General information about the city of Perm. Structural state of soils in the Perm region and recommendations for its improvement

The main part of the Perm Territory is in the European part of Russia (99.8% of the total area), and only a small part (0.2% of the area) is in the Asian part. The eastern part of this territorial formation is located on the western slopes of the middle and northern parts of the Ural Range, which is the natural border between Europe and Asia. The borders of the region stretched for more than two thousand kilometers, to be precise - for 2.2 thousand km. From the north, the Komi Republic adjoins the Perm Territory, in the west the region borders on Udmurtia and the Kirov Region, in the south - on Bashkiria, and in the east, along the mountains, the border passes with the Sverdlovsk Region.

The diversity and richness of the nature of the region is created by two decisive factors: the Ural Mountains in the east and the Kama River, the largest tributary of the Volga, flowing through its territory. Natural landscapes are represented by both flat areas in the western part and mountains in the east.

2. Relief

As noted above, in the Perm Territory, the relief, which is predominantly low-lying and flat in the west (80% of the area is occupied by the marginal part of the East European Plain), is replaced by mountainous (20% of the area) in the eastern part. The Ural Mountains, which occupy the eastern part of the region, determine the relief of this part of the region and are the source of its wealth. Moreover, the Northern Urals is characterized by a medium-mountainous relief, and the Middle Urals is characterized by a low-mountainous one.

The richness and diversity of minerals was formed over millions of years from sediments that accumulated at the bottom of the ancient Perm Sea, which was located on the site of the current Ural Mountains about 285 million years ago. Now the bottom sediments of the paleosea are mined in the form of various minerals and salts.

The mountains of the Ural Range are among the oldest on Earth. According to some scientists, during their formation they were among the highest on the planet. But the past millions of years, the processes of erosion and natural destruction have left only the bases from the former peaks.

In the old days, the Ural Mountains were called "Ural Stone", "Belt Stone". On the Big Drawing - this is the very first map of the Russian state - the Ural Mountains are designated as "Big Stone". And now the word "stone" is found in the names mountain peaks. "Stones" in the Urals are called individual rocks and mountains that stand out from others and rise sharply above the surrounding area.

In the Perm region, the most high mountains bear the names: Tulymsky stone (height 1496 m), Isherim (height 1331 m), Khu-Soik (height 1300 m), Prayer Stone (height 1240 m).

In addition to the mountains, there is another local natural attraction - karst caves. The real treasures of the region are: Kungur Ice Cave, Divya Cave, Orda Cave and others.
The Kungur cave, probably the most famous of them, is famous for its ice halls outside of both the Perm region itself and Russia. Some caves are guided tours, while others remain in their original form, but they are all unique in their own way.

3. Minerals

In the Perm Territory, near the cities of Berezniki and Solikamsk, there is the Verkhnekamsk salt deposit. Its deposits of sodium chloride (rock salt), potassium chloride (potassium salt), and potassium and magnesium chloride (potassium-magnesium salt) rank second in the world. Thick salt layers occur at depths from 90 to 600 m.

Salt deposits were discovered in the 15th century. The region owes this discovery and the beginning of development to merchants from Novgorod, the Kalinnikov brothers. They built the first saltworks along with housing for workers on the banks of the rivers Borovitsa and Usolka. Salt was extracted by digestion from brines - very saturated salt solutions that form in places where groundwater comes out to salt layers and wash them away.

The settlement of salt-workers was later named Salt Kamskaya. By the name of this settlement, the city that appeared here was named Solikamsk. Even more salt began to be mined with the appearance of industrialists and merchants of the Stroganovs in these places. They arrived on the banks of the Kama and Usolka in 1558 with a letter of commendation from Tsar Ivan the Terrible. The Stroganovs and laid the foundation for the full-scale development of the Kama region.

In the Permian subsoil, in addition to ordinary rock salt, there are many other types of these minerals, for example, potassium salts, as well as potassium-magnesium salts. The first deposits of such salts were discovered at the beginning of the 20th century, in 1906. Found them N.P. Ryazantsev while drilling a well in the city of Solikamsk.

Already under Soviet rule in 1925, deposits of sylvinite were discovered near the first well - this is potash salt, which has a pinkish color. Fertilizers are produced from potassium salts, they are used in the manufacture of glass and much more.
Further, in 1927, Soviet geologists discovered carnalite (potassium-magnesium salt) under the layers of halite (rock salt). These salts are orange and dark red in color, magnesium is obtained from them - durable and light metal. It is used to create alloys for the aviation and shipbuilding industries.

The Perm Territory, moreover, is an oil-producing region. Oil was first discovered here in 1928 while drilling a well near the town of Chusovoi. In 1934, another oil field was discovered, this happened in Krasnokamsk during the drilling of an artesian well. The deposit was named Krasnokamskoye. Some time later, Osinskoye, Ordinskoye, Chernushinskoye, Kuedinskoye and other oil fields were discovered in the center and south of the region. According to the international classification, Permian oil belongs to the Urals brand.

Deposits are being developed in the Perm region hard coal. Its extraction was carried out for almost two hundred years in two areas: Gubakha and Kizel. The Kizelovsky coal basin supplied hard coal to almost all corners of Russia. Coal was the fuel for thermal power plants and industrial enterprises throughout the Kama region. Now, after such a long and intensive development, coal deposits in the region have begun to dry up and there is a need to search for new deposits.

In the Perm Territory, another type of combustible minerals is being developed - peat. According to geologists, its reserves are about 2 billion tons.

At the Saranovskoye deposit, which is located in the Gornozavodsk region of the region, chromite or chromium iron ore is mined. Chromite reserves in this deposit are estimated as one of the largest in Russia.

Diamonds are mined on the territory of the Krasnovishersky district; they were first found here back in 1829. Most of the mined diamonds are colorless, but you can find "blue" and "yellow water" diamonds.

From precious minerals, gold is still mined here. The main mining of this metal is carried out in the Vishera River basin. The largest deposits still open in late XIX centuries are Chuvalskoe and Popovskaya Sopka.
Other riches of the bowels of the Perm region: selenite, gypsum, sand, clay, limestone. They are mainly used in construction.

4. Climate

The climate of the Perm Territory is characterized as temperate and continental. The first factor that forms the local climate is the transfer of air masses from the west, the second is the terrain. The Ural Mountains act as a kind of barrier, because of their influence, the climate in the eastern and northeastern regions of the region differs from the climate in the rest of the territory. In these areas, the average annual temperature is lower than in areas located at the same latitude, in the western part of the region. Also, in the mountains, there is more precipitation than in the western regions. In the northern regions of the region, the average annual temperature is 0o, in the south +2o, and in the northeast and in the mountains, these temperatures are negative.

Winters in the Perm Territory are severe - windy and cold. Average temperatures during this period range from -14o in the south and southwest to -18o in the mountains in the east. Absolute minimum temperatures in winter -47 and -54o, depending on the area. The absolute maximum temperature was recorded in 2007 and amounted to +4.3o. Duration winter period 170-190 days. In winter, precipitation falls most of yu, in the form of snow. The beginning of the formation of snow cover occurs at the end of October in the northern regions and in the middle of November in the southern regions. By the end of March, the snow cover reaches a height: in the south and southwest - from 50 to 60 cm, and in the mountains in the northeast - up to 100 cm. The snow completely melts only at the end of April (usually in the third decade), in the mountains he can lie until June.

Active snowmelt occurs, as a rule, in the first half of April, just at this time the air warms up and its temperature becomes above 0o. In spring, the weather is very unstable, in the first ten days of April there are even frosts down to -20 / -25o, and already in the third decade the air temperature can reach +25o. Depending on the area, the average temperatures in April can vary from -2o in the northern regions to +3o in the south. April also has the most strong winds, up to 10 m / s. In the month of May, until the last decade, frosts down to -5o and below are possible, and even snowfalls.

Summer in the Perm Territory is quite warm: the average air temperature in July is from +13 in the north to +18.5 / 18.7o in the south. The absolute maximum, depending on the region, is +35o / +38o. But severe frosts are also possible. The swimming season lasts about 30 days in the northern regions and about 100 days in the south. Summer is the period of the greatest (up to 40%) precipitation in the region. The level of precipitation is from 100 mm in the mountains to 70 mm in the southern regions. In addition to rain, thunderstorms, hail, heavy downpours, and squalls are also possible. At the end of summer, in August, the air temperature drops below +15o and autumn frosts begin.
In autumn, the weather in the Perm Territory is formed by cyclones. As a rule, in the last days of October the air cools down to 0o and below. In October average temperature is +2o in the southern and -2o in the northern regions of the region. Then, in October, a stable snow cover begins to form. Snow finally falls in November, when the air cools down to -5o and below. Freezing begins on the rivers in the second half of November, the Kama is the last to stop, this happens already on the 20th of the last autumn month.

5. Rivers, lakes, swamps

The water resources of the Perm Territory include 29,000 rivers, their total length is more than 90,000 kilometers. The main river of the region is the Kama. This is the left largest tributary of the Volga, all other rivers of the region either flow into it or belong to its basin. On the territory of the region, the Kama flows in its middle and partially upper reaches.

Most of the rivers in the Kama basin are medium and small. To the class big rivers, that is, those whose length is more than 500 kilometers include two: Kama itself and Chusovaya. Among the entire set of rivers of the Kama basin, only 40 are called medium-sized. This status is given to rivers with a length of 100 to 500 kilometers. The largest of these rivers: Sylva (493 km); Vishera (415 km); Colva (460 km); Yaiva (403 km); Kosva (283 km); Veslyana (266 km); Inva (257 km); Obva (247 km).

