International specialization and cooperation of production represents the specialization of individual countries, firms, associations for the production of certain types of finished products, semi-finished products (or for individual stages of the production and technological process) and cooperation dogo based on legally independent producers different countries for the creation of individual types of products that have ST rogo address purpose and constituting elements of the final product.

Modern international cooperation (from lat. cooperation - cooperation) is the basis of the socio-economic and scientific and technological progress of countries, the globalization of world economic relations, regional economic integration, transnationalization, international industrial cooperation. The development of international cooperation involves:

a) cooperation implemented through a contract and not accompanied by the creation of any organizational structures;

b) cooperation implemented through international economic associations.

In general, industrial cooperation includes scientific and technical, industrial and scientific and industrial cooperation.

· Scientific and technical cooperation involves cooperation in the field of R&D based on the division of labor between partners;

· industrial cooperation- long-term ties between business entities in the production of mass or serial products;

· research and production cooperation- sustainable cooperation throughout the cycle "science - technology - production".

Taking into account these criteria, international cooperation in the modern world economy develops in the following forms.

1. Cooperation based on the production of intermediate products carried out through contract cooperation(manufacturing of a certain type of product by a subcontractor on behalf of the customer). Contract cooperation is used in the supply of components (on the basis of detailed (nodal), technological (stage-by-stage) forms of specialization). It is implemented through the exchange of components and assembly of the final product by partners independently, as well as through the supply of components by one partner to another and the assembly of the final product by one of the partners. IPC in the form of production of components is the most common form of cooperation. Intra-company detail and technological production cooperation is most widely developed within TNCs in the form of production and technical relations between the parent company and its foreign branches (numerous assembly enterprises of electronics, automotive, instrumentation, etc.).

2. Internationalization of scientific research is a cooperation of companies from different countries to conduct scientific and design work based on the specialization of individual countries in certain types of scientific research. The form of exchange of scientific and technical information and the results of research conducted in different countries is international trade in patents and licenses.

3. Cooperation based on specialization agreements and creation of international research and production and other specialized associations includes: an agreement on the division of production programs based on contractual specialization; creation of international scientific, technical and industrial complexes; creation of international management associations (as a rule, in high-tech industries). It is a monopolistic collusion, often practiced between competing firms, to delimit the range of products, reduce and eliminate duplication of production and relevant markets.

4. Cooperation based on the organization of joint production- a form of the closest production cooperation of scientific research and technological, scientific and technical, material and financial resources partners to achieve certain agreed goals, including the creation of a new product. At the same time, the production of component parts of a new product is distributed by firms among themselves, based on their specialization. Joint ventures are created to produce new types of products, where there are high risks and investments in connection with the development of high-tech products and new technologies, taking into account production, research and production and financial opportunities. This method is used in the implementation of programs for the creation of new generations of weapons and military equipment, space industry, etc. As an example, we can cite the organized joint production of armored vehicles and anti-aircraft systems by defense enterprises of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as numerous joint production programs of companies Lockheed Martin Boeing and VAL Systems and other major world manufacturers of arms and military equipment.

5. Joint venture is a form of organization of a company that combines the capital of partners (legal entities and individuals) from two or more countries. The main purpose of the joint venture is to increase the volume of exports of goods (services) and increase the efficiency of export-import operations. It may take the form of a general partnership, a limited liability company, joint-stock company.

6. Transnational cooperation of corporate structures depending on the form of its existence, it combines almost all forms of international cooperation. Strengthening intercompany and interstate competition for sources of raw materials and sales markets determines the direction of foreign direct investment by TNCs in the creation of production facilities abroad using diverse types of specialization, assuming the location of various parts of the production process in different countries of the world. Such conduct of international business, first of all, is determined by the relatedness of the production activities of enterprises and technological processes, the presence or absence of a corporatization mechanism. The presence of a corporatization mechanism leads to the emergence of a corporate structure of a financial and industrial nature - a transnational financial and industrial corporation. So, for example, the confectionery enterprises Rossiya, Nestle Rossiya and 10 other companies in the Russian Federation are subsidiaries wholly owned by the Swiss company Nestle.

7. International Strategic Alliance (ISA)- a functional structure based on a formal and informal agreement between TNCs on combining scientific potential, production and financial resources sharing risks in order to achieve super profits, implement projects, redistribute sales markets and secure spheres of influence. It can also be agreements on participation in assets both without the formation of a new organization (mutual exchange of shares, acquisition of a small share of participation), and with the creation new organization(for example, SP). American management guru M. Porter defines ISA as "long-term agreements between firms that go beyond ordinary trading but do not go as far as merging firms." None of the partners in the alliance can control the process of making strategic decisions on a wide range of business problems by another partner. Otherwise, the alliance may develop into a more integrated form of cooperation - financial and industrial groups with the dominant role of the parent company. The relatively high concentration of ISAs in the production of computers and software products, pharmaceuticals, automotive, aerospace and entertainment is primarily due to the fact that companies are looking for ways to cooperate in order to reduce the typical for these industries high costs entry into the industry, high tariff and non-tariff barriers, significant technological and operational risks. For example, ISAs of pharmaceutical companies Human Genome Sciences and GlaxoSmithKline formed to develop an original drug for lupus, and ISA Bayer and Oncomed- the original drug against cancer.

modern trend The development of MRT is the increasing inclusion of manufacturing industries (primarily mechanical engineering) in the development of the IPC, given the multi-product nature of these industries and fierce competition in the field of high technologies. For Russia, the development of the IPC is of particular importance due to the large-scale systemic crisis in the industry and the decrease in its share in the total volume of industrial production.

