Another important component of MRI, or the form of its manifestation, is (it is considered) international cooperation of production.

International production cooperation is a system (mechanism) for combining the efforts of economic entities (producers) of various countries in the production of certain products for the international market on the basis of commodity-money and direct public relations.

International production cooperation performs two main functions:

- serve as a means of increasing the produced material goods and services with higher productivity, labor efficiency;

- to implement fundamentally new tasks that are difficult or impossible to solve without combining the efforts of economic entities of certain countries.

International production cooperation is formed and functions as a certain system under certain conditions, namely:

1) preliminary agreement by the parties in a contractual manner of the conditions joint activities;

2) coordination economic activity partner enterprises from different countries in a certain, mutually agreed area of ​​this activity as the main method of cooperation;

3) the presence of industrial enterprises (firms) from different countries as direct subjects of production cooperation;

4) fixing in a contractual manner as the main objects of cooperation finished products, components and relevant technology;

5) distribution of tasks between partners within the framework of an agreed program, assigning industrial specialization to them, based on the main goals of cooperation agreements;

6) the direct connection between the mutual or unilateral deliveries of goods carried out by partners with the implementation of production programs within the framework of cooperation, and not as a result of the implementation of ordinary sales contracts.

International production cooperation has come a long way in its development. She is currently complex system, which includes various forms, types, methods, areas, categories and number of participants. Taking into account various characteristics, it is possible to give (present) a certain classification of the modern system of international production cooperation (Table 3).

Table 3

Classification of international production cooperation in accordance with its main features

Principles of classification	The nature of cooperation
By type of activity	Economic cooperation Scientific, technical and industrial cooperation Cooperation in the field of design and construction of facilities Cooperation in the field of trade and marketing Cooperation in other branches of economic activity
By production stages	Pre-production Industrial Commercial
According to the methods used	Implementation of joint programs Contractual specialization Establishment of joint ventures
According to the structure of connections	Intra- and intercompany Intra- and interindustry Horizontal Vertical Mixed
By territorial coverage	Between two or more countries Within a region Regional (or interregional) World
By number of entities	Bilateral and multilateral
By number of objects	Single and multi-subject

The analysis of the methods of international production cooperation deserves special attention. The main methods used in establishing cooperative ties in the IER system are:

1. Implementation of joint programs.

2. Specialization in a contractual manner.

3. Creation of joint ventures.

Within the framework of the first method - the implementation of joint programs - international production cooperation is manifested in two main forms: contract cooperation and joint production. Contract cooperation is the oldest type of industrial relations in industry. The essence of contracting activity is that one of the parties to the agreement (customer) entrusts the other (executor) with the performance of certain work in accordance with predetermined requirements for its implementation regarding terms, volumes, quality of performance and other conditions. Contract production cooperation has two main varieties: the "classic" contract for the manufacture of products and the contract for the design and release of a new product.

The second method of production cooperation is contractual specialization, which consists in delimiting the production programs of the participants in such agreements. In accordance with specialization agreements, the contracting parties seek to eliminate or reduce duplication of production and, consequently, direct competition among themselves in the market. The most important condition What gives such specialization agreements a cooperative character is the presence in it of provisions on close cooperation of participants in the form of joint production of usually complex products, mutual or unilateral subcontracting, joint research and development, etc.

Creation of industrial joint ventures is one of the three main methods of cooperative activity, which is becoming more and more widespread in the world. This is the so-called integrated cooperation, when the capital of several participants is combined under a single organizational form to achieve separate, jointly agreed goals.

So, we examined the main directions, forms, types and types of MRI, noted that it is not a frozen process, it is constantly developing, undergoing evolutionary changes.

Among new trends in the development of MRI the following should be highlighted.

Firstly, the development of traditional forms of MRI is now more and more intensively and widely supplemented by integration processes and activities of TNCs. These processes express the intensity of exchange and the growing international mobility of factors of production relative to national economies and territories.