They feed on the Kama with tributaries, mainly waters formed during the melting of snow. They are characterized by prolonged freeze-up and low water in winter and summer period. In the north, floods are longer due to the abundance of forests and higher snow cover. Most of the rivers of the Perm Territory are flat. They have a calm flow and strongly meander (wriggle) over the relief. The left tributaries of the Kama begin in the mountains, and in the upper reaches they have all the signs of mountain rivers: a rapid current, rapids and waterfalls, but, having descended from the mountains to the plain, they acquire a flat character. The banks of the left tributaries of the Kama often have rocky and stone outcrops.

For centuries, the Kama and its tributaries were not only water resources, but were also transport arteries. From Kama to Chusovaya and further to the east, Yermak went on his famous campaign. Now the rivers are popular places for recreation and fishing.

Another component water resources Perm region are lakes. There are more than 5.8 thousand lakes and artificial reservoirs throughout the region. The total area of ​​their surface is more than 3.2 thousand square kilometers. The main part of the lakes are floodplain lakes and oxbow lakes. In the north of the region, among the swamps, there are relict lakes. In the central part of the region there are karst lakes.

Chusovskoye is the largest lake in the region, its area is 19.4 km2. The next largest lakes after Chusovsky are Bolshoy Kumiush (17.8 km2) and Novozhilovo (7.12 km2). The largest reservoirs are Votkinskoe and Kamskoe on the Kama and Shirokovskoe on Kosva. Lake Igum, not far from Solikamsk, has the highest salt content (25.6 g/l). The area of ​​the largest underground lake is 1300 m2, it is located in one of the grottoes of the Kungur ice cave. The deepest karst lakes: Rogalek - 61 meters, Beloe - 46 meters, Large (which is in the Dobryansky district) - 30 meters.

About 3.7% of the entire area of ​​the region is occupied by swamps, there are about 1000 of them in total. Most of the swamps are in the western, northwestern and northern regions of the region. Quite a significant part of them are overgrown lakes. The main vegetation in the swamps is mosses, horsetails and lichens. In addition to these plants, there are sedge, sundew, blueberries, cotton grass, cranberries, reeds, wild rosemary, pemphigus, and others.

6. Soil diversity

Podzolic soils are the most widespread type of soils in the Perm region. They are so called because of the characteristic gray color. In the north, the edges of the soil are strongly podzolic with a low content of humus. To the south, soil types change, they become sod-podzolic, an increase in the layer of sod and humus is observed. According to their mechanical composition, they are divided into clayey and sandy. In the east, in the mountains, there are more mountain forest brown and mountain podzolic soils. And only in the south, in the area of ​​Kungur, Orda and Suksun, there are very small areas of black soil.
Most soils of the region are not suitable for intensive farming without the use of fertilizers, both organic and mineral.

7. Natural landscapes

The richness of the nature of the Perm Territory is evidenced by the fact that there are three hundred and twenty-five natural protected objects on its territory. Among them are natural protected landscapes, nature reserves, geological natural monuments and reserves, as well as many other natural monuments protected by law. Two of them stand out in particular: the Vishera and Basegi reserves, both of which are of national importance.

Most protected natural areas in the Cherdynsky district - 44 protected zones. It is followed by the number of protected natural zones and objects: Bolshesosnovsky district - 21, Solikamsky district - 17, Chusovsky district - 17, Krasnovishersky district - 15.

8. Vegetation

The Perm Territory is covered with forests, they account for more than 2/3 of the entire territory. Basically, the forests here are represented by species of dark coniferous taiga. There are two main taiga zones in the region - southern and middle taiga. The main difference between these zones is the composition of the undergrowth growing in them.

For example, in the southern taiga there are deciduous tree species: lindens, maples, elms, which are not found in the middle taiga. There, perhaps, you can find bush linden. The main tree species in the dark coniferous taiga are spruce (up to 80% of forests) and fir (up to 20% of forests). Spruce here is represented by two species of equal value: European and Siberian. It is extremely rare to find patches of light coniferous forest, mostly pine forests.

In the south of the region, small oak groves grow and there are areas of other broad-leaved species. Previously, the areas of oak forests were much larger, but over time, oaks were replaced by spruce. Even in local forests there are: junipers, birch of three types (warty, drooping and fluffy). Less common: steppe cherry, mountain ash, larch, bird cherry and aspen,
In the Permian forests they gather: blueberries, wild roses, wild strawberries, black and red currants, mountain ash, blueberries, and in the swamps - cranberries.

9. Fauna of the Perm Territory

The animals living in the region are mainly represented by species distributed in the European territory of Russia, but there are also species of Siberian origin. In total, there are up to 60 different species of mammals in the region. Small predatory animals here are various types of mustelids: ermine, pine marten, weasel, weasel. Moreover, in terms of the number of martens, the region is one of the leading places in Russia. In the northern forests there is a wolverine, in the forests of the northeastern slopes of the Vishera one can meet a large Ural sable. The otter and the badger live in the south and in the center of the region. There are many squirrels in all forests from north to south. The habitats of deciduous trees are the habitat of the white hare.

Almost throughout the region, with the exception of the southern regions, bears and lynxes are found, but their numbers are very small. But there are a lot of wolves and they are found throughout the region. Most animal species are commercial. A special license is required only for moose hunting. The same applies to hunting for fur-bearing animals: sable, otter, marten.
Protected animal species that are prohibited from hunting are deer and roe deer. AT last years raccoon dogs, beavers, Ussuri raccoons, muskrats began to appear in the Permian forests, these animals are not native, they penetrate from neighboring regions.

There are 270 species of birds in the Perm Territory. Throughout the territory, tits and crossbills are most common. The most common forest birds, on which commercial hunting is even allowed, are capercaillie, hazel grouse and black grouse. Migratory birds living in the region are represented by rooks, swallows, starlings and thrushes. Swifts and orioles fly less often. Swans and geese only migrate through the Perm region to the north. The main raptors living in the area are owls, eagles, crows.

About 40 species of fish are found in the Kama and its tributaries. The most numerous are pike, bleak, ide, asp, white-eye, silver bream, crucian carp, pike perch, ruff, roach, blue bream, sabrefish, dace, loach, pike perch, burbot, perch, catfish, gudgeon, chub. 5 varieties are included in the Red Book: bystrianka, brook trout, taimen, sterlet and sculpin. Before reservoirs and hydroelectric power stations were built on the Kama, the Caspian lamprey, beluga, 3 species of herring and white salmon were found in it. Now these species of fish have disappeared, but sprat, catfish and rotan have appeared.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Perm State Agricultural

Academy named after Academician D.N. Pryanishnikova

Department of Soil Science

Soils of the Perm region of the Perm region. Their agronomic assessment, appraisal and suitability for cultivation of raspberry crop

Course work

student group P-21

Sokolov A.V.

head-docent

Skryabina O.A.

Introduction

General information about culture

2.Natural conditions Perm region

2.1 Geographical position

2.2 Climate

4Vegetation

5Underlying (bedrock) and soil-forming rocks

3.General characteristics soil cover

1 Systematic list of soils of the OPF Lobanovo of the Perm region of the Perm Territory

2 Main soil-forming processes and classification of the main soil types

3 Morphological characteristics of soils

4 Physical and water-physical properties

5 Physical and chemical properties

Soil evaluation

Rationale for land placement

6.Improve soil fertility

Bibliographic list

Introduction

In the system of measures aimed at improving soil fertility, obtaining high and sustainable yields of all agricultural crops and soil protection, the leading role belongs to rational use soil cover. Agricultural land should be located taking into account soil and climatic conditions, biological features cultivation of crops, accounting for the specialization of agricultural enterprises, etc.

The purpose of the course work is to identify the features of the placement of raspberries, depending on the properties of the soil cover of the Perm region of the Perm region.

Consolidate the knowledge gained during the study of the theoretical and practical course "Soil science with the basics of geology."

To master the methods of scientific substantiation of the placement of lands on different types of soils.

Qualified to analyze the planned activities to improve fertility and soil protection and prove their agronomic and economic feasibility.

Learn to work with literature sources and cartographic soil materials and summarize the information received.

1. General information about culture

Raspberry is a shrub with a perennial root system, 1.5-2.5 m high, which has a two-year development cycle: in the first year, shoots grow, lay buds; in the second year they bear fruit and die. The root system is formed large quantity adventitious roots extending from a lignified rhizome.

It is well developed: individual roots can penetrate to a depth of 1.5-2 m, and away from the bush - more than 1 m. However, the bulk of the roots are at a depth of up to 25 cm and at a distance of 30 - 45 cm from the center of the bush , The surface occurrence of the roots is due to the high demands of raspberries on the water regime and soil fertility, which must be taken into account when growing it.

Raspberries are moisture-loving, but do not withstand waterlogging, they prefer soils rich in humus, well-drained, with groundwater no closer than 1-1.5 m, as well as places with good air drainage, but protected from prevailing winds.

This crop is very sensitive to low location in damp soil, it does not tolerate even short-term flooding. At the same time, throughout the growing season, the soil should be well moistened. The maximum need for moisture in raspberries occurs during the end of flowering at the beginning of ripening berries.

Before laying plantations of heavy mechanical composition in sandy soils, they require cultivating (introducing large doses of compost, peat, lime). They should be loose, moisture-intensive, with a neutral or slightly acid reaction of the environment (pH 5.8-6.7).

On the roots and rhizomes of raspberries, buds are laid, which, when grown, form two types of shoots: offspring shoots and replacement shoots.

Offspring shoots are formed from buds on horizontally located adventitious roots. Therefore, they may be at a considerable distance from the mother plant. In the first year, these shoots can be used as planting material to expand the plantation. Being left for overwintering, they will produce berries next year.

Raspberries begin to bloom most often in mid-June, when spring frosts have passed. Therefore, the possibility of obtaining annual raspberry crops in local conditions is much higher compared to other fruit and berry crops.