The modern machine-building complex of Russia now creates less than 3% of GDP, while the oil and gas complex and the raw materials sectors of the economy - about 28-30% of GDP.

In the structure of Russian industrial production specific gravity mechanical engineering is less than 20%, while the threshold values ​​of economic security are 30%. It should be said that in economically developed countries the share of mechanical engineering reaches 35-50% (in the USA - 46%, Germany - 54%). In the PRC, this figure is now 40% (as in the USSR in 1990).

According to independent experts, more than 70,000 industrial enterprises have been closed in Russia, and in fact such branches of engineering as: machine tool building, aircraft building, shipbuilding, agricultural engineering and a number of others have ceased to exist. Now no more than 50 domestic engineering companies (and only for relatively narrow segments of the world market) are capable of producing competitive products. One of the most effective means of solving these problems is to strengthen cooperation with foreign firms with high investment and innovation potential.

The most competitive countries have a high degree of adaptation of their economies to the conjuncture of world demand and optimal national specialization, concentrating material and financial resources in areas that ensure the highest production efficiency. Benefits from cooperative cooperation of participants in international cooperation are determined by the profitability of the created production.

It should be noted that in Russia industrial cooperation has not received such a wide development as in countries with developed market economy. The main obstacle to the participation of our state in the IPC is the raw material orientation of its economy.

Due to the fact that the main part of the products exported by modern Russia is raw materials and semi-finished products, there is a significant loss of potential added value. Even in the export of non-ferrous metallurgy, products of higher processing make up only 10%, and 80% are the main primary metals, in this regard, domestic exporters in the world markets are faced with opposition from high-tech metal products.

In the modern practice of world management, the concept of "joint venture" is interpreted quite broadly, including the concepts of: joint venture and contract (contractual) joint venture. At the same time, a joint-stock joint venture is created by two or more participants in the form of a joint-stock company, in which each partner owns a certain share of the share capital. In turn, the contract JV does not involve the creation of a new company to carry out joint activities. Within its framework, all relations between the parties - participants are regulated by contracts. In a narrower sense, a joint venture is an economic unit planned, created, controlled and managed by two or more partners in accordance with their capital contributions and internal agreement.

Motivation and market research allows you to formulate goals and determine one of four possible strategies for creating a joint venture:

1) increase in production efficiency;

2) expansion of operations;

3) risk reduction in the production of new types of products;

4) development of production by attracting investments, technologies and skilled labor.

The high level of organization of the joint venture allows each of the parties to receive maximum profit, subsequently reinvested in production. In general, the motives for creating a joint venture are as follows:

Strengthening market positions by combining the resources of companies (scale effect);

Gaining access to investments and new technologies;

Overcoming the deficit, expanding exports and substituting imports;

Expansion and diversification of existing production through the release of new goods, access to other sectors of the economy;

Easier access to new markets and cheap resources;

Adaptation of national production to the conditions and requirements of the world market;

Cost reduction and risk sharing;

Increasing the profitability of production;

Creation of favorable conditions for the development of leasing, engineering, consulting;

Advantages and benefits provided by the host country (tax, customs, registration, legal, investment, etc.);

Optimization of the structure of assets;

Optimization of the interaction of production factors and their rational use.

In the Russian Federation, enterprises with foreign investment - These are enterprises created under Russian law, the capital of which is fully or partially owned by foreign investors. In turn, a joint venture as a type of enterprises with foreign investments in accordance with the current Russian legislation is defined as an enterprise with equity participation of Russian and foreign investors. According to the Federal Law of July 9, 1999 No. 160-FZ (as amended on December 6, 2011) “On Foreign Investments in the Russian Federation”, an enterprise ( commercial organization) with foreign investment is recognized as an economic entity, not less than 10% authorized capital which is owned by a foreign investor. The legal regime for the activities of foreign investors cannot be less favorable than for Russian investors, with exceptions specified by federal laws.

The joint activities of economic entities reflect their economic interests, sharing financial and political risks and strengthening their positions by pooling financial and technological resources. The activity of the joint venture confirms the effectiveness of this form of cooperative cooperation in the current economic conditions. international experience in the implementation of the most effective schemes of international industrial cooperation can be illustrated by the following examples of the creation of a joint venture.