MRI is developing especially rapidly and successfully at the micro level, within the framework of TNCs, i.e. intra-corporate MRI, intra-firm specialization and production cooperation are being formed. In essence, TNCs have assumed the function of the international division of labor. Outwardly, MRI, international specialization and international production cooperation are carried out by countries, but in fact it is carried out by transnational corporations, which, having national headquarters and production within their countries, also have a huge production, domestic, financial, technical potential in other countries.

Secondly, modern system MRI is not limited to the sphere of production and exchange of goods and services. It is much broader and covers many other areas, incl. capital markets, stock markets, intellectual property markets, etc. And again, the main role in this belongs to TNCs and TNB, which in these markets present increased demand. To satisfy these needs, as already noted in the first topic, have become transnational financial institutions (commercial and investment banks, insurance companies, private pension, investment companies). These institutions provide the main turnover of credit resources, securities, insurance and freight on the world market.

Thirdly, the nature of the manifestation and interaction between the main forms of MRI changes. Thus, in the general MRI, the share of the extractive industry and agriculture among the industries actively involved in MRI decreased, while the share of the manufacturing industry (especially high-tech) increased accordingly.

Private MRI is diversifying, penetrating into uncharacteristic areas of production; the intra-industry division of labor is intensively developing, characterized by an increase in the serial production of goods, labor productivity and product quality; the intercompany division of labor is growing through joint contracts, joint investments, single sales and supply.

The unit division of labor has become an intra-company division of labor within the framework of TNCs.

Fourth, the nature of MRI changes markedly between groups of countries in the international economy. In particular, the content of MRI between developed and developing countries is changing.

Under the influence of TNCs and the strengthening of their own industry, less the developed countries change their specialization, adapting to the needs of TNCs. Thus, developing countries cease to be just raw material appendages.

In a number of industries, developing countries have become "net exporters" as a result of creating their own industrial production. For example, exports from India, Brazil and Pakistan.

The international specialization of the country is increasingly dependent on and determined by the volume and quality of R&D.

Former socialist countries, now countries in transition, are increasingly being included in world system MRI as full partners. In this regard, it is very important to clarify the problem of the place and role of our country, Ukraine in MRI.

The place and role of any country in the international economy, in the MRI system depends on many factors. However, the main ones are the following: the level and dynamics of the movement of the national economy, the degree of its openness and involvement in MRI, the progressiveness and development of foreign economic relations, the ability of the national economy to adapt to the conditions of the international economy and at the same time influence them in a certain direction. It should be noted that Ukraine, as an integral part of the former Soviet Union, and now, as a sovereign state, has insufficient influence on MRI and on integration processes. This is largely due to the fact that it remained for a significant period of time, in essence, aloof from the main world economic processes. In the new conditions, when many ideological dogmas have been discarded or have outlived their usefulness, and the transition to an open economy has become integral part the process of Ukraine's transition to a market economy, the country begins to remove many of the obstacles that prevented its active and large-scale involvement in integration processes.

To date, there are objective prerequisites for the active inclusion of Ukraine in the MRI system, namely:

- a significant change in the system of economic relations;

– adoption of a number of laws and presidential decrees on foreign economic relations and foreign economic activity;

– acceleration of world scientific and technological progress;

– the need for a joint solution of global problems of mankind: demographic, food, environmental, threat prevention nuclear war etc.;

- structural restructuring of sectors of the national economy;

– recognition of Ukraine and its entry into international organizations.

But these are just prerequisites. For the active integration of Ukraine into the MRT, it is necessary:

1) develop long-term, evidence-based priorities foreign policy, first of all, foreign economic;

2) properly assess the role and place of foreign economic relations in the development of the national economy;

3) it is necessary not only to proclaim the transition of Ukraine to an open economy within a certain period of time, but also to make appropriate decisions on the practical implementation of this course. In the light of the current new realities, the fundamental issues of economic relations between Ukraine and the countries of near and far abroad require a deeper analysis, comprehension and reflection in the relevant program documents of the medium and long term. Under the conditions of Ukraine's transition to a market economy, investment cooperation, as well as foreign economic activity in general, completely loses its former ideological function, and therefore can be carried out on the basis of efficiency criteria and commercial benefits;