Raspberry is a photophilous plant. Only under normal lighting can one count on a high yield of high-quality berries. Lack of light when landing near fences, buildings, under the crown fruit trees leads to the fact that young shoots are strongly drawn out, shading fruit-bearing ones. The period of their growth increases, they do not have time to prepare for wintering.

In low light, plants are more susceptible to infection by pests and diseases, while the quality of berries is sharply reduced. At the same time, in too high, open areas, plants often lack moisture and suffer from winter drying.

The annual reproduction of annual shoots and the drying out of all two-year shoots after fruiting is one of the distinctive features raspberries.

Careful preparation of the soil for planting raspberries is just as necessary to obtain high yields as the selection of the most productive varieties. On poor soils, seedlings take root poorly, few new shoots grow, they are undeveloped, root system weak, superficial.

With a rare distance of shoots and the death of some of them, empty areas are formed, which are quickly overgrown with weeds. On a plantation planted on an unprepared site, it is almost impossible to obtain good harvests, even if further high doses of fertilizers are applied.

Vegetable crops are desirable as precursors of raspberries. However, raspberries should not be planted after potatoes, tomatoes and other nightshade crops, as they are affected by the same diseases.

After harvesting the previous crop, no later than 2-3 weeks before planting, 15-20 kg / m 3 of compost or rotted manure, 25-30 g / m of potassium sulfate or potassium salt and 50-60 g / m superphosphate.

The advantage of introducing significant doses of organic fertilizers for digging is undeniable. However, it is sometimes impossible to implement these recommendations in practice. In this case, a deep (up to 30-40 cm) furrow is dug out on a previously dug-up area, which, after being filled with organic matter, serves as a planting site for raspberries.

The annual death of at least half of the entire above-ground part of the raspberry leads to a rapid removal nutrients from the soil. Therefore, along with the use of healthy planting material, the basis for creating a productive plantation is the systematic application of fertilizers for a balanced plant nutrition.

Mulching when growing raspberries is a must. It prevents the growth of weeds, helps to retain moisture, protects the soil from compaction and the formation of a soil crust, and increases the biological activity of the soil.

Mulch has a significant effect on temperature regime soil, the amplitude of temperature fluctuations under a layer of mulch is less: in summer the root system is protected from overheating, in winter - from freezing. The shoot-forming ability of plants is reduced, therefore, labor costs for cutting excess shoots are reduced. Organic fertilizers are enough to apply every two years. Good results are also obtained by annual mulching, which allows you to create a powerful fertile layer soil and a large supply of humus in it.

Raspberries grow best on fertile loamy and sandy soils. Makes high demands on the content of nitrogen and potassium. With high doses of organic fertilizers and good water permeability of the subsoil, it can bear fruit well even on the worst soils.

2. Natural conditions of the Perm region

.1 Geographic location of the area

The territory of the OPF Lobanovskoye is located to the south of the regional center, about 20 km.

Geographical coordinates of the farm: 57°50 s. sh. and 56°25 in. d.

2.2 Relief

Land use is located on the 8th floodplain terrace of the river. Kama and the general character of the relief are large-rolled. The prevailing exposure of the slopes is eastern and northeastern.

The relief of the farm is an alternation of upland areas and slopes, with a steepness of 3° to 8°, and the slope terraces are occupied by forest.

The hydrological network is represented by the river. Mulyanka and streams confined to the beam network. The maximum absolute mark is 267.4 m above sea level. rock soil land natural

Local erosion bases are 60-65 m. The length of plowed slopes is about 500 m, which causes an erosion hazard and the formation of washed-out soils. Horizontal dissection of the relief 0.8 km/km 2.

The climate in the Perm region is temperate continental, the average monthly air humidity ranges from 61% in May to 85% in November, the average annual humidity is 74%. The average monthly temperature in January is -15.1 July - +18.1. The duration of the frost-free period on the soil surface is 97 days, the annual amount of precipitation is 570 mm.

Table of average long-term values ​​of meteorological elements according to the weather station in Perm

Weather elementsMonths of the year JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberNovemberDecemberyearAverage monthly temperature 0C-15.1-13.4-7.22.610.216.018.115.69.41.6-6.6-12.91.5 Absolute minimum temperature, 0С-45-41-35-24-13-3+2-1-8-21-38-44-45Absolute maximum temperature, 0C46142735363737302212337Wind speed, m/s3.43.53.43.13.63.52.72.83.13.63.53.33.3Precipitation, mm382731354764686259554341570 Snow depth, cm 5 e 4660705582515e 516571 24103125e 566670631839 Absolute humidity, mb 2.01.92.95.27.411.513.712.99.35.83.52.36.5 Relative humidity, % 82787568606268727883838374 77.313.316.215.811.45.21.3-0.15.81.2 m.2.01.61.21.04.28.712.113.412.08.34.82.96.0

The annual rainfall is just over 600 mm, most of which falls as rain. In winter, the height of the snow cover can reach 111 cm. However, usually at the end of winter it is a little more than half a meter. Sometimes a small amount of snow can fall in the summer month. Steady snow cover is observed at the end of the first decade of November.

The highest wind speed falls on January-May and September-November, reaching 3.4 - 3.6 m/s. The lowest wind speeds are observed in July and August.

2.4 Vegetation

According to the botanical and geographical zoning of the Perm Territory (S. A. Ovesnov, 1997), the territory OPH Lobanovo belongs to the 3rd district - broad-leaved - spruce - fir forests of the southern taiga zone.

OPH Lobanovo as a botanical monument of nature, it was proposed for protection by A. A. Khrebtov in 1925. Vegetation cover is represented by relict grass linden forest, grass maple forest, raspberry-horsetail-sour fir forest. In the east of land use, small areas are occupied by aspen forests.

In flora OPH Lobanovo there are more than 230 species of vascular plants. A rare species, listed in the Red Book of Russia and the Middle Urals, was noted - the anemone bent. The soil is soddy-slightly podzolic.

I tier: 7E 2C 10

Tree height 20 - 25 m

Trunk diameter 40 - 35 cm

Forest density 0.8

th tier - mountain ash, bird cherry

Undergrowth - spruce, fir

The tier of shrubs - wild rose, honeysuckle, viburnum, warbler.

Herbaceous layer - projective cover 65%, mossiness is absent.

Species composition: drooping pearl barley, rank, hare oxalis, forest chickweed, soft bedstraw, forest geranium, celandine, forest violet, oak speedwell, wild hoof, wild strawberry, two-leaved mullet, obscure lungwort, spiked cornflower, rough cornflower.

2.5 Underlying (bedrock) and soil-forming rocks

The bedrocks are deposits of the Ufimian stage of the Permian system.

Sandstones are greenish-gray, polymictic medium- and fine-grained, often with oblique bedding. Sometimes they contain pebbles of red-brown clay 3-5 mm in diameter. In individual pocket-like depressions, such pebbles even form conglomerates. Sandstone cement is gypsum or carbonate. The main mass of clastic material consists of fragments of effusive rocks, grains of quartz and plagioclase (up to 20-30% of the total mass of fragments). The shape of the grains is angular, the size is 0.1-0.3 mm, rarely up to 1 mm.

From the surface, the sandstones are strongly weathered, decemented, and strongly fractured. Vertical cracks are up to 0.6 m wide and are filled with deluvium. Pieces of rock taken from the surface of the outcrop disintegrate from a light blow with a hammer into small fragments or crumble into sand.

The parent rocks are ancient alluvial deposits and eluvium of Permian clays.

Composition of alluvium major rivers It is formed due to the supply of material from the western slope of the Urals, the destruction of the Upper Permian deposits, as well as the transport of material by fluvioglacial waters during the melting of glaciers. Pliocene alluvium forms the fifth terrace above the floodplain of some rivers of the Cis-Urals. It is represented by red-brown and dark-brown, sometimes sandy clays with quartz pebbles and rubble of local rocks.

The eluvium of Permian clays occurs in separate spots on the tops of hills and ridges, and in the middle parts of sloping and very sloping slopes. It is a structureless dense mass, sometimes with inclusions of semi-weathered pieces of Permian clay in the form of tiles with conchoidal fracture. A characteristic feature is rich bright colors of color: reddish-brown, chocolate-brown, raspberry-red, brownish-red. This color is betrayed by non-silicate iron, which is in the oxide form. If during sedimentation there was a local accumulation of carbon organic matter, part of the iron has passed into the divalent form. Therefore, layers of green and greenish-gray color are sometimes noted in Permian clay, associated with the presence of chamosite and siderite minerals.

The rock most often has a clay granulometric composition, the clay content varies between 60 - 70%, silt 20 - 47%. The rock is more often non-carbonate, but the presence of carbonates is not excluded. Mineralogical analysis of silt shows that Permian clays consist of montmorillonite (predominant), kaolinite, hydromicas, and chlorite.

In terms of chemical composition, the eluvium of Permian clays is richer than the cover deposits, contains 10% less silicon oxide, and has an increased cation exchange capacity (30-50 meq/100 g of rock). The amount of mobile forms of phosphorus and potassium can be both high and low.

Eluvium of Permian clays is the parent rock of soddy-brown and brownish-brown soils, rarely - soddy-podzolic. The role of the agent that inhibits podzolization belongs to the sesquioxides released during weathering.

table 2

Granulometric composition of soil-forming rocks of the Perm region of the Perm region.

sample depth, cmDiameter of particles, content, mm, % rocks1-0.250.25-0.050.05-0.010.01-0.0050.005-0.001 less than 0.001 less than 0.01 ,37.724.538.770.9 clayey Ancient alluvial deposits103-1175.983.01.40.80.97.08.7 sand

Sandy soils have a separate partial composition, and are characterized by high water permeability, low moisture capacity, lack of structural aggregates, low humus content, low cation exchange capacity and absorption capacity in general, low content of nutrients. The advantage of sandy soils is loose structure, good air permeability and rapid warming up, which has a positive effect on the supply of oxygen to root systems.