Practice issues.

The American pharmaceutical company Pfizer and the Chinese company Zhejiang Hisun Pharmaceuticals have created a joint venture Hisun-Pfizer Pharmaceuticals Co., Ltd. for the development, production and marketing of generic drugs (generics) in China and the world market. The motivation for the creation of a joint venture for the American side is a significant volume of the Chinese market, an established sales structure, R&D, cost reduction, advantages and benefits provided by the Chinese side, primarily tax, customs and legal. For the Chinese partner, the motivation was mainly experience in the production and promotion of generics in the domestic and global markets. The profitability of the established joint venture is determined by the optimal use of all factors of production.

The German pharmaceutical company Merck and two Brazilian companies Cristalia Labs and Burofarma Laboratorios have set up a joint venture in Brazil to manufacture and market generics. The motivation for creating a joint venture for a German company was to reduce costs and share risks between participants, access to new markets and cheap resources, for Brazilian companies - experience in the production of generics and research cooperation, Minimization of negative factors and elimination of shortcomings of their own production. The optimal interaction of production factors and their rational use contributed to the increase in the profitability of the joint venture.

The Russian-Chinese joint venture for the production of helicopters Sino-Xussian Helicopter Sendees, established in 2010, was intended to provide technical support Russian models helicopters exported to China, given that the Chinese market is one of the most promising markets for the export of Russian weapons. The continuation of cooperative cooperation was the construction in China of a plant for the production of Russian Xingdao helicopters.

In 1993, the German companies Siemens and Deutsche Telekom Ltd. made a decision to develop Russian market. As a result, the Russian-German JV "Mobile Tele Systems" was created (the Russian side owned 53% of the shares, and the German companies - 47%). Since 1997, MTS began active expansion into the regions of Russia, and in some cases the company independently obtained licenses for the provision of cellular communication services, and in other cases it bought other companies that already had licenses. Now MTS is one of the most successful telecommunications companies, serving more than 103 million subscribers.

In 2012, the Renault-Nissan Automobile Alliance and the Russian Technologies State Corporation created a joint venture that will own all the shares in the authorized capital of AvtoVAZ OJSC and become a stable, long-term controlling shareholder for the largest automobile company in Russia and the owner of the Lada brand. The USD 742 million invested by Renault-Nissan will give a 67.13% stake in the joint venture by mid-2014. Foreign investments and world-class technologies will help increase the competitiveness of AvtoVAZ products, the leader of the Russian automotive industry.

MONEY MARKET. JOINT EQUILIBRIUM IN THE MARKETS OF COMMODITIES AND MONEY

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International production cooperation

Introduction

1. International production cooperation

1.1 Features

1.2 Definition

2. Methods for the development of international industrial cooperation

3. Types of international production cooperation

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

International production cooperation as a specific form is implemented by various firms and enterprises. The growing competitive struggle in the world market encourages them to improve this form of international economic cooperation. There are several directions for such development.

International cooperation in production not only helps to increase labor productivity, but helps to realize major economic tasks that are extremely difficult or completely impossible to solve without combining the efforts of enterprises from several countries. These tasks include the construction of large industrial facilities being built not only in developing countries, but also in developed countries.

1. International production cooperation

1.1 Peculiarities

International division labor has several forms of its expression - intra-industry, inter-industry, inter-clan and national economic form of the division of labor between the national economies of individual countries taken as a whole. Each of these forms deserves independent consideration.

Cooperation is an independent way of socializing production and, in contrast to the division of labor, finds expression in the most different types enterprises. In its historical development, cooperation as a form of joint production activity of people had several types. Their features will be discussed in detail in the chapter on the organizational and social forms of participants in international economic relations. Here we only note that from the point of view of ownership of the means of production, all types of cooperation represent a single economic enterprise owned by an individual, a team of employees or a certain group of shareholders who own and manage its assets. Cooperation -- this is a joint production of many people working in one enterprise, including a large firm or corporation, which assumes the unity of the organizational and economic structure within which the proceedings are carried out and owned by one or more persons.

Another feature of the IPC is that with it, production relations between enterprises are long-term. Unlike international trade, which is one-time in nature, cooperation relations are designed for a long period. In accordance with this, supply contracts are concluded for a long time, and the supplies themselves are stable and regular, which increases the interest of enterprises in this form of economic cooperation. It is noteworthy that cooperative relations, as a rule, continue after the expiration of the cooperation agreement, i.e. after the goal is reached.

Finally, a characteristic feature of international cooperation in production is the fact that in some cases it is of a complex nature, i.e. covers not only the production itself, but also research work, and marketing activities that directly serve the production. Thus, the sale of jointly manufactured products may include coordinated performance of partners in the market, as well as solving issues of technical maintenance of the sold products, its subsequent modernization, taking into account the requirements of the buyer.