4) it is necessary to develop a long-term, well-founded concept and a strategy of foreign economic relations of Ukraine based on it with various categories of countries, both in general and with the allocation of regions, groups of countries and individual partner countries that are especially significant for it in the future. Different content of relations in certain areas and countries should be based on objective factors - the level and expected trends economic development countries, their economic potential, export and import opportunities, etc. In the long-term foreign economic forecasting of Ukraine, more and more, apparently, should be based on the idea of ​​an increasing commonality of interests of individual regions (Western Europe, the Asia-Pacific Region) and even continents (America) instead of traditionally isolating;

5) the government program of Ukraine determines the main directions in which economic cooperation will develop. These are trade, monetary and payment and settlement relations, joint activities, incl. joint investment programs, functioning of interstate economic structures.

A more detailed analysis of the place of Ukraine in the MRI system is given in special topics devoted to the problems of various forms of MER.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the peculiarities of the international division of labor and the nature of participation in the MRI system of various countries have a direct impact on the formation and state of the MEO environment.

The development of international specialization of production is accompanied by the development of international production cooperation (ICP). With intersectoral and substantive intrasectoral specialization, the manufacturer is able to organize the process of manufacturing products and selling both in the domestic and foreign markets. If the specialization takes on the character of a detailed or technological one, the establishment of direct contact between the manufacturers of parts, assemblies, or semi-finished products with their consumers-manufacturers of finished products is inevitable.

Thus, international cooperation of production presupposes the direct combination of the labor of workers from different countries in a single production process.

The objective basis of cooperation is the growing level of development of the productive forces and the establishment of stable industrial relations between independent enterprises within the country and on the world stage. Scientific and technological revolution introduced an important element in the process of cooperation - science.

By economic nature international cooperation is a productive force that makes it possible to achieve a useful result in the field of production, marketing, scientific research at lower cost (compared to if the participants acted separately).

International cooperation covers various areas:

1. Industrial and technological cooperation (transfer of licenses, development of design documentation, technological processes, standardization, etc.);

2. Technical and economic cooperation related to the sale of cooperative products;

3. After-sales service.

Each of the MRI participants has its own economic interest.

Implementation of the advantages of MRI in the process of international exchange of any country with favorable conditions gives: obtaining the difference between the world and domestic prices of exported goods and services; savings in domestic costs due to the abandonment of production and the use of cheaper exports.

The most important features of international production cooperation include:

Coordination by the participants in a contractual manner or by intra-company regulation of the conditions for joint activities both at the preliminary stage and in the process of producing products on the basis of cooperation;

Participation as direct subjects of industrial cooperation of industrial enterprises (firms) of different countries;

Distribution among the participants of cooperation within the framework of an agreed program of tasks for the production of parts, assemblies and finished products. At the same time, it is possible to produce a finished product at one cooperating enterprise, to which the rest supply parts and assemblies, or at two or three enterprises. In this case, counter deliveries of parts and assemblies of the finished product are possible between these enterprises;

Economic relations between cooperating enterprises are built not on the basis of ordinary sales contracts, but on long-term contracts, which establish the procedure for determining the volume of supply of cooperating products, prices for them, etc. An important element contracts is to ensure the rhythm of deliveries, the establishment of sanctions for violation of their terms.

Cooperation between firms from different countries is developing not only in the sphere of production, but also in the field of scientific research and development, design and construction of facilities, in the field of sales, provision of services, etc.

The following classification of MCPs can be given:

1. By types: economic cooperation, industrial cooperation, industrial cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation, marketing cooperation, etc.

2. By stages: pre-production, production, commercial.

3. According to the methods of use: the implementation of joint programs, the creation of joint ventures.

4. According to the structure of relations: intra- and inter-company, intra- and inter-industry, horizontal, vertical and mixed.

5. By territorial coverage: between two or more countries, within a region, interregional, worldwide.

6. A) by the number of subjects: two and multilateral.

B) by the number of objects: single and multi-subject.