3.General characteristics of the soil cover

3.1 Systematic list of soilsOPH Lobanovo

Table 3

No. Soil indices and soil coloration. map Soil name Granulometric composition rockRelief occurrence conditionsArea HA%1PD 3SAD Soddy-shallow podzolic medium loamy Ancient alluvial deposits Upland areas54152PD 2SPD Sod-small podzolic, medium loamy Covering non-loess-like clays and loamsSlope 0.5-1°88243PD 2LAD Soddy-small podzolic light loamy Ancient alluvial depositsSlope 0.5-1.5°2264PD 1TE 1soddy-weakly podzolic heavy loamy Eluvium of Permian claysSlope 1-2°615PD 1LAD Soddy-weakly podzolic light loamy Ancient alluvial depositsSlope 1-2°63176PD 1LAD ↓↓soddy-weakly podzolic medium eroded light loamy ancient alluvial depositsSlope 5-6°45127DBTE 1Soddy-brown heavy loamy Eluvium of Permian clays Ridge tops 2268DK AT GE 5Soddy carbonate alcaline clay Eluvium of limestones, marls Hill tops 2369D nm SD Soddy reclaimed medium loamy Deluvial deposits Bottoms of dens and gullies 8210D nm _G Soddy reclaimed subsoil-gleyic medium loamy Deluvial deposits Bottoms of ravines and gullies 4111

total area OPH Lobanovo is 372 ha. Soddy-small podzolic medium loamy soils are ¼ part of the total farm area. Soils are formed on different parent rocks, mainly on ancient alluvial deposits. According to the granulometric composition, the soils are heavy loamy, medium loamy, light loamy and clayey.

3.2 Main soil-forming processes and classification of the main soil types

Soddy-podzolic soils develop under the influence of podzolic and soddy processes. In the upper part of the profile, they have a humus-eluvial (soddy) horizon formed as a result of the sod process, below - a podzolic horizon formed as a result of the podzolic process. These soils are characterized by a small thickness of the soddy horizon, low content of humus and nutrients, acidic reaction, and the presence of an infertile podzolic horizon.

Characteristics of the podzolic process: According to Williams W.R. (1951) the podzolic process proceeds under the influence of a woody plant formation and is associated with a certain group of specific organic acids (crenic or fulvic acids in modern terminology) that cause the decomposition of soil minerals. The movement of decomposition products of minerals is carried out mainly in the form of organo-mineral compounds.

Based on the available experimental data, the development of the podzolic process can be represented as follows.

In its purest form, the podzolic process occurs under the canopy of a coniferous taiga forest with poor or no herbaceous vegetation. Dying parts of woody and moss-lichen vegetation accumulate mainly on the soil surface. These residues contain little calcium, nitrogen and many sparingly soluble compounds, such as lignin, waxes, resins and tannins Williams VR. (1951).

During the decomposition of the forest litter, various water-soluble organic compounds are formed. The low content of nutrients and bases in the litter, as well as the predominance of fungal microflora, contribute to the intensive formation of acids, among which fulvic acids and low molecular weight organic acids (formic, acetic, citric, etc.) are most common. The acidic products of the litter are partially neutralized by the bases released during its mineralization; some of them enter the soil with water, interacting with its mineral compounds. Organic acids are added to the acidic products of the forest floor, which are formed during the vital activity of microorganisms directly in the soil itself, as well as secreted by plant roots. However, despite the indisputable lifetime role of plants and microorganisms in the destruction of minerals, highest value in podzolization, it belongs to acidic products of a specific and non-specific nature, formed in the process of transformation of organic residues of the forest litter.

As a result of the leaching water regime and the action of acidic compounds, all easily soluble substances are removed from the upper horizons of the forest soil. With further exposure to acids, more stable compounds of primary and secondary minerals are also destroyed. First of all, silty mineral particles are destroyed, therefore, during podzolization, the upper horizon is gradually depleted of silt.

The products of the destruction of minerals pass into solution, and in the form of mineral or organo-mineral compounds they mix from the upper horizons to the lower ones: potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium mainly in the form of salts of carbonic and organic acids (including in the form of fulvates); silica in the form of soluble potassium and sodium silicates and partly pseudosilicic acid Si(OH) 4; sulfur in the form of sulfates. Phosphorus forms mainly sparingly soluble phosphates of calcium, iron and aluminum and is practically washed out weakly Williams V.R. (1951).

Iron and aluminum during podzolization migrate mainly in the form of organo-mineral compounds. The water-soluble organic substances of podzolic soils contain various compounds - fulvic acids, polyphenols, low molecular weight organic acids, acid polysaccharides, etc. Many of these compounds contain, in addition to carboxyl groups and enol hydroxyls, atomic groups (alcohol hydroxyl, carbonyl group, amino groups, etc.). ), which determine the possibility of the formation of a covalent bond. Water-soluble organic substances containing functional groups - carriers of electrovalent and covalent bonds, determine the possibility of a wide formation of complex (including chelated) organo-mineral compounds in soils. In this case, colloidal, molecular and ion-soluble organo-mineral complexes of iron and aluminum with various components water-soluble organic substances.

Such compounds are characterized high strength bonds of metal ions with organic addents in a wide pH range.

Iron - and organoaluminum complexes can have a negative (predominantly) and positive charge, i.e., are presented as high molecular weight and low molecular weight compounds. All this indicates that the organo-mineral complexes of iron and aluminum in the soil solutions of podzolic soils are very diverse; various water-soluble organic compounds are involved in their formation.

As a result of the podzolic process, a podzolic horizon is isolated under the forest floor, which has the following main features and properties: due to the removal of iron and manganese and the accumulation of residual silica, the color of the horizon, from red-brown or yellow-brown, becomes light gray or whitish, reminiscent of the color of furnace ash; the horizon is depleted in nutrients, sesquioxides, and silty particles; the horizon has an acidic reaction and strong base unsaturation; in loamy and clay varieties, it acquires a lamellar-foliate structure or becomes structureless.

Some of the substances removed from the forest litter and podzolic horizon are fixed below the podzolic horizon. An intrusion horizon, or illuvial horizon, is formed, enriched with silty particles, iron and aluminum sesquioxides, and a number of other compounds. The other part of the leached substances with the downward flow of water reaches the floodplain-ground waters and, moving with them, goes beyond the soil profile.

In the illuvial horizon, due to washed-out compounds, secondary minerals such as montmorillonite, iron and aluminum hydroxides, etc. can be formed. The illuvial horizon acquires a noticeable compaction, sometimes some cementation. Hydroxides of iron and manganese in some cases accumulate in the soil profile in the form of ferromanganese nodules. In light soils, they are confined to the illuvial horizon, and in heavy soils, to the podzolic horizon. The formation of these concretions is obviously associated with the vital activity of a specific bacterial microflora.

On rocks homogeneous in granulometric composition, for example, on mantle loams, the illuvial horizon usually forms in the form of dark brown or brown coatings (varnishing) of organo-mineral compounds on the faces of structural units, along the walls of cracks. On light rocks, this horizon is expressed, and in the form of orange-brown or red-brown ortsand interlayers or stands out with a brownish-brown tint.

In some cases, a significant amount of humic substances accumulates in the illuvial horizon of sandy podzolic soils. Such soils are called podzolic illuvial-humus.

Thus, the podzolic process is accompanied by the destruction of the mineral part of the soil and the removal of some destruction products outside the soil profile. Part of the products is fixed in the illuvial horizon, forming new minerals. However, the eluvial process, during podzolization, is opposed by another process, opposite in its essence, associated with the biological accumulation of substances.

Woody vegetation, absorbing nutrients from the soil, creates and accumulates in the process of photosynthesis a huge mass of organic matter, reaching 200-250 tons per 1 ha in mature spruce plantations with a content of 0.5 to 3.5% of ash substances. Some of the synthesized organic matter is annually returned , during its decomposition, the elements of ash and nitrogen nutrition are again used by forest vegetation, and are involved in biological cycle. A certain amount of organic and mineral substances formed during the decay of the forest litter can also be fixed in the upper soil layer. But since during the decomposition and humification of the forest litter, predominantly mobile humic substances arise, and also due to the low content of calcium, which contributes to the fixation of humic substances, little humus usually accumulates. Williams V.R. (1951).

The intensity of the podzolic process depends on the combination of soil formation factors. One of the conditions for its manifestation is a downward flow of water: the less the soil is soaked, the weaker this process proceeds.

Temporary excess soil moisture under the forest enhances the podzolic process. Under these conditions, readily soluble ferrous compounds of iron and manganese and mobile forms of aluminum are formed, which contributes to their removal from the upper soil horizons. In addition, there is a large amount of low molecular weight acids and fulvic acids. Changes in the regime of soil moisture, occurring under the influence of relief, will also enhance or weaken the development of the podzolic process Williams V.R. (1951).

The course of the podzolic process to a large extent depends on the parent rock, in particular on its chemical composition. On carbonate rocks, this process is significantly weakened, which is due to the neutralization of acidic products by free calcium carbonate of the rock and calcium from the litter. In addition, the role of bacteria in the decomposition of litter increases, and this leads to the formation of less acidic products than during fungal decomposition. Further, calcium and magnesium cations, released from the forest floor and contained in the soil, coagulate many organic compounds, iron, aluminum and manganese hydroxides and prevent them from being carried away from the upper soil horizons.

The severity of the podzolic process is also greatly influenced by the composition tree species. In some and under the same habitat conditions, podzolization under deciduous and, in particular, under broad-leaved forests (oak, linden, etc.), occurs less than under coniferous. Podzolization under the forest canopy is enhanced by cuckoo flax and sphagnum mosses.