One of the reasons for the development of the IPC is the tendency to increase the capital intensity of the production of new products, which require huge financial resources. International specialization and co-production reduces the time to set up the manufacture of new goods and reduces their capital intensity.

Among the important motivational advantages that encourage enterprises and firms from different countries to participate in international production cooperation is the opportunity it creates, through a relatively small increase in purchases of components, to achieve a significant increase in the output of final products, including those for export.

For example, the laying of the railway tunnel under the English Channel, solemnly opened in May 1994 by the British Queen and the French President, was carried out jointly by construction companies in England and France. There are many such examples of successful joint construction - in India, and in Africa, and in other regions of the world.

One of the main reasons for the growth of international production cooperation was the desire of large enterprises and corporations to increase revenues from the export of their products. Due to the fact that some countries have introduced a direct ban on the import of finished machines, manufacturers of industrialized countries used the remaining open opportunity to export similar machines, but already in the form of a complete set. This is first. Secondly, there is a difference in import duties for complete machines and complete sets of components in individual countries. Trying to increase their incomes using this difference, the exporters of the industrial countries switched to the export of intermediate products.

1.2 Definition

Tooperation represents production links between different enterprises involved in the manufacture of a particular product, but at the same time retaining their economic independence. In cooperation, it is necessary to distinguish two characteristic features: a) in the context of the development of this process, independent manufacturers from different countries, on a contractual basis, carry out joint activities to create certain types of products that have a strictly targeted purpose and constitute elements of the final product, i.e. cooperating enterprises specialize or differentiate between themselves production duties for the joint production of agreed products; b) cooperation involves the exchange between the participants of jointly produced partial products. But this means that cooperation has two characteristic features of the international division of labor and, therefore, is one of its forms.

In economic literature, along with the concepts of "cooperation" and "cooperation", the difference between which we have just clarified, such terms as "industrial cooperation" and "production cooperation" are also used. In the interests of a clearer development of the theoretical problems of cooperation, it is necessary to see the difference between these concepts as well. Industrial co-operation is a narrower concept than industrial co-operation, it represents only its particular manifestation. In the first case, we are talking about the development of cooperation only in the sphere of industry, in the second - both in industry and in other spheres of activity. For example, in agriculture there are specialized enterprises for growing seedlings, preparing seeds for sowing, feeding complexes, etc. In this way, production cooperation is a broader concept than industrial cooperation.

Unlike complex types of cooperation - firms, industrial associations or transnational corporations, in which production relations are carried out within the framework of one property, in cooperation they occur between different owners. This is the most important characteristic feature of international production cooperation.

2. Methods for the development of international cooperation

International specialization and international co-operation of production can be carried out in a variety of ways. The oldest way to implement cooperative ties in industry, as well as in construction, is to conclude agreements between enterprises on the conduct of specialization by each of them in a contractual manner, which is better known in the literature under the name contract cooperation. This method provides that the customer entrusts the contractor with the performance of certain works in accordance with an agreement reached in advance regarding the timing, volume, quality and other conditions of performance. The contract method involves the supply of products by one partner to another and the assembly of the final product by only one of them.

Contract cooperation has two varieties: the classic contract for the production of products and the contract for the design and manufacture of units, apparatus and other equipment. In classical contracting, the contracting firm produces partial products on behalf of the customer according to his drawings and specifications under his responsibility and at his expense. It can assemble units or assemblies from components produced by the customer or his other contractor, as well as perform technological operations on behalf of the customer in order to turn semi-finished products into finished components and other activities.

On the contrary, when applying a contract for the design and production of components, assemblies and other component equipment, the customer provides the contractor with only the most general parameters of the required equipment. The latter designs, develops and manufactures samples of new technical products and transfers all documentation about them to the customer. From this moment on, cooperative relations begin to develop between them. It must be said that such cooperation is beneficial for partners: the customer receives new equipment in a short time and at a lower price than with own production, and the designer can, to his own advantage, sell new products not only to the customer, but also to other buyers. In connection with this additional advantage, contract cooperation in the design and manufacture of new units and other components has become widespread in many engineering industries. Thus, automotive companies provide orders to specialized firms for the design of engines, transmissions, bodies, cabins and other parts of the car. Among such firms, for example, Motor Panels, which designs and manufactures cabs for trucks, stands out with a large amount of work. During the year, it produces 25 thousand cabins of 160 modifications 1 .

The second is quite widespread. method international production cooperation provides mutual partial specialization based on the use of individual resources of partners and the supply of products to each other to create their own final product. This method is usually used between firms that, by the nature of their activities, are in direct bilateral production dependence. The partners agree on the terms of mutual specialization of production and, in accordance with this, exchange components for the assembly of the final product on their own. For example, in this way, cooperative relations have been established between the well-known Hungarian company Ikarus and the Russian automobile manufacturing enterprise LiAZ, which exchange rear and front axles for the production of their own brands of buses.