7. According to the forms of organization:

Contract cooperation, which assumes that one of the parties to the agreement gives the other or other participants an order to perform certain work based on stipulated requirements, including the volume and timing of deliveries, their quality, etc.;

Joint production, when two or three or more firms, on the basis of an agreement, jointly produce finished products, specializing among themselves in the performance of certain types of work;

A joint venture is a wealthy company for the joint implementation of a project. Firms - founders of a joint venture on a parity basis invest in its creation or financial resources(capitals), or new technology, or production capacity. A joint venture is created for the implementation of one project. For cooperation on many projects, cooperating firms can create partnerships (partnerships).

Contractual specialization, which involves the differentiation of the programs of the participants in the agreement. Such agreements are usually aimed not only at eliminating duplication of production, but also involve cooperation in the production of other products, mutual or unilateral subcontracting, joint research and development.

Inter-company cooperation agreements may include cooperation in staff training and production; licensing agreements and franchising; subcontracts for production, assembly and subsequent purchase of products; management and marketing contracts; cooperation in geological exploration and scientific research.

The economic significance of the MCP lies in the fact that it:

Integrates innovation with market methods;

Increases the dynamism of competition and contributes to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress;

Reduces investment and scientific and technical costs, current production costs;

Intensifies joint entrepreneurial activity;

Smoothes possible Negative consequences attracting foreign capital to the domestic economy, hinders the development of the raw materials sector;

Orients in the direction of increasing the competitiveness of co-operated products in the world market.

The main functions of the MCP are to be a means of increasing the produced material goods and services with higher labor productivity, as well as the implementation of fundamentally new tasks that are difficult to solve without combining the efforts of manufacturers from different countries.

International division of labor, international specialization, international cooperation, intersectoral specialization, intrasectoral specialization, subject specialization, detailed specialization, technological specialization, contract cooperation, joint production, joint venture, contractual specialization.

test questions

1. What is meant by the international division of labor?

2. What factors of the international division of labor are decisive for present stage?

3. List and explain the types of international specialization and international cooperation

4. What indicators characterize the degree of participation of the country in the international division of labor?

5. What benefits does a country get from participating in the international division of labor?

The basis of joint entrepreneurship is international cooperation, which is an important part of international economic cooperation.
International cooperation is one of the tools market economy, which plays an important role in the process of formation of normal conditions for the existence and development of entrepreneurship. International cooperation helps to achieve a socially useful result in production, scientific research, marketing, etc., with labor costs less than those necessary to achieve the same result when the participants act separately.
Directions of the positive impact of international cooperation on consumption and production:

• integrates innovation (research, development, production, marketing, pre-sales and after-sales services);
• increases the dynamism of innovation and competition. Drawing traditional industries into its orbit (for example, aircraft building, machine tool building, automotive industry), it in a global sense contributes to the acceleration of scientific and technical progress;
• reduces investment and scientific and technical costs, reduces the time for updating products and technologies at enterprises producing intermediate products, reduces the costs of current production;
• intensifies joint venture activities, providing a wide range of contractual and institutional forms (joint stock companies, concerns, etc.);
• smooths out the possible negative consequences of attracting foreign capital to the domestic economy, restraining its penetration into the raw material sector and focusing on increasing the competitiveness of products created in the course of cooperation.

However, with all the positive impact of international cooperation on economic processes there are reasons that impede its formation, development and effective functioning, especially in countries with economies in transition.
Factors hindering the development of international cooperation:

• legal factor - the lack of favorable legal conditions for the development of international cooperation: the lack of necessary legal norms, the disorder of legislative acts;
• production factor - technical backwardness (especially in the engineering, chemical and electronic industries), low quality of the country's products;
• management factor - an outdated system for organizing production management, inefficient production, cooperation and other economic ties;
• organizational and financial factor - the discrepancy between the organizational and economic foundations of managing the economy as a whole and financial activities in particular; different criteria and indicators for evaluating efficiency and rationality, different accounting procedures and financial reporting; general financial instability;
• socio-public factor - lack of state support and economic incentives for the development of international cooperation, high criminalization of society;
• environmental factor- violation of environmental and safety requirements; low level of current environmental standards.