Although the development of the podzolic process is associated with forest vegetation, however, even in the taiga-forest zone, podzolic soils are not always formed under the forest. Thus, on carbonate rocks, the podzolic process manifests itself only when free carbonates are leached from the upper soil horizons to a certain depth. In Eastern Siberia, under forests, the podzol formation process is weakly expressed, which is determined by a combination of reasons due to the peculiarity of the bioclimatic conditions of this area. Along with podzolization, the genesis of podzolic soils is associated with lessivage. The theory of lessivage (lessivage) originates in the views of K. D. Glinka (1922), who believed that during podzol formation, silty particles are removed from the upper horizons of the soil without their chemical destruction.

Subsequently, Chernescu, Dushafur, Gerasimov I.II., Friedland V.M., Zonn S.V., proposed to distinguish between two independent process- podzolic and lessivation. According to these ideas, the podzolic process occurs under coniferous forests and is accompanied by the destruction of silt particles with the removal of destruction products from the upper horizons to the lower ones. The process of glazing proceeds under deciduous forests with the participation of less acidic humus and is accompanied by the movement of silt particles from the upper horizons to the lower ones without their chemical destruction. It is also believed that glazing precedes podzolization, and under certain conditions both of these processes can occur simultaneously.

Lessivage is a complex process that includes a complex of physical and chemical phenomena that causes the dispersion of clay particles and their movement with a downward current under the protection of mobile organic substances, the complexing and removal of iron.

The slightly acidic and close to neutral reaction of the soil solution and mobile organic substances (fulvic acids, tannins) enhance the development of lessivage.

A number of researchers consider the composition of silt along the profile (ratio SiO 2:R 2O 3) and the presence of "oriented clay", i.e., clay plates of a certain orientation, which makes it possible to judge their movement with a downward flow of water. In the opinion of these scientists, the composition of silt along the profile is constant in glazed soils, while in podzolized soils it is different in the podzolic and illuvial horizons; in glazed soils in the illuvial horizon there is a noticeable amount of "oriented clay", indicating the movement of silt without destruction.

Most researchers believe that the formation of the profile of podzolic soils is the result of a number of processes. However, the leading role in the formation of the podzolic horizon belongs to podzolization. On loamy rocks, it is usually combined with lessivage and surface gleying, which also contribute to the formation of the eluvial-illuvial profile of podzolic soils.

Characteristics of the sod process: In addition to podzol formation, the Perm region is characterized by a sod process of soil formation. The soddy process is characterized by the accumulation of active substances in horizon A. It occurs when there are accumulations of two-digit cations (especially calcium) in the surface horizons of the soil, which counteract the podzol formation process, give stability to active substances, and contribute to their accumulation in the surface horizons.

Williams W.R. (1951) gives an idea of ​​a qualitatively different, soddy process that develops under the "meadow plant formation" does not coincide in time with the podzol-forming process, but alternates with it in its effect on the soil.

The intensive manifestation of the soddy process is determined by the quantity and quality of the synthesized organic matter, the amount of annual litter, and a set of conditions on which the formation and accumulation of humus depends.

During the soddy process, organic matter and ash elements accumulate in the accumulative horizon, giving stable compounds, as well as an increase in the content of the clay fraction in the upper part of the profile.

According to V.V. Ponomareva, as a result of the decomposition of organic matter, humic and fulvic acids are formed. Humic acids coagulate under the action of iron, aluminum, calcium and magnesium, formed as a result of the decay of the forest floor, and precipitate immediately below the A horizon 0, forming A 1.

On each soil, only those agrotechnical measures that are necessary for of this type or even a variety of soils.

Classification of sod-podzolic soils: Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype in the type of podzolic soils, but in terms of their properties and the development of the soddy process, they can be considered as an independent type. Among the subtypes of podzolic soils, they have higher fertility.

Among the soddy-podzolic soils, the following genera are distinguished:

for those developed on clayey and loamy parent rocks: ordinary (not included in the soil name), residual-calcareous, variegated, residual-soddy, with a second humus horizon;

for those developed on sandy and sandy loamy parent rocks: ordinary, pseudofibrous, poorly differentiated, contact-deep gley.

The division of virgin soddy-podzolic soils of all genera into species is carried out according to the following criteria:

according to the thickness of the humus horizon into weakly sod (A 1 < 10 см), среднедерновые (а110-15cm) and deep sod (a 1> 15cm);

along the depth of the lower boundary of the podzolic horizon (from the lower boundary of the forest litter) to surface podzolic (A 2 < 10см), мелкоподзолистые (А210-20cm), shallow podzolic (A 220-30 cm) and deep podzolic (A 2> 30 cm);

according to the degree of manifestation of surface gleying, into non-gleyed (not included in the name of soils) and surface-gleyic, with concretions and individual bluish and rusty spots in the eluvial part of the profile.

The division of soddy-podzolic soils used in agriculture into types is based on the thickness of the podzolic and humus horizons (A P + a 1). According to the thickness of the podzolic horizon, the following types of soddy-podzolic loamy soils are distinguished (soils without signs of planar water erosion):

sod-weakly podzolic - horizon A 2absent, podzolization of the subhumus layer A 2AT 1expressed as whitish spots, abundant silica powder, etc.;

sod-medium podzolic (or sod-small podzolic) - horizon A 2solid, up to 10 cm;

sod-strongly podzolic (or sod-shallow-podzolic) - the thickness of the continuous podzolic horizon is from 10 to 20 cm;

sod-deep podzolic - continuous horizon A 2more than 20 cm thick.

Soil types according to the thickness of the humus horizon (A P + A 1): small-arable (up to 20 cm), medium-arable (20-30 cm) and deep-arable (more than 30 cm).

According to the degree of development of planar water erosion (according to the degree of erosion), soddy-podzolic arable soils are divided into types: weakly, medium and strongly washed away.

Soil types are also distinguished according to the degree of cultivation: weakly, medium and strongly cultivated in terms of the thickness of the arable layer and the change in its properties.

3.3 Morphological characteristics of soils

Consider morphological features soil based profiles.

The soil is sod-shallow-podzolic, light loamyformed on the ancient lake middle loam, underlain by middle loam.

Gor. BUT P 0-29 cm - Arable, light gray, loose, light loamy, structureless, noticeably passes into the underlying horizon along the line of the arable layer.

Gor. BUT 229-37 cm - Podzolic, whitish, sandy loamy, slightly compacted, lamellar structure is weakly expressed, gradually passes into the next horizon.

Gor. AT 137-70 cm - transitional, pale yellow with brownish spots, sandy loam, structureless, dense, quickly passes into the next horizon.

Gor. AT 270-80 cm - Sandy clay, which in the analysis is defined as medium loam, reddish-brown, coarse-nutty structure, noticeably passes into the next horizon.

Gor. BCD 80-140 cm - Brown color, viscous, medium loam, mechanical composition somewhat heavier than horizon B 2.

Gor. CD below 140 cm - Underlying rock - medium loam, when digging a hole it looks like sandy clay, reddish-brown in color with spots more brightly colored red.

The soil is sod-weakly podzolic medium loamyon slightly carbonate cover clay.

Gor. BUT P 0-28 cm - light gray with a whitish tint, dense, medium loamy, fine-platy structure, many grains of ortstein up to 3 mm in diameter. The transition to the underlying horizon is gradual.

Gor. AT 1 28-61 cm - Transitional, dense, light loamy, finely nutty structure, color on a break structural elements brownish, whitish silica powder on the surface of structural elements.

Gor. AT 261-105 cm - Illuvial, clayey, dense, large-nutty, dark brown. These features are most clearly expressed at a depth of 70–100 cm.

Gor. BC 105-120 cm - Transitional, to the parent rock, dense, clayey, vaguely expressed prismatic structure, color somewhat lighter than the overlying horizon.

Gor. C below 120 cm - Maternal rock: cover yellow-brown viscous non-carbonate clay, slightly effervesces from a depth of 190 cm.

Signs of illuviation are clearly visible in horizon B 2in the form of rough nutty and prismatic units of high density and dark brown color. The presence of ortstein grains in the eluvial horizon is also characteristic. The parent soil-forming rocks are cover clays, which in the upper 120-200 cm do not have calcium carbonate in the vast majority. The thickness of the profile is large - about 120-180 cm.

The soil is sod-brown, heavy loamyformed on the eluvium of Permian clays.

Gor. BUT 00-2 cm - Forest litter, loose.

Gor. BUT 0BUT 12-7 cm - Coarse-humus, humus horizon of almost black color, fine-grained, intertwined with roots.

Gor. BUT 17-22 cm - Brown with a grayish tinge, heavy loamy, granular, loose, many roots, there are roots.

Gor. AT 122-41 cm - Brownish-brown with a slight reddish tint, clayey, granular - finely nutty, many roots.

Gor. AT 241-58 cm - Brownish-brown with a reddish tint, clayey, finely nutty, dense.

Gor. AT 2C 58-77 cm - Variegated - brown, reddish, lilac, greenish spots, stripes, on one wall solid red-brown, clayey, nutty, dense, single tiles of Permian clay.

Gor. C 77-113 cm - Reddish-cherry structureless dense clay, with a large number of small semi-weathered fragments of Permian clay, spots of greenish clay.

Gor. СD 113-125 cm - Pinkish-red marl clay, with inclusions of loose pinkish-white marl. With hydrochloric acid, the whole mass boils violently. On one wall, marl clay rises to a depth of 83 cm with its tongue, and on the other, carbonate-free clay goes beyond the profile.

3.4 Physical and water-physical properties of soils

Consider the physical and water-physical properties of soils.