In the practice of the development of international economic relations, it is also used method international production cooperation based on the implementation by partners of a joint program for the creation by each of them of their own final product. As a rule, we are talking about the development and production of a technically complex product provided for by a joint program of cooperating countries. At the same time, their financial, scientific, technical, material and labor resources are combined and assigned to each of them full responsibility for the release of a certain part of the product. With this method, the cooperating countries cooperate closely at all stages of product development from scientific and technical work to sales and maintenance. In general, this variant of the development of cooperative ties can be called the method of mutual partial specialization and the addition of forces to create one's own end product.

Such cooperation is also usually carried out by firms with approximately the same production profile, with the predominance of the same specialization. The basis of such cooperation is the principle of specialization of partners in the manufacture of parts of the final product, for which they have the most favorable economic and scientific and technical conditions, allowing them to produce high quality components with low production costs.

The method of mutual partial specialization and international production cooperation based on the implementation of a joint program by partners is also used to create a single product, from the stage of its design to sales and maintenance. He received the greatest development in the aerospace industry, nuclear, power engineering and shipbuilding. This is due to the fact that the development and production of products in these industries require significant costs, and the technical complexity of objects consisting of many thousands of parts and subsystems makes it impossible to create and manufacture them without establishing broad scientific and technical cooperation between parent companies.

Finally, an important relatively new method development of international cooperation in production is cooperation of enterprises from different countries on the joint construction of economic facilities. In fact, this means the revival of contract cooperation, but on a new production basis. If in traditional contract cooperation it was about the contractor fulfilling the customer’s order for the production of partial products according to his drawing and specifications or tasks for the design and manufacture of new devices, motors or machines, now the establishment of cooperative ties involves the implementation by firms of several countries on behalf of the customer joint coordinated work , which has as its goal the achievement of a major concrete result - the construction of a certain industrial or other economic facility. Such activities include, in addition to the supply and installation of equipment, also design, construction, engineering and other works.

Several firms from different countries, including firms of the customer's country, can take part in the construction of industrial facilities. The main advantage of multilateral cooperation is the mutual complementarity of the partners' financial, production and other resources, which makes it possible to use the possibilities of the international division of labor to a greater extent. With multilateral cooperation, the highest efficiency of using available resources and increasing the profitability of production is achieved.

Organizational cooperation in the construction of industrial, transport and other facilities is carried out on the basis of international treaties or agreements on production, technical and industrial cooperation. Such agreements provide for the participation of partners with their own funds and efforts in the implementation of a joint program for the construction of the facility. In some cases, relations between cooperators are limited by the duration of the agreement on the implementation of the intended program. But at the same time, they are longer and more versatile than with conventional sales contracts. In other cases, multilateral cooperation does not end with the commissioning of an economic facility, but continues, but in a different variant. Some of the participants in the construction of an industrial facility after its commissioning continue to cooperate with the customer in the production of products at this facility on a cooperative basis. An example is the assembly of buses in Libya and Madagascar from Hungarian and Swedish components, the assembly in Brazil of tractors, parts of which are supplied from Germany and other countries.

3. Types of international cooperation

We made an attempt to determine the content of international co-production, singled out its main features, identified some of the reasons for further development and established the subjects of this process. We also found out the methods of development of international production cooperation. But for a more complete knowledge of this widespread international economic phenomenon, it is necessary to keep in mind that in life there are many types of cooperation that can be classified into separate related groups depending on the principles of their formation.

Take, for example, the principle of forming types of cooperation according to the number of firms, corporations and other economic entities participating in it. It should be noted here that there two types of international cooperation: bilateral, when two companies are involved in a relationship, and multilateral, when cooperation occurs between several enterprises. As practice shows, many countries have acquired greatest experience in bilateral cooperation. In addition, it is unidirectional, i.e. one of the partners produces parts or assemblies in agreed quantities to complete the final products manufactured by the other partner.

Economic entities participating in international bilateral or multilateral cooperation may supply each other with one, two or more units, devices and other partial products. This means that it is possible to single out another type of international cooperation, the constitutive feature of which is the number of supplied objects. When one intermediate item is implemented, it will be inid of one-subject cooperation. In the event that deliveries cover several objects, then we will deal with multidisciplinary cooperation.

As for intersectoral cooperation, in our opinion, it is carried out between branches that are part of one type of production, or, as it is more often called, one economic branch. As you know, there are five types of production in total: industry, agriculture, construction, transport and communications, and trade. Taking into account the noted national economic structure, the following subspecies of intersectoral cooperation can be identified:

cooperation in industry;

cooperation in agriculture;

cooperation in the field of design and construction of various facilities;

cooperation in the field of transport and communications;

cooperation in the field of trade.

If cooperation is carried out between branches belonging to different types of production, then it is advisable to call it not intersectoral, but intergeneric. In accordance with this principle, the following subspecies of intergeneric cooperation can be fixed:

between industry and agriculture;

between industry and construction.

An example is the supply of fertilizers produced by the chemical industry. agriculture or supply by the metallurgical industry of special rolled products to various construction firms and other options.