In order to find an effective way to develop international cooperation, it is necessary to study the main forms of economic associations in which it can be carried out (Table 1). The classification of forms of international economic activity is based on the period (duration) of cooperation, the intensity of partners' ties and the nature of their interaction.

Table 1

	Short-term associations of interest (consortium)	Medium-term associations (group)	Externally trading cooperation	licensed ing	franchise zing	A joint before acceptance	Merger of enterprises into one
Connection partners	Weak	Weak average	Medium	Medium	Medium	strong	strong
Period collaborators qualities	Short or medium term	Briefly urgent	Medium urgent	Medium urgent	Medium and long term	For a long time urgent	joint activity
Character interaction action	Temporary joint execution of tasks (joint management, research)	Short-term associations for the implementation of projects (primarily large orders)	Medium- and long-term associations for the implementation of joint export-import operations	Medium-term cooperation based on the transfer of know-how rights	Medium-term and long-term cooperation with the transfer of the right to use the trademark	Striving for long-term cooperation in certain areas	Commitment to constant collaboration in all areas

joint venture
Forms of international cooperation

As can be seen from the table, one of the forms of international cooperation is intercompany cooperation based on joint ventures (JV), which are characterized by a strong partnership, long-term and strong cooperation between the parties and a high degree of complexity of cooperation. Its participants invest in this economic action their equity, and not just a commodity, as happens with other types of cooperation agreements. The formation of a joint venture usually leads to the creation of a single production apparatus, a single team and management system.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) 1987 report defines interfirm cooperation as “a formal or informal agreement between two or more firms for the purpose of cooperation and involving both equity participation in the creation of new firms and non-equity forms of agreements.” Almost all forms of international cooperation have elements of industrial cooperation. The main trend is the development of intercompany production cooperation.
International production cooperation is a form of international division of labor in which the labor of workers from different countries is directly combined in everyday interaction in the same or in different, but interconnected, production processes.
There are several interpretations of the concept industrial cooperation» - from the most extended to the very narrow. In the first case, it includes scientific and technical ties, activities that ensure the functioning of cooperation (information, transport and other support for this process), the exchange of cooperative products, etc. In the second, cooperation is considered as a purely production process. The difference in interpretations is explained by the fact that it is difficult to clearly define the boundaries of industrial cooperation as a specific economic phenomenon characterized by complexity and interweaving with other processes.
In production cooperation, it is necessary to distinguish between two interrelated aspects. Firstly, this is a production process, since the duties of cooperators, although delimited, are aimed at producing agreed products. Secondly, cooperation implies the exchange of products and services between cooperators.
Thus, industrial cooperation includes both the actual production process and the exchange of goods and services necessary for the implementation of the production process (information, experience in the field of marketing and management).

The classification of international industrial cooperation depends on the methodological principles underlying it. It is possible to explore cooperative ties of an international global nature and their manifestations at the intra-industry and inter-industry levels, or cooperative ties at the level of the industry and firm, etc.
Forms of international production cooperation
Classifications made by experts from international organizations differ significantly from each other, in particular, UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development), UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization and UNECE (European Economic Commission) (table 2).
table 2

yunkgdts	UNIDO	UNECE
Joint production, division of production programs (specialization) Contract cooperation Complementing the partner's production capacity Deliveries under license agreements	Simple and complex specialization Execution of contract work Supply of machines, equipment or entire plants on credit (together with the provision of technical assistance) Organization of joint ventures	Co-production based on specialization Contract cooperation Factory deliveries or production lines with payment for the products produced on them Providing licenses with payment for products manufactured under these licenses Organization of joint ventures

In the practice of cooperation between countries, international industrial cooperation is usually understood as such a joint activity, in which the following conditions are necessarily observed:

1. direct subjects of industrial cooperation - industrial enterprises(companies) from different countries;
2. distribution of production tasks between partners, assigning production specialization to them in accordance with the main goals of cooperation agreements; mutual or unilateral deliveries of goods by partners as part of the implementation of

production cooperation programs, and not as a result of the implementation of ordinary sales contracts;

1. the main object of cooperation - finished goods, components, other partial products and related technologies;
2. long-term, stability and regularity of economic relations between partners;
3. coordination of economic activities of partner enterprises from different countries in an agreed area of ​​activity.

