fact that when studying a certain object, it is distracted from its sides and features that are not essential in a given situation. This allows us to simplify the picture of the phenomenon under study and consider it in a “pure” form. Abstraction is associated with the idea of ​​the relative independence of phenomena and their aspects, which makes it possible to separate the essential aspects from the non-essential ones. In this case, as a rule, the original subject of research is replaced by another - equivalent, based on the conditions of this task. For example, when studying the operation of a mechanism, a calculation scheme is analyzed that displays the main, essential properties of the mechanism.

There are the following types of abstraction:

- identification (the formation of concepts by combining objects related by their properties into a special class). That is, on the basis of the similarity of a certain set of objects similar in some respect, an abstract object is constructed. For example, as a result of generalization - the property of electronic, magnetic, electrical, relay, hydraulic, pneumatic devices to amplify input signals, such a generalized abstraction (abstract object) as an amplifier arose. He is a representative of the properties of objects of different quality that are equated in a certain respect.

- isolation (selection of properties that are inextricably linked with objects). Isolating abstraction is carried out to isolate and clearly fix the phenomenon under study. An example is the abstraction of the real total force acting on the boundary of a moving fluid element. The number of these forces, like the number of properties of the liquid element, is infinite. However, pressure and friction forces can be singled out from this variety by mentally identifying an element of the surface at the flow boundary through which the external medium acts on the flow with a certain force (the reasons for the occurrence of such a force are this case the researcher is not interested). Having mentally decomposed the force into two components, the pressure force can be defined as a normal component of the external influence, and the friction force as a tangential one.

- idealization corresponds to the goal of replacing the real situation with an idealized scheme to simplify the situation under study and more efficient use of research methods and tools. The process of idealization is the mental construction of concepts about non-existent and impracticable objects, but having prototypes in real world. For example, an ideal gas is absolutely solid, material point, etc. As a result of idealization, real objects are deprived of some of their inherent properties and endowed with hypothetical properties.

A modern researcher often from the very beginning sets the task of simplifying the phenomenon under study and constructing its abstract idealized model. Idealization acts here as a starting point in the construction of a theory. The criterion for the fruitfulness of idealization is the satisfactory agreement in many cases between the theoretical and empirical results of the study.

Formalization- a method of studying certain areas of knowledge in formalized systems using artificial languages. Such, for example, are the formalized languages ​​of chemistry, mathematics, and logic. Formalized languages ​​allow concise and clear recording of knowledge, avoiding the ambiguity of natural language terms. Formalization, which is based on abstraction and idealization, can be considered as a kind of modeling (sign modeling).