If we approach the formation of types of cooperation according to the principle of territorial distribution, then according to this criterion, several of its types can be distinguished. One of them is intraregional, or simply regional, international cooperation, when cooperative relations between enterprises are carried out within the framework of one international region, say, within Eastern or Western Europe. If such relations develop between enterprises of two regions, for example, South-East Asia and South Asia, then it will be kind of interregional cooperation. Interregional ties within one continent can also be called intracontinental. In the same case, when there is cooperation between enterprises located on different continents, for example, in Western Europe and America, we are presented with a view of an international intercontinental cooperation. At present, each of these species has a place in life, but the palm still belongs to intra-regional international cooperation.

Conclusion

Thus, the international cooperation of production is a widespread type of production relations, which are distinguished by long-term, stability and regularity of relations between partners. This type of economic cooperation helps firms to reduce the cost of production and distribution, and hence the cost of their products. Reducing production costs leads to strengthening the position of firms in the national and world markets. The IPC also makes it possible to solve major national economic problems that would be impossible even to set without the combined efforts of producers from several countries. Therefore, it is popular among participants in foreign economic relations. This type of international economic relations should be developed by Russia as well.

Bibliography

1. International specialization and cooperation in the production of CMEA countries / Ed. Y. Shiryaeva. M., 1982.

2. International economic relations / Ed. S. Sutyrina. 1996.

3. Foreign economic relations / Ed. I. Faminsky. M., 1992.

4. Zavyalov P.S. Organization and management of international production cooperation. M., 1987.

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International economic relations: lecture notes Ronshina Natalia Ivanovna

Lecture No. 5. International production cooperation

1. TNCs, the role and scope of TNCs in the modern world economy

International corporations- These are large associations of companies and firms that operate not only within the country, but also abroad. The first of them appeared in the second half of the 19th century. and were associated with activities in the field of mining and marketing of mineral raw materials. In the second half of the XX century. the scope of their activities is expanding, moreover, they are already operating on a global scale.

Their emergence is associated with the development of the division of labor and cooperation. The specialization of the enterprise contributes to an increase in the scale of production, and this is typical for any business entity.

After an enterprise has increased production within its own country, it expands beyond its borders. At this stage, international production formations appear. Businesses seek to get as much income as possible and enter the global market.

International corporations are generally divided into three groups: transnational corporations (TNCs), multinational corporations (MNCs) and international corporate unions.

multinational corporations- These are production associations of international firms, and these firms are owned by owners from different countries. National companies are united on the basis of technologies and scientific developments. Examples of such corporations are Univeler, Fiat-Citroen, etc.

International corporate unions are most often consortiums in organizational form. These are associations of concerns to solve certain economic problems.

Transnational corporations are companies controlled, as a rule, by the shareholders of one country. But they also carry out their activities in other countries through the creation of branches and their subsidiaries, which have their own sales, production, etc. Prominent examples of TNCs are such American firms as Ford, General Motors, Swiss " Nestlé, etc.

In order for an international company to be considered a TNC, it is necessary that the shares of employees in foreign enterprises, foreign assets and foreign sales do not exceed 25-30%.

A TNC consists of a parent corporation and subsidiaries. The parent company forms the development strategy, exercises control over finances and technologies, participates in the management of subsidiaries through participation in their capital. It also decides on the purchase, establishment or liquidation of its units.

TNCs do not operate in all industries. Most transnational corporations are in the oil, chemical industry, automotive and electronics. This is explained by the fact that in these areas it is easier and more profitable to create international production associations.

TNCs have a number of advantages over other participants in international economic relations. First of all, it is a large area in which they carry out their activities. Having their branches in foreign countries, they trade their goods without paying customs duties. Thanks to this, they use the resources of other countries. It's not only Natural resources but also human and scientific and technical potential. In addition, they can benefit from the socio-economic level of development of the country: after all, if wages are low in a given country, then it is not necessary to pay employees as much as they pay, for example, in the country where the parent corporation is located; and if the prices of raw materials are low, then the cost of production is reduced. In any case, when making any decisions regarding the activities of TNCs, the specifics of the country in which the branch is located are taken into account.

In addition, multinational corporations take advantage of opportunities to avoid paying customs duties when importing goods into the country that were produced by subsidiaries abroad.

Within international corporations, when exchanging goods, so-called intracompany transfer prices are used. Their level is much lower than in normal trading, and according to some sources, the difference between them is 3-4 times. Due to this tool, it becomes possible to finance some divisions of TNCs, using others, and at the same time, the amount on which you have to pay tax is significantly reduced. At present, a significant part of the funds passes precisely through such channels of international intercompany turnover.

Thus, transnational corporations widely use the advantages of international cooperation and division of labor. They operate far beyond the borders of their "native" country and, forming interethnic complexes, have a significant impact not only on the economy of individual countries, but also on the state of world trade as a whole.