If all these conditions are met, a close, long-term technological and organizational dependence arises between partners, which makes it possible to consider such international cooperation as industrial cooperation.
The development of international production cooperation is facilitated by the internationalization of production, the expansion of the process of moving elements of the productive forces of individual countries beyond national borders.
uneven distribution natural resources in the world, differences in the geographical position of countries, their population, the size of the scientific and technical potential, the education of citizens (respectively, the labor force), as well as the specialization of production in different countries, predetermine the need for and at the same time create prerequisites for the development of an effective international division of labor and the unification of production elements, sales and consumption of individual countries.
In the process of internationalization of economic life, inter-firm interaction develops both in the sphere of circulation and exchange, and directly in the field of production.
International intercompany cooperation involves voluntary, contractually built cooperation between enterprises from different countries with the aim of coordinating or joint actions in certain areas of production. As opposed to purely shopping food-. A lock between partners establishes long-term relationships based on the sharing of knowledge, experience or capital that both parties have.
The basis of intercompany cooperation is the recognition that the common and individual goals of partners can be best achieved only through joint venture. A prerequisite for a long-term cooperation agreement is the mutual receipt of benefits and the fulfillment of obligations to compensate for the damage incurred.
Production cooperation consists of:

• cooperation in the field of licensing based on technology exchange agreements, closely related to cooperation in the field of research and development;
• cooperation in the field of production - at its intermediate or final stages;
• cooperation in the field of consulting services, management, technical assistance;
• joint production in the form of mutual deliveries of parts or specialization with subsequent deliveries based on common projects;
• cooperation in the form of joint ventures.

In practice, joint ventures are created on the basis of numerous combinations of individual forms of cooperation. Thus, the creation of joint ventures, along with agreements on technical cooperation and marketing, inevitably involves financial cooperation; cooperation in the field of research and development and agreements on the partial transfer of production abroad are often combined with the creation of joint production associations.

International labor cooperation can be defined as a stable exchange between countries of products produced by them with the greatest economic efficiency, based on the international division of labor, it represents joint (on a contractual or other basis) trade, investment, credit relations within the framework of international organizations and interstate agreements in the context of globalization, economic integration and competition.

International cooperation is carried out, as a rule, on a long-term contractual basis, so that reliable partners are identified in the long-term and strategic plan, deadlines, quantity and quality of goods are maintained. Within its framework, the coordination of the economic activities of partner enterprises from different countries in a certain field of activity is carried out. The main functions of international industrial labor cooperation are to be a means of increasing the production of material goods with higher labor productivity, as well as to implement fundamentally new tasks that are difficult to solve without combining the efforts of producers from several countries. So it allows you to achieve the intended socially useful result in the field of production, R & D, marketing, etc. at the lowest cost of labor compared to those necessary to achieve the same result, provided that the participants act separately.

According to modern estimates, domestic and international cooperative deliveries reach 50-60% of the cost of production of many industries in industrialized countries. More than 30% of the trade turnover between these states falls on mutual deliveries in the order of cooperation. Forms of international cooperation, depending on the specific conditions for the formation of individual contracts or a contract network, differ according to a number of criteria (Fig. 4): by type of activity, by stage of the product life cycle, by the structure of relations, by territorial coverage, by forms of organization. Let's take a closer look at the last form.

According to the forms of organization, contract cooperation, joint production, joint venture and contractual form are distinguished.

Contract cooperation- an order for the performance of certain work (for example, the supply of components in the automotive industry. For example, in the Japanese concerns Toyota and Nissan, the share of component suppliers reaches 60 percent or more).