Table 4

Aggregate composition of soils in the Perm region of the Perm region

рHorizon, sample depthDiameter of aggregates, mm. Quantity, %Amount of aggregates, mmK.S. >1010-55-33-22-11-0.50.5-0.25Less than 0.25More than 0.25Sod-brown heavy loamy A 16.28.718.118.425.810.18.54.295.88.6 Soddy-weakly podzolic light loamyA P 0-30--7,210,69,810,015,054,647,40,86A 230-40--12,16,38,91,618,8552,647,40,90 Sod-shallow podzolic medium loamy A P 0-3027,413,79,111,46,19,95,261,438,62,2

Structural state in soddy-podzolic soils, according to the number of water-stable aggregates of optimal size (10-0.25 mm), it is assessed as satisfactory, and partially good (Table 4). The content of such aggregates in the soil reaches (47.4-52.6%). In a number of soddy-podzolic soils, there are no aggregates larger than 10 mm. Consequently, the content of agronomically valuable aggregates with a size of 10-0.25 mm is higher, which favorably affects the structure of the soil: since the density of the composition of both the arable and subsurface soil layers is low, and the total porosity is high, therefore, the water-air properties are better. soil.

The study of the aggregate composition of plowed soddy-shallow-podzolic medium loamy soil shows that it does not have a water-resistant structure.

It can be seen from the data in Table 4 that plowed soil has a particularly unstructured state.

Table 5

Granulometric composition of soils in the Perm region of the Perm region

Particle content, mm, % Sod-shallow podzolic medium loamy Horizon, depth 1-0.250.25-0.050.02-0.010.01-0.0050.005-0.001<0,001<0,01А1 3-181.9814.6248.129.9313.6511.7035.28A 218-361.3616.5650.028.2012.3611.5332.09A 2AT 136-400,512,0845,2311,6710,1221,7943,58V 150-600,655,1844,705,696,9236,7649,47B 280-900.577.6343.885.607.1235.7748.49C 2190-2000.033.9245.443.307.9039.4150.61 Soddy brown clayeyA 17-223,3521,7119,7510,2317,4027,5655,19B 125-353,0625,7920,0510,8914,8125,4051,10V 244-540,4117,9722,6412,4118,9327,6458,98V 2C 60-700.8823.8517.1614.0221.8022.3158.13 .69 Soddy-weakly podzolic light loamy A P 0-152.6412.6822.488.1515.5213.5724.48A 215-452,1214,3225,448,3414,7913,9921,67A 2B 45-622.899.6228.878.8517.6616.3121.12B 62-1100.6511.9823.1410.9720.7419.8826.79BC 140 and 1700,277,5515,655,9126,4422,4329.77

Table 6

Water-physical properties of soils.

Sod-weakly podzolic light loamy

3% of soil volumeA P 0-301.212.6150.06.38.542.031.1A 2AT 1 30-401.572.6540.86.79.024.114.5V 140-501.602.6639.914.018.829.08.1V 260-701.672.7038.112.917.329.912.0C 100-1101.682.7238.27.29.6--

From Table 6 we see that the soddy weakly podzolic soils are excessively compacted in the humus and very dense in the underlying horizons. The total porosity is low, which negatively affects the water-air regime of these soils. It should also be noted that the topsoil of the considered soils is somewhat overcompacted (1.21 g/cm 3), which may be due to the impact on it of the running gears of tillage implements. The total porosity of the soddy weakly podzolic soil is 50.0% i.e. is satisfactory for the topsoil.

The heavy granulometric composition of the soils and the high bulk density, especially of the subsurface horizons, predetermine the unfavorable water properties of the soils under consideration. Attention is drawn to the amount of wilting moisture. Its variation in genetic horizons is closely related to the granulometric composition.

The value of wilting moisture is the higher, the more fine particles are contained in the soil. The humus horizon of soddy-weakly podzolic soils is characterized by a slightly lower value of wilting moisture; a wide range of active moisture is also noted here. However, in the underlying horizons of this soil, the wilting moisture increases, while the range of active moisture decreases.

It should be noted that these soils at the moment of complete capillary saturation with moisture have an extremely low aeration porosity, which adversely affects the growth and development of crops.

Table 7

Water-physical properties.

Soddy shallow podzolic medium loamy

Sample depth, see Stacking densitySoil solids densityTotal porosityMax. HygroscopicityWilting MoistureTotal Moisture CapacityRange of Active Moistureg/cm 3% от объема почвы0-100,952,5863,63,44,666,530,210-200,952,5863,23,54,766,530,120-301,032,6260,73,64,858,921,330-401,542,6642,94,25,728,231,340-501,562,5639,17,810,525,020,650-601,572,5739,08,912,024,818,460-701,602 ,6439,48,811,824,616,370-801,602,6138,78,912,024,112,080-901,552,5138,38,912,024,711,190-1001,522,4437,89,012,124,818,2110-1201,522,5139,59,312,525,919,9140-1501,362,5145,99,412,633,721,1190-2001,302 .4847.68.912.036.623.0

Table 7 shows an increase in the bulk density down the soil profile, reaching its maximum value at a depth of 70-100 cm. With depth, the total moisture capacity decreases, reaching a minimum value in the layer of the greatest compaction. The maximum hygroscopicity increases down the profile.

Table 8

Water-physical properties.

Soddy brown heavy loamy

The bulk density increases down the profile. The maximum hygroscopicity decreases to a depth of 7-22 cm, and then increases. The range of active moisture increases to 7-22 cm, then decreases down the profile.

3.5 Physical and chemical properties (according to L.A. Protasova, 2009)

Table 9

Consider the physicochemical properties of soils

Sample horizon and depth, cmHumus, %Mg-eq per 100g soilV, %pH (KCL)Mobile forms mg/100g soilSH G H+ALEKOP 2O 5K 2O Soddy brown heavy loamy A 13-252,2720,411,87,2632,2633,63,7-B1

Soddy-podzolic soils are zonal soils in the south. taiga and are formed as a result of a combination of soddy and podzolic soil-forming processes. Soddy-podzolic soils dominate the soil cover of Perm. krai and are represented in all administrative districts, occupying an area of ​​6240 thousand hectares or 39% of the territory of the krai. Soddy-podzolic soils, depending on the thickness of the soddy horizon and the degree of severity of podzolization, are divided into soddy weakly podzolic (411 thousand ha), soddy medium podzolic (3349 thousand ha) and soddy strongly podzolic (2480 thousand ha). These soils are formed under coniferous-broad-leaved forests with an undergrowth and a grassy layer under the conditions of a leaching water regime on hilly-ridged plains on non-carbonate parent rocks of different origin and mechanical composition. Herbaceous vegetation leads to the formation of a soddy horizon (Ad) up to 10–15 cm thick in the uppermost part of the profile. The humus horizon (A1) has a different thickness depending on the nature of the vegetation. The color of the horizon is usually grey. In soddy-strongly podzolic soils, an independent humus horizon is not expressed and is part of the transitional humus-podzolic horizon (A1A2). The podzolic horizon (A2) has a whitish color, lamellar-foliate structure, compacted structure. The illuvial horizon (B) is strongly stretched, has a dark brown or brown color and a nutty-prismatic structure. The structure of the profile of soddy-podzolic soil is shown in the figure. The amount of humus in the sod horizon does not exceed 1.5 - 2%. The content of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) is insignificant and depends on the development of the podzolic process and the mechanical composition of the soil. The reaction of the medium is acidic (the value of the exchange acidity pHKCl 4.0 - 4.5). Of the soddy-podzolic soils on the territory of the region, the most common (about 20% of the total area of ​​the region) are soddy-medium podzolic soils of heavy mechanical composition, formed on non-carbonate mantle loams or eluvio-deluvium of bedrocks. Due to the heterogeneity of soil formation conditions in the territory of the Perm Territory, soddy-podzolic soils form various complexes and combinations with other types of soils.
Soddy-weakly podzolic soils are more fertile than soddy-strongly podzolic soils and are widely used in agriculture; about 62% of the area of ​​these soils has been plowed.

Lit .: Korotaev N. Ya. Soils of the Perm region. Perm, 1962. 279 p.; Atlas of soils of the USSR / ed. I. S. Kauricheva, I. D. Gromyko. M.: Kolos, 1974. 168 p.; Classification and diagnostics of soils of the USSR. M.: Kolos, 1977. 224 p.; Soil map of the Perm region (M 1: 700000), 1989. Committee for Geodesy and Cartography of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, 1992.

Unlike air and water, which are able to self-cleanse relatively quickly, soil accumulates polluting components, and therefore becomes the main geochemical indicator of the environmental situation.

Today, scientists from Perm State University are engaged in in-depth studies of the geochemical composition of the soil in the city. The largest amount of information on the quality of urban soils was obtained in the early  -mid 2000s by the geoecological party of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Geokarta-Perm" thanks to the ecological and geochemical survey at a scale of 1:50,000 of the territory of Perm, carried out as part of the federal program for compiling a geoecological map of the Perm Territory.

Under the guidance of Professor of the Department of Engineering Geology and Subsoil Protection and the Department of Prospecting and Exploration of Mineral Resources, Leading Researcher of the Scientific Research Laboratory of Geological Modeling and Forecasting ENI PSNIU, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Head of the Scientific School "Geoecology, Engineering Geology, Geological Safety" PSNIU Igor Kopylov scientists and students took more than a thousand samples in different parts of the city.

Studies of the collected material showed that for all components of the natural and geological environment in the city, many local anomalies were recorded with a high level of concentrations of various chemical elements, and the average concentrations of microelements exceed the permissible background in the range from 1.5 to 15 times.