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Chapter 1 Fundamentals of construction production and production of finishing

International production cooperation is a production relationship between various enterprises located in different countries, arising in the manufacture of a particular product.

The main features of international production cooperation:

• preliminary agreement by the parties in a contractual manner of the conditions joint activities and its coordination;
• the presence of firms from different countries as direct subjects of production cooperation;
• fixing in a contractual manner as the main objects of cooperation finished products, components, other partial products and related technology;
• distribution of tasks between partners within the framework of an agreed program, assigning industrial specialization to them, based on the main goals of cooperation agreements;
• long-term, stability and regularity of economic relations between partners.

The classification of international production cooperation in accordance with its main features is as follows.

By types - economic cooperation, industrial cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation in the field of design and construction of industrial facilities, cooperation in the field of marketing, etc.

By the way, as it develops, international production cooperation acquires a complex character and develops into international industrial cooperation, which is wider than production cooperation. It includes diverse forms of activity in the field of production, applied science, technology, trade, maintenance and other areas. Complexity is the most important feature of international industrial cooperation.

By stages - pre-production, production and commercial cooperation.

According to the methods used - the implementation of joint programs, contractual specialization, contract cooperation.

For example, the essence of contractual specialization is as follows: the participants in such an agreement delimit production programs in order to eliminate or reduce duplication of production, and, hence, competition among themselves in the market. Contractual specialization is typical for the cooperation of participants in the production of complex technical products that require joint research and development.

Contract cooperation means that one of the countries (customer) entrusts another (executor) with the performance of certain works in accordance with predetermined requirements regarding terms, volumes, quality of performance, etc.

The implementation of joint programs also occurs when creating joint ventures, when the capital of several participants is combined under a single organizational form to achieve separate, jointly agreed goals.

According to the structure of relations, international cooperation in production can be intra- and inter-firm, intra- and inter-industry, horizontal, vertical and mixed.

By territorial coverage - between two or more countries, within the region, interregional and worldwide.

According to the number of subjects (parties) - bilateral and multilateral.

According to the number of objects - single and multi-subject.

Participants are driven to participate in the international division of labor by the desire to obtain economic benefits.

According to UN experts, international agreements on technical cooperation and the exchange of units and parts based on cooperation, on average, reduce the time for setting up the production of new types of products by about 14-20 months compared to organizing it exclusively on their own, and also reduce by 50-70% cost of production development. In addition, cooperation makes it possible to exceed 90% of the quality level of a foreign partner's products, while the development of foreign technology on its own makes it possible to provide only 70-80% of this indicator.

International production cooperation (IPC)- This is a form of production relations between enterprises of different countries that retain their economic independence and jointly participate in the development, production and marketing of certain products.

The objective basis of the MCP is the growing level of development of the productive forces and the further deepening of the division of labor. In turn, international cooperation acts as a necessary condition for the establishment of highly specialized production and the implementation of large-scale projects, which are often not feasible by the efforts of one country.

Modern international cooperation can be traced not only within the same industry, but is also widely used between enterprises, firms belonging to different industries, different types of activities and methods used.

The main function of labor cooperation- to serve as a means of increasing the produced material goods with higher labor productivity - was supplemented by another important function - to be a means of implementing fundamentally new and challenging tasks, which are difficult or impossible to solve without the combined efforts of manufacturers from several countries.

To the main signs of the MCP relate:

· preliminary agreement by the parties in a contractual manner of the terms of joint activities;

Coordination of production and economic activity partner enterprises in the process of product sales;

participation as direct subjects of production cooperation of industrial enterprises (firms) from different countries;

fixing in a contractual manner as the main objects of cooperation: finished products, components, appropriate technology, etc.

International cooperation is classified according to various criteria:

By types (economic, industrial, scientific and technical, in the field of marketing, etc.);

· by forms (contracting, on the basis of implementation of joint programs, joint entrepreneurship, contractual specialization);

by stages (pre-production, production, commercial);

By the number of subjects (bilateral and multilateral);

By the number of objects (single and multi-subject);

· according to the structure of relations (intra-company, inter-company, intra- and inter-industry, horizontal, vertical, mixed);

· by territorial coverage (multilateral, bilateral, interregional, worldwide).

The ICP, as it develops, involves related processes in its orbit, acquires a more complex character, was called "International Industrial Cooperation".

Benefits of trade

BENEFITS OF TRADE(gains from trade) - additional production and consumption benefits that countries can receive from international trade. Countries trade with each other for basically the same reasons that individuals, firms, and regions do - to benefit from SPECIALIZATION. By exchanging some of its products for foreign ones, a country can expand its range of goods and obtain them cheaper. An international division of labor, whereby each country specializes in the production of certain goods that it can successfully produce, allows for an increase in the total volume of world production and a rise in the standard of living.