Co-production- joint production (for example, the production of the passenger aircraft "Airbus").

joint venture- created, as a rule, for the joint implementation of one project.

Contract specialization– license agreements, outsourcing, commission operations (commission agent, delcredere, indent), agency agreements (principal-attorney, representation, consignment, factor, franchising), brokerage, resale operations (dealership, distributorship, jobrship), trading houses (closed market of direct customers and suppliers).

IN modern conditions the widest development throughout the world is acquiring such a specific instrument of contractual specialization as outsourcing(transfer on a contractual basis of a part of certain functions to other outsourcing companies that specialize in this area. The main functions transferred are: maintenance of the information center, computer support, provision of a help desk, administration local network, providing personnel services, etc.). It is a tool for increasing the flexibility of corporate structures, their adaptation to external conditions, risk reduction. Its effectiveness is higher in new technology and information industries. The benefits of outsourcing are the ability for a single corporation, or industry, or state to achieve a high degree of division of labor, a wide choice of potential partners and the formation of a unified system of technological and industry standards.

strategic alliance– a long-term alliance of companies of various sizes and forms of ownership to achieve strategic advantages in the market (BEE, 23); various forms of long-term, sustainable cooperation between two or more business entities with specific commercial goals and certain resources, the combination of which gives the necessary economic effect. This is a partnership that goes beyond simple trading operations, but does not reach a full merger or acquisition.

Structurally, strategic alliances combine, as a rule, several organizational forms, including joint ventures, license agreements, long-term supply and purchase contracts, joint R&D programs, cross-representation of distribution networks.

According to the criterion of ownership, alliances are distinguished both without creating forms of common ownership (contracts with the division of risk and income and contracts without such division), and with participation in the capital ( mutual exchange shares, joint ventures). Another basic criterion is the area of ​​common interest, which considers predominantly technological (R&D, technology transfer, innovation) and predominantly market (marketing, market share protection, access to cheap resources) alliances. According to the criterion of the mechanism of activity, alliances are classified depending on the nature of ties (formal contracts, informal ties) and relationships (bilateral or multilateral).

Alliance examples:

ICT(network alliances related to the production of computer and communication equipment, software and the provision of communication services are radically changing the way business is done in the global economy).

Automotive(high activity in the creation of alliances is associated with the peculiarities of the modern scale and concentration of production, the organization of marketing and sales of cars, the desire to master innovations in a mature industry, and the possibilities of e-commerce).

Transport(The development of alliances in this area, primarily in air transportation, is due to the globalization of the economy, which created the prerequisites for the emergence of international transport systems. Industry alliances form global networks of air carriers that make it possible to maintain a market niche and competitive advantages of companies in a mature industry with low profitability and high barriers entrance).

International production cooperation

International production cooperation(IPC) (from lat. "cooperatio" – "cooperation") – this is an association of enterprises of two or more countries in the interests of implementing a single production program in order to technically improve products.

The main features of international cooperation are:

preliminary agreement countries in a contractual manner, the terms of cooperation;

coordination of production activities in the process of selling these products;

the presence of subjects of cooperation(participating countries, industrial enterprises, firms);

Long-term nature of cooperation;

Complex character.

Preliminary negotiable character is an important feature of the international specialization and cooperation. Interested independent subjects of cooperation - enterprises, firms from different countries pre-agreed in a contractual manner conditions for joint activities for the production of certain types of products. At the same time, the parties to this agreement determine among themselves industrial specialization, i.e. fix in a contractual manner any technological processes, types of products as the main objects of cooperation.

An important feature of international production cooperation is long term. Unlike international trade, often of a one-time nature, economic relations in international industrial cooperation are designed for a long period.

The next sign of international cooperation in some cases is complex character, i.e. covers not only the production itself, but also research work, marketing activities, etc.

In turn, the sale of jointly produced products may include coordinated actions of partners in the market, solving issues of technical maintenance of the sold products, as well as modernization taking into account the wishes and requirements of the buyer.