Ecological and geological map of Perm. I. S. Kopylov, 2012

According to the obtained data, manganese, zirconium and titanium are widespread in the soils of Perm in low concentrations (up to 3 MPC). The greatest concern of scientists and physicians is caused by the zones noted in each district of the city with a high background of heavy metals - lead, cadmium, zinc, beryllium, belonging to the first class of danger, as well as cobalt, nickel, copper, molybdenum and chromium, having the second class of danger. All of them, except for cobalt, have a high background from 1.2 to 4 maximum permissible concentrations, which means that they cause many serious diseases.

Thus, the accumulation of toxic cadmium and beryllium in the body leads to bone fragility, skeletal deformities, disruption of the lungs, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, liver and myocardium, skin and mucous membrane lesions, and the development of cancer cells. Excess zinc can unbalance the metabolic balance of other metals in the human body, which becomes the main cause of coronary heart disease. Nickel also promotes cancer, skin inflammation, and lung damage. Cobalt increases the number of red blood cells in the blood, causes inflammation of the mucous membranes. An increased concentration of copper causes cirrhosis of the liver.

Particular attention is drawn to technogenic lead anomalies in Permian soils, which have been found almost everywhere. Lead, being the strongest poison, causes changes in the blood and blood vessels, disorders of the nervous system, paralysis of the limbs, impaired functioning of the kidneys and anemia.

Igor Kopylov, Professor of the Department of Engineering Geology and Subsoil Protection and the Department of Prospecting and Exploration of Mineral Resources, Leading Researcher at the Scientific Research Laboratory of Geological Modeling and Forecasting, ENI PSNIU, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Head of the Scientific School "Geoecology, Engineering Geology, Geological Safety" PSNIU:

The largest lead anomaly is located in the central part of the Industrial District. Further, lead anomalies extend in a north-northeast direction to the Dzerzhinsky, Leninsky and Motovilikhinsky districts. Several anomalies with high lead content were found in the south and southeast of the city in the Sverdlovsk region. There is a clear increase in lead near highways. "Hurricane" values ​​of lead (as well as cadmium, cobalt, nickel, chromium, arsenic and antimony) are established on a 3-kilometer section of the street. Heroes of Hassan. Complex anomalies in soils are grouped in three large anomalous geochemical zones: in the western part of the city in the Industrial region, in the central part in the Leninsky and Motovilikha regions, and in the southern part of the Sverdlovsky region.

Scientists from the Institute of Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Crystal Chemistry of Rare Elements even developed a special classification for assessing the environmental situation in areas with exceeding the maximum permissible concentrations of especially hazardous chemical elements - lead, zinc and cadmium. In total, they distinguish five "levels" of danger: satisfactory (exceeding less than 1 MPC), intense (from 1 to 1.5 MPC), critical (from 1.6 to 2 MPC), emergency (from 2.1 to 3 MPC) and environmental disaster (the excess is more than 3 MPC).

“Following this classification, sites within a significant part of the Industrial District (except for forest and park areas), Motovilikha and Sverdlovsk districts in the Yegoshikha basin and the lower reaches of the Iva and Motovilikha rivers (as well as some other small areas) can be classified as sites with an environmental emergency or ecological disaster. In the rest of the city, according to the above criteria, the ecological situation is assessed as “tense” and “critical”, and only on the outskirts of the city to the southeast and north - as “satisfactory”, ”says Professor Kopylov.

The scientist believes that today it is possible to improve the quality of soils in the city in only one way - by improving the general ecological situation: to reduce emissions of pollutants from enterprises and especially - transport, as well as engaging in intensive greening of the urban environment.

• Vladimir Sokolov found out why in Perm, considered "one of the greenest cities in Russia",
• About that, Daria Andropova wrote in her article.

Administratively, the city is divided into 7 districts: Leninsky, Ordzhonikidzevsky, Motovilikhinsky, Sverdlovsky, Kirovsky, Industrial, Dzerzhinsky. All of them mainly consist of separate settlements.

Communication between the banks is carried out through the Krasavinsky and Municipal bridges, and through the dam of the Kama hydroelectric power station.

In terms of provision with cultural and life institutions, the Leninsky district is in the best position. Here is the administrative and cultural center of the city. The main administrative buildings, theaters, cinemas, large shops, restaurants are located along the street. Lenin (building in recent years), Komsomolsky Prospekt (building in the 50s) and st. Sibirskaya (historical center of the city).

In the areas of new buildings, there are mainly objects of microdistrict significance. Extremely low provision with objects of cultural and public services in the areas of estate development.

Perm is a major scientific center; a large number of scientific and educational institutions are concentrated here.

In accordance with the intended purpose of individual plots within the boundaries of settlements, lands are distinguished:

urban development;

Common use;

Agricultural use;

Nature protection, health-improving, recreational and historical purposes;

Occupied by forests (in the city - urban forests);

Industry, transport, communications, broadcasting, television, informatics and space support, defense and other purposes.

In accordance with the report on the availability and distribution of lands of cities, towns and rural settlements by functional purpose and lands, as of January 1, 2013, the total area of ​​​​the territory of Perm is 79968 hectares, according to form 22-g it is distributed as follows:

Residential and public development land - 9,807 ha;

Public lands - 7,749 ha;

Agricultural land - 8,367 ha;

Nature protection, health-improving, recreational, historical and cultural purposes - 36,459 hectares;

Occupied by forests - 39,238 ha;

Industry, transport, communications, broadcasting, television, computer science and other purposes - 2,069 hectares.

Due to the difference in purpose, the listed types of land have significant differences in the legal regime.

Urban development lands consist of areas already built up or to be built up. They are provided to enterprises, organizations, institutions or individual citizens for the construction and operation of industrial, residential, cultural, domestic and other buildings and structures and for housing construction. Accordingly, these lands are divided into public and residential development.

Public lands in the city are used as means of communication (streets, lanes, roads, embankments, squares), to meet the cultural and everyday needs of the population (parks, squares, gardens, boulevards, ponds, beaches, etc.), for storage , processing and disposal of industrial and domestic waste, placement of facilities necessary for the settlement as a whole. A significant part of these lands is not assigned to specific users, but is in the general free use of the population. Another part of them is provided for indefinite use to enterprises of communal and other purposes.

Some types of public land (streets, squares, boulevards) may be leased by the local administration to citizens or their associations to accommodate kiosks, stalls, various kinds of workshops, etc. The decision to use these lands is established by the lease agreement by mutual agreement of the parties (the agreement takes into account the nature of the buildings being built, obligations for landscaping, rent, rights and obligations of the parties and other conditions).

Municipal authorities take measures to ensure the protection of green spaces, parks, gardens, boulevards, etc.

The local administration has the right to make decisions containing binding rules on issues of improvement, cleanliness and order in the streets, playgrounds and other public places of the city.

The lands of agricultural use in the city include arable land, orchards, hayfields, pastures and other productive lands.

Non-agricultural land includes peatlands, quarries, ravines, etc.

Agricultural land in the city is non-agricultural land (located outside the city limits). Their main purpose is non-agricultural; they can be used for agricultural production only temporarily, remaining, in fact, a reserve for the development and improvement of settlements. If it is necessary to expand the building line, these lands can be confiscated from the owners, landowners and land users and provided to other entities for the construction of appropriate buildings, structures or for the improvement of the settlement. On the territory of the city there are 4 peasant farms, an auxiliary enterprise NPO named after. Kirov, agricultural joint-stock companies, 610 collective gardens, personal subsidiary plots and service plots.

The territory of the city includes lands of nature protection, health improvement, recreational, historical and cultural purposes. They are under the jurisdiction of the local administration, but the procedure for their use is determined by special legislation. Any activity on these lands that does not correspond to their intended purpose is prohibited; construction can only be carried out with the permission of the relevant administration. The latter controls the condition and use of lands of this type and is authorized to make a decision to suspend the construction or operation of facilities in case of violation of environmental standards. It may also lay down rules for the use of natural resources contained on lands of a given type.

A special place in the city is given to urban forests. They may be part of the lands of nature conservation, recreational, historical and cultural purposes, but may also be allocated to a separate group. Urban forests are not intended for general forest use, their main function is sanitary and hygienic. They improve the microclimate, contribute to the preservation of the environment, protect the urban area from winds and water erosion, serve the purposes of protecting landscapes, flora and fauna. Lands occupied by forests within the boundaries of the city limits can only be used for organizing recreation for the population.

Forest management in these forests is entrusted to local forestry enterprises. The decision of the local administration may prohibit such types of forest management that are incompatible with the holding of cultural, recreational activities and the organization of recreation for the population. All forests of the city are classified as forests of group I, are under the jurisdiction of the Perm, Zakamsky, Komarikha forestries.

The lands of industry, transport, communications, radio broadcasting, television, computer science and space support, defense and other special purposes within the boundaries of the city include plots provided to the relevant enterprises, institutions and organizations to perform the tasks assigned to them. These lands may be within or outside the urban area. They have their own specific legal regime, which is the basis for separating them into an independent group. The sizes of the plots allocated for the listed purposes are strictly standardized; development is carried out in accordance with planning and development projects or in agreement with the local administration.

Climate

Climate is the average long-term weather pattern characteristic of a certain area.

The climate of the territory where Perm is located is continental, characterized by cold winters and moderately warm summers.

Unlike climate, weather is a continuously changing state of the atmosphere over a certain period of time (day, month, season, year). Features of atmospheric circulation determine the instability of weather situations.

The minimum average air temperature is observed in January and ranges from -15.1 C to -15.9 C, the absolute minimum is -50 C.

The hottest month is July from +17.8 to +18.1 C, the absolute maximum is 42 C.

Relative humidity 74–76% throughout the year and annual rainfall up to 692 mm.

The territory of the city belongs to the zone of excessive moisture, the maximum amount of precipitation of 70% falls in the warm period of the year, often has a shower character and is accompanied by thunderstorms.

Snow cover is established from mid-October to April and reaches a height of 74–78 cm. The average depth of soil freezing is 75 cm.

The duration of the warm period in the city (with temperatures above 0 C) is 190–200 days; the duration of the frost-free period is 119–137 days.

The sum of positive temperatures above 10 C is 1800–1900. The duration of this period is 110–124 days. During the year, winds of southern, southwestern, western directions prevail. Wind speeds of 3–5 m/s are prevailing for the territory. The highest speeds are observed in winter and correspond to the prevailing winds. Unfavorable weather events include snowstorms (65 days per season and fogs 14 days per year).

The presence of water bodies, rugged relief, green areas, the nature of development determine the microclimatic differences in the urban area.

Relief

The territory of the city of Perm, stretched from northeast to southwest for 40 - 45 km, is located within the elevated plain of the Perm Kama region. The Kama River crosses the territory of the city and divides it into right-bank and left-bank parts.

The relief of the territory is of river origin and was formed as a result of river morphogenesis; deep, lateral, regressive erosion and accumulation. Along with erosion-accumulative processes, technical processes influenced the formation of the relief.

Geomorphologically, floodplains, four floodplain terraces of the Kama River and a high plain stand out in the area of ​​Perm.

Soils

The soil period of the non-residential territories of Perm is represented by gray forest, soddy-podzolic, soddy-brown, soddy-gley, marsh, floodplain-alluvial, floodplain-marsh and soils of slopes and bottoms of dens.

There are disturbed, dug up and littered soils.

Gray forest soils are developed throughout the city. Occupies gentle and sloping slopes. They are the most fertile of the above.

Soddy-podzolic soils are widespread over a large area. The more fertile of them, soddy-weakly podzolic soils, formed on gentle slopes. Soddy-medium podzolic soils are found on gentle slopes and leveled sections of watersheds. Infertile soddy-strongly podzolic soils are located on ridges and convex gentle slopes formed on the eluvium of hard limestone rocks and Permian clay. Compared to soddy-podzolic soils, they are more fertile.

Brown-brown soils are confined to the upper parts of gentle slopes. In weakly eroded brown-brown soils, the humus horizon is insignificant compared to normal soils. The fertility of these soils is sharply reduced. Dark brown soils are of limited distribution. Occupies hilltops. In terms of potential fertility, they are the best among soddy-brown.

Soddy-gley soils of various varieties occupy negative (lowered) relief elements. Their formation is associated with the constant influence of groundwater. They have high natural fertility.

Bog soils occupy negative relief elements and are constantly waterlogged. Groundwater is high. These soils are rich in potential reserves, but due to waterlogging, they need to be drained.

Floodplain-alluvial soils occupy the central part of the floodplain. In terms of agrochemical indicators, it is redundant - moistened soils differ little from normally moistened ones.

Floodplain-marsh soils occupy small depressions of the central floodplain and the terraced part. In economic terms, these soils are of no value.

The soils of the dens, their slopes and bottoms are represented by merged and sod-meadow alluvial soils. Washed soils have low natural fertility. Soddy-meadow reclaimed soils are confined to the bottoms of ravines and gullies. Soils are rich in nutrients.

Vegetation

The city is located in the subzone of the southern taiga and is surrounded by forests with a predominance of dark coniferous species.

The main forest-forming species are spruce, pine, fir, birch, aspen, linden. In the undergrowth - honeysuckle, mountain ash, bird cherry. In the grass cover, there are goutweed, chickweed, oxalis, fern, horsetail, etc. On the right bank of the Kama River, significant areas are occupied by pine forests. The main composition is pine with an admixture of birch, spruce or aspen. In the undergrowth broom, juniper.

The grass cover is dense: goutweed, lingonberries, blueberries, ferns, etc.

Birch forests are found in separate massifs throughout the territory. Here spruce, aspen, linden are mixed with birch.

In the undergrowth are mountain ash, bird cherry, wild rose. Grasses and forbs in the grass cover.

In places on the territory there are areas of linden forests with an admixture of fir and spruce. In the shrub layer, honeysuckle, raspberries, mountain ash. In the grass cover there are plants characteristic of broad-leaved forests - common goutweed, spring rank, European hoof, violets, etc.

There are areas of meadows in the floodplains of the rivers. Their herbage is represented by grasses and herbs, and in the most humid places - by sedges.

Meadow foxtail, awnless brome, meadow bluegrass, common yarrow, northern bedstraw, etc. grow here.

In the floodplain of the Kama River and its tributaries, large areas are occupied by swamps, the thickness of peat often exceeds 2 m, and in some places reaches 6 m.

Among the marsh vegetation, there are common reeds, lake reeds, various types of sedges, umbrella mustache, horsetail, marsh cinquefoil, etc.

Hydrography

The city of Perm is located in the middle regulated course of the Kama River. At present, on the Kama, the Kama hydroelectric power station was built with an alignment to the city of Perm and the Votkinsk hydroelectric power station, located 360 kilometers below the dam of the Kama hydroelectric power station. Backwater from the Votkinsk reservoir extends to the dam of the Kama hydroelectric power station.

In connection with the creation of reservoirs on the river. Kame also changed the timing of ice phenomena. Freeze-up occurs on average November 10-15 (instead of November 20).

Due to sharp daily fluctuations in the water level, significant heaps of ice are formed on the banks of the reservoir.

Slightly higher than the dam of the Kama hydroelectric power station in the river. The river flows into the Kamu. Chusovaya with a left-bank tributary of the river. Sylvoy. Smaller rivers also flow into the Kama in the city. The longest of them are the rivers Mulyanka, Gaiva, as well as Igoshikha, Lasva, Danilikha, B. Motovilikha, Yazovaya and other smaller ones. Hydrologically, these rivers have been little studied. The water regime of the rivers is characterized by a high spring flood, which usually begins in the second half of April, a summer low water, interrupted by small rain floods.

According to the chemical composition, the waters of surface reservoirs belong to the hydrocarbonate class with a predominance of HCO ions from 25–28 to 38–44% eq.

The mineralization of water varies throughout the year from 80-100 to 400-500 mg/l.

Currently, water intake for drinking purposes is carried out from the Chusovaya River. Due to the fact that the lower course of the Chusovaya River is backwatered by the Kama Reservoir, water intake from it is practically unlimited.

The water of reservoirs is polluted by a number of ingredients, the main pollutants are: copper, oil products, phenols, manganese. River water Chusovoi is also polluted by a number of ingredients, and the water supplied from the Chusovo water supply system, especially in winter, has a high natural hardness. In some periods, it exceeds the norms of GOST 2874-82 by 2 times.

On the territory of the city in the Kama hydrological region, where steam-ground waters of alluvial deposits, fissure-stratal waters of the Sheshminsky and Solikamsky horizons of the Upper Permian age are widespread.

Groundwater of alluvial deposits form the first aquifer of steam-groundwater from the surface with a depth of occurrence from 0.2–1.5 to 10–15 m, a free groundwater table and a general slope to the river. Kame disturbed in some areas by local drains. In a number of areas, the groundwater of alluvial deposits has a hydraulic connection with the waters of bedrocks, and in areas that are low in a hypsometric position, with the waters of the Kama River.

The horizon in alluvial deposits is fed by atmospheric precipitation, flood waters, industrial effluents, and leaks from water-bearing communications. The feeding area coincides mainly with the distribution area.

The water content of alluvium is associated primarily with the lithological structure. The main reserves of groundwater, therefore, are concentrated in floodplain deposits and low floodplain terraces, where the water permeability of the horizon can reach 150–200 meters per day.

The deposits of high terraces are less permeable, less waterlogged, and have a small aquifer thickness and low water yield.

Thus, in the city of Perm there are factors that adversely affect the development of horticulture: water erosion of soils, a high level of groundwater leading to temporary flooding of some territories of garden lands, and other garden plots, mainly located on the periphery of the city, on slopes, in places unfavorable for construction. But in general, the natural conditions of the city are favorable for gardening.

Economy

The leading industries are mechanical engineering (production of defense products, including rocket and space technology, equipment for the oil, gas, coal, timber and pulp and paper industries: turbodrills and drill rods, electric mine locomotives, belt conveyors, timber loaders, electric and gasoline-powered saws, fellers, skimmers, river boats, cable products, turbogenerators, electric motors and electric pumps, aircraft engines, as well as electric mixers, washing machines, tape recorders, bicycles, telephones, etc.), chemistry and petrochemistry (about 30 % of Russian mineral fertilizers, caustic and soda ash, synthetic dyes, detergents, plastics and synthetic resins, varnishes and paints), forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper (industrial wood and lumber, paper, plywood, cardboard, wallpaper, fir oil and etc.).

Also developed are ferrous (bimetals, cold-rolled tin, etc.) and non-ferrous (titanium sponge, metallic magnesium and its alloys) metallurgy, production of building materials (cement, brick, glass), light (about 25% of Russian production of silk fabrics, hosiery ) and the food industry (pasta, food alcohol, sausages, dairy products).

The largest enterprises in the fuel industry are JSC "Lukoil-Permnefteorgsintez", the association "Permneft" (Perm) and the association.

Mechanical engineering and metalworking: JSC "Perm Motors", JSC "Motovilikhinskiye Zavody", Dzerzhinsky Machine-Building Plant, Production Association "Velta", JSC "Kamkabel" (Perm).

Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries: Perm Pulp and Paper Mill, Perm printing factory "Goznak".

Kamskaya HPP, Permskaya GRES.

The leading branch of agriculture is animal husbandry: dairy and meat cattle breeding, pig breeding, poultry farming, goats and sheep are bred. They grow crops (rye, wheat, barley, oats) and vegetables.

Navigation along the Kama (the main ports are Perm, Solikamsk, Berezniki).