The choice of goods in which a given country should specialize is determined to a large extent by the advantages it has over other countries in the production of these goods. Advantages arise because a country can produce certain goods more efficiently, i.e., at a lower cost than other countries. The static or "pure" theory of international trade notes that opportunities for mutually beneficial trade arise as a result of differences in comparative costs or comparative advantages. Countries will benefit from trade if each of them exports (see EXPORT) those goods in the production of which its costs are relatively lower, and import (see IMPORT) goods in the production of which its costs are relatively higher.

Customs duties

Customs duty - a tax imposed on goods and other items that are imported into the customs territory or exported from its borders through the customs border.

Customs duties include import customs duty, including seasonal duties, and export customs duty.

The largest list of goods is subject to import customs duties.
Export customs duties are levied mainly on goods classified as raw materials (wood and wood products, charcoal, crude oil, petroleum products, ethyl alcohol).
The procedure for paying customs duty is established by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation.
The list of rates of customs duties for specific types of goods is fixed in the Customs Tariff of the Russian Federation. The customs tariff of the Russian Federation is approved by the Government of the Russian Federation.
The names and designation of goods in the Customs Tariff of the Russian Federation are carried out in accordance with Commodity nomenclature foreign economic activity.

Economic methods are primarily understood as customs duties, various taxes and fees, import deposits that increase the cost of imported goods and reduce its competitiveness in the domestic market compared to local similar goods. Administrative methods include quantitative limits, systems of permits (licenses) and prohibitions (embargos) on imports or exports, self-restriction of supplies by the exporter, specific technical requirements for goods or packaging, bureaucratic complication of customs procedures that directly restrict the access of imported goods to the domestic market (or local to external). There is a fundamental difference between these two groups of means of regulating foreign trade. When using economic means, the final right to choose imported or local goods, resources remains with the consumer, who is guided by the price, quality, terms of delivery of products or the provision of resources. When using administrative means, the market mechanism is violated, the range of goods is reduced, the possibility of access to resources is reduced, and in fact, the choice of products or resources by the consumer in favor of domestic ones is forcibly predetermined.

Non-tariff methods include a wide range of instruments of modern economic and trade policy of states, some of them are not directly related to foreign economic regulation, but nevertheless have a significant impact on foreign economic activity and foreign trade. In particular, according to the most common classification of non-tariff methods of regulation in foreign trade, adopted by the UN, they are divided into three types. The first type includes methods aimed at directly restricting imports in order to protect certain sectors of national production: licensing and import quotas, anti-dumping and countervailing duties, import deposits, so-called "voluntary" export restrictions, countervailing fees, a system of minimum import prices, etc. e. The first species is the most numerous and covers more than half of all.

We list three types of direct objects of customs legal relations, into which they are divided depending on the level of customs taxation.

1. Goods with high quality characteristics, produced in the country in sufficient quantities to fully meet demand. For this category of goods, the maximum rates of customs duties should be set upon import in order to support the domestic producer. In Russia, such goods include alcohol-containing products, foodstuffs, raw materials, etc. The goods of this group have all the conditions to be competitive at the world level.

2. Goods produced within the country in sufficient quantities to meet demand, but the quality of which is inferior to the quality of imported analogues. it cars, household appliances, finishing materials, etc. Customs duty rates for such goods should be balanced, allowing foreign products to enter the domestic market for healthy competition with domestic producers. The consumer has the right to choose. The production of these goods at a certain level is necessary from the point of view of the national security of the country, but one cannot ignore the fact that under favorable conditions in the future they may enter the first group.

3. Goods that are not produced in the country due to any factors (some medicines, unique technologies, tropical fruits). To import such goods, tariff barriers must be removed. Therefore, the rates of customs duties here should be minimal or remain at zero. In other words, the importation of goods of this group should be under the undoubted protection of the state.

The value of customs tariff rates as a whole should not be excessively high, it should correspond to the degree of protection of the national market for products (in other words, it is required to raise the price of imported goods to the level of the price of domestic goods). Any mistake in determining the customs tariff can cause irreparable harm to the relevant industries, which will entail sharply negative consequences for the country's economy as a whole. Thoughtful dynamics of the customs tariff can pave the way for solving budgetary problems. "The range of changes in duties should be set in such a way as to quite definitely fix the order of their magnitude and at the same time give the Government the opportunity to respond to changes in the national and world market conditions."

Changes in import duties affect the state of domestic production, since duties regulate the import of goods. The reduction in duties increases the pressure of foreign competitors on domestic production, ousting domestic producers from the domestic market. But at the same time, it serves as a powerful factor that encourages domestic producers to increase the efficiency and competitiveness of their production, reduce production costs and improve the quality of manufactured goods. The inconsistency of the consequences of changing duties is obvious. The problem is that when they are reviewed, an optimal solution is found that, on the one hand, would maintain the state of competition on the domestic market at the proper level, encouraging domestic producers to improve production, improve quality and reduce costs, and on the other hand, would not lead to to the displacement of domestic producers from the domestic market.