International specialization and cooperation of production reduce capital intensity And reduce production time new goods. According to the UN, international agreements on technical cooperation in the use of components and parts based on cooperation reduce the time for setting up the production of new types of products by an average of 14–20 months compared to its organization on your own; at the same time, the cost of mastering production is reduced by 50–70%.

Forms

1. Industrial and technological cooperation.

2. Trade and economic processes associated with the sale of cooperative products, namely, interconnected products between cooperators and third parties in partner countries.

3. After-sales service of machinery.

There are three main method, which are used in establishing cooperative ties:

– implementation of joint programs;

– specialization on a contractual basis;

– creation of joint ventures.

A higher degree of IPC is the performance by firms joint projects or programs, during which they work closely with each other at all stages of the project (from R & D to sales and service of finished products). The main form of such cooperation is the IPC based on joint (integrated) production, when companies from different countries in the production of any complex product bear full responsibility for the release of a part of this product assigned to each of them.

Contract specialization consists in delimiting the production programs of firms participating in such agreements. They are trying to eliminate or reduce duplication of production, and therefore direct competition among themselves in the market. Only those agreements on contractual specialization that contain provisions on joint production of products, mutual and unilateral subcontracting, joint R&D, etc. are relevant to the IPC.

Concerning joint production ventures, then they are one of the methods of the IPC in the event that they establish cooperative ties with foreign parent companies.

Directions of cooperation:

– corporate alliances or keiretsu. In order to reduce costs per unit of output, large corporations establish production links with small and medium-sized firms and turn them into suppliers and sub-suppliers of components, parts, and other mass-produced products necessary for final production. The largest industrial giant, Toyota, is a designer assembler, dependent on a huge network of suppliers and subcontractors. According to The Economist, March 6, 1993 there were 47,303 of which 168 were “Tier 1” subcontractors, 5,437 “Tier 2” subcontractors and 41,703 “Tier 3” subcontractors (individual “occasional” suppliers). Toyota's productivity per worker was more than 6 times that of a similar American company General Motors. On this occasion, the Italian businessman S. Volpi writes: “The giants cannot, in today's conditions, produce everything necessary for the final product, as it was before. It is more rational for each concern to surround itself with medium and small firms”;

– international consortia. International cooperation involves the creation and implementation of joint technically complex programs that are beyond the power of companies in one single country, even a developed one. In the consortium for the production of Airbus A-380, where the parent company is Airbus Industry, the national aircraft manufacturing companies have the following shares: S.A. Aeros Pasial (France) - 37.9%, Deutsche Airbus (Germany) - 37.9%, British Aerospace (England) - 20%, CASA (Spain) - 4.2%. Fokker (Netherlands) is an associated participant in the A-300 program. Russia supplies titanium rolled products - Verkhnesalda Metallurgical Production Association.

Thus, international production cooperation not only helps to increase productivity and production efficiency, but also stimulates the implementation of major economic programs of an international scale. These are the international space program, the study of the bowels of the World Ocean, the construction of large industrial, transport and construction facilities, etc.

Classification international cooperation:

by number of subjects- bilateral, multilateral;

by number of objects- single-subject, multi-subject;

according to the structure of industry relations- intra-industry, inter-industry (in the structure of industry, agriculture, construction, transport and communications, trade).

by type of activity- between industry and agriculture, between industry and construction, etc., otherwise it can be considered as intersectoral.

according to the methods used– implementation of joint production, economic, scientific and technical programs, joint ventures, contractual specialization.

In the economic literature, the terms industrial cooperation And industrial cooperation.

Industrial cooperation is a narrower concept than industrial cooperation.

Industrial cooperation is a process of cooperation covering only industry.

Industrial cooperation is a process of cooperation covering both industry and Agriculture, infrastructure and other areas of activity.

Thus, the international division of labor plays an increasing role in the implementation of the processes of expanded reproduction in the world economy, ensuring the interconnection of these processes, as well as forming the appropriate international, sectoral and territorial-sectoral proportions.