The concept of social catastrophe. Social instability in Russia

social catastrophe

The category of social catastrophes should primarily include wars and local military conflicts, accompanied by active hostilities, as well as terrorist acts and involvement in totalitarian neo-cults.

Social catastrophes are the result of the socio-political activities of a group of people ( politicians, parties, communities, etc.) or state power, which caused a decrease in socio-political stability in society or the economic well-being of the population, and in extreme cases led to mass deaths.

Social catastrophes are the most tragic in terms of their scale and the number of victims. During the years of the Great Patriotic War about 26 million Russian citizens died, almost 20 million Germans, about 3 million Italians.

War- organized armed struggle between states, nations (peoples), social groups. War is the continuation of politics by violent means. From the point of view of the extreme conditions that cause the emergence of psychogenies, war essentially combines the psycho-traumatic factors inherent in almost all natural disasters and catastrophes. In the works of psychiatrists Osipov B.P., Gurevich M.O., Krasnushkin E.K., Gilyarovsky V.A. it is shown that the war does not give new types of mental disorders unknown to peacetime, that its influence only to some extent modifies the known mental disorders. In the formation of wartime psychogenies among the population, in addition to direct experience associated with a threat to life, a significant role is played by predisposing factors: information uncertainty, a threat to the existence of loved ones, a breakdown in the functioning of the psychophysiological organization and basic life stereotypes, and fatigue. At the same time, in many cases, a person's life becomes dependent not on the usual conditions leading to well-being in peacetime, but on new factors - the ability to survive without the help of other people, shelter from bad weather, find shelter and food. There is a difference between psychogenic disorders in wartime among combatants and the population. The difference is due to the fact that a soldier in a combat situation is exposed every day to the threat of death, from which he has no right to evade. It is natural for the civilian population to seek asylum.

Terrorism It is the intimidation of people by violence. This violence is carried out in various forms: it is physical, political, social, economic, informational, etc. violence. Taking into account the degree of mass character and the degree of organization, four types of violence are distinguished: mass organized and mass spontaneous, individual spontaneous and individual organized. Terrorism is a special destructive kind of human activity. Among the main motives for engaging in terrorist activities are: 1) mercantile motives; 2) ideological motives; 3) motives for transformation, active change in the world; 4) the motive of power over people; 5) motives of interest and attractiveness of terrorism as a special activity; 6) "comradely" motivation; 7) the motive of self-realization.

The personality of a terrorist is characterized by a combination of hysterical and explosive traits, a high level of neuroticism and frustration, leading to a breakthrough in the barrier of social adaptation, pronounced asociality; however, terrorists do not always detect physical aggression. Most terrorists are found to have personality disorders with high levels of indirect aggression. At the same time, the mechanism for the implementation of a terrorist act, as a rule, includes affectogenic motivation, psychopathic self-actualization. A differentiated analysis (Olshansky, 2002) showed that among the participants in terrorist organizations and terrorist actions, 46% are choleric, 32% sanguine, 12% melancholic, and 10% phlegmatic.

An analysis of the behavior of victims of terrorist acts has shown that in many respects it approaches the behavior of victims of natural disasters and man-made disasters. The mass psychology of the victims of terror consists of five main components. They can be arranged chronologically. This is fear, replaced by horror, causing either apathy or panic, which can be replaced by aggression. Male and female victims of terror behave differently. Certain behavioral differences are associated with the level of education, the development of the intellect and the level of well-being (if a person has little to lose, he tends to chaotic, unproductive protest). Some time after a terrorist act, its victims and witnesses retain psychopathological symptoms, primarily in the form of delayed fear, as well as various kinds of phobias and regular nightmares.

Socio-economic and political transformations that began in the vast expanses of Eurasia as a result of catastrophic destruction Soviet Union, as well as the sharply increased scale and consequences of natural, economic, technological disasters, accompanied by personal tragedies of many people, have unusually sharpened the attention of sociologists, political scientists, psychologists, representatives of other industries scientific knowledge to emergencies and disasters. Therefore, over the past 5-10 years, the sociology of catastrophes has begun to develop rapidly in many countries of the world, the emergence of which as a special sociological theory dates back to the mid-1960s. The greatest contribution to its emergence and development was made by E. Carantelli, A. Barton, D. Mileti, T. Drabek, J. Haas, R. Daines (USA), L. Clausen and W. Dombrowski (Germany), W. Rosenthal (Holland), B.N. Porfiriev and D.I. Prigozhy (Russia), E.M. Babo-owls (Belarus), B. Rafael (Australia).

Highlighting the specific features of this sociological theory, American sociologists A. Woodcock and M. Davis emphasize that it is a novel

A new way of thinking about sudden and rapid changes associated with disasters, whether it be the collapse or the collapse of an empire. The main object of this theory is the transition various systems- natural, environmental, technological, social - from a stable, stable state to an unstable, unstable, accompanied by consequences that are destructive for the system under consideration. According to the famous German sociologist W. Dombrovsky, a catastrophe should be understood primarily as a destruction of economic and social development saturated with losses, in relation to which the researcher focuses on the negative consequences of a catastrophic event for specific social communities (family, group, community) or forms social relations (communication, mutual assistance, search for protection, etc.). Therefore, from his point of view, the transition from catastrophe to revolution, putsch, terror or civil war is quite possible.

In describing, interpreting, evaluating and typifying the processes under study, the sociology of catastrophes relies on four basic terms: extreme situation, crisis, conflict, catastrophe. Every catastrophe is associated with an extreme situation, catastrophes in the social sphere are associated with crises and conflicts, but not every extreme situation, as well as a crisis and conflict, develops into a catastrophe. Based on these relationships, it seems possible to define the phenomena under consideration.

An extreme situation is a sharp, abrupt transition of a system (natural, ecological, technological, social, personal, etc.) as a result of an excessive increase in internal or external tension from a stable state to an unstable one, threatening the collapse of this system. Extreme situations include such diverse phenomena as earthquakes, tornadoes, snowstorms, aircraft hijackings, apartment robberies, shipwrecks, rapes, racketeering, etc.

An emergency (extreme) situation can develop according to a catastrophic scenario. In this case

in the process of increasing tension, a critical situation is first created, when there is a threat of collapse or death of the main structures of this system, but the system itself remains, perceiving the crisis and distributing it among its subsystems. Such a system (for example, the Soviet Union from the late 1970s until 1991) is saturated with crisis elements and is ready to move to a new quality, but in a dynamic way. The starting moment can be an increase in voltage for any parameter that describes the system as a whole. Transition of the system to a new state c. a radical destructive change in its main structures and disintegration into subsystems (as happened with the USSR at the end of 1991) acts as a catastrophic variant of an extreme situation.

Based on the foregoing, a catastrophe can be defined as the upper limit of internal and external stress in the system under consideration, the excess of which threatens the destruction of the system, its most important components, or its transition to another qualitative state.

Such a definition is overly general, but precisely because of such a generalized content, any catastrophic events in any place fall under it. sphere of reality - natural, technological, social, as well as extraordinary phenomena of a person's individual existence, his personal tragedies - death, loss of loved ones, career collapse, etc.

However, it should be borne in mind that in modern reality purely natural catastrophes not connected with man and his activities (with the exception of those caused by cosmic forces) are very rare. Therefore, a person is involved in any catastrophic situation in one way or another: either as its initiator, or as a victim, or as an eyewitness. Because of this, in world catastropheology, especially in works of a sociological, psychological, philosophical, religious nature, most often the term "catastrophe" denotes such a conceptual model, through which people seek to describe this or that disaster, the movement of events towards the end, death,

destruction, death. Therefore, sociology takes into the orbit of its research and interpretation those catastrophic events that threaten individual human existence, a given social community (family, labor collective, territorial, ethnic community, etc.), as well as society as a whole.

Unlike catastrophes, which in all cases are associated with emergency situations, conflicts are characterized by a much larger amplitude of the spread of probabilities, as a result of which not all of them fall under the definition of an extreme situation. The most prominent Western sociologists - experts on conflicts L. Koser and R. Dahrendorf generally believe that conflicts are manifestations of the normal, and not extreme, development of social systems. Of course, conflicts often turn out to be associated with crises and catastrophes, but not a rigid determinant connection. Conflicts are an indispensable manifestation of the socio-economic crisis, and therefore the saturation of social development with them becomes much more intense in pre-catastrophic, catastrophic and post-catastrophic periods of functioning and (or) collapse of social systems. The already mentioned experience of the collapse of the Soviet Union convincingly confirms this pattern. In the conditions of the modern, post-catastrophic development of the CIS countries that arose on the ruins of the USSR, the conflictogenicity of social processes increases sharply, and armed conflicts swept through vast territories of the post-Soviet geopolitical space (Tajikistan, Chechnya, formerly Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Moldova, etc.).

For a correct understanding and interpretation of catastrophes, their essence, features and consequences, their spologization is important, i.e. singling out the main types on the basis of determining the similarities and differences of reliable methods for identifying these inherently extraordinary phenomena by the commonality of their essential features and differences. Given the huge variety of extreme situations, it is possible to construct a typology of disasters for various reasons.

According to the objects of catastrophic development and the degree of sociality, i.e. scale of the causal involvement of social relations in their occurrence, it is advisable to distinguish four types of disasters:

1) natural;

2) environmental;

3) technological;

4) social.

Natural disasters are caused by the action of the elemental forces of nature, and some of them unfold according to a short-term, rapid scenario (tornadoes, tsunamis, earthquakes, etc.), while others - according to a long-term, extended in time (droughts, glaciation of the Earth during the ice age, catastrophic immersion in the sea abyss of the pro-continents, described in the legends about the disappearance of Atlantis, the destruction of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, etc.). A person is still most often not able to prevent natural disasters, but he has accumulated sufficient experience to reduce the size of catastrophic consequences of this kind. natural phenomena(for example, the devastating effects of a hurricane or earthquake).

Ecological disasters are also conditioned mainly by the natural forces of nature, but their determining network is most often woven into anthropogenic factor, i.e. they have, in essence, socio-natural determinism, whether we are talking about an environmental disaster in the Aral Sea area or in the Persian Gulf, or many other environmental disasters, almost all of them are associated with an imbalance between pressure on the living environment (not only human , but also other living beings) and natural resource potential.

technological disasters, which include explosions of nuclear reactors, gas and oil pipelines, aircraft accidents, spaceships, sea vessels, railway and road transport, etc. are determined, as a rule, by a mismatch in the interaction of the main components in human-machine systems. Therefore, they are caused by malfunctions

in the functioning of technological systems and technology, but to an even greater extent - imperfection, miscalculations, errors, negligence, etc. in the activities of personnel serving complex technical devices. The relative short duration of such catastrophes, firstly, does not remove the scale of destruction and the severity of their consequences, and secondly, it can be accompanied by long post-catastrophic processes (as happened as a result of a large-scale nuclear disaster in Chernobyl), causing huge human, financial, material losses. , environmental disasters, etc.

social catastrophes, leading to the destruction of certain social systems or communities (socio-political system, state, territorial community, family, etc.), to significant population losses, destructive shifts in the demographic and social structures of society, in its spiritual life, are embodied in wars, revolutions, counter-revolutionary coups, and other social phenomena. They are entirely determined by social (economic, political, psychological and other) factors.

In turn, each of the identified types of disasters can have its own internal differentiation. For example, technological disasters are divided into industrial, energy, transport, etc.

According to the subjects, scales and consequences, the actions of a disaster can be divided into the following five types:

1. personal, the subject and object of which are individuals who turned out to be initiators, participants or victims of an extreme situation, whether it be. murder, rape, death of a loved one, etc.

2. Local, covering only a certain, rather limited place, not going beyond a limited territory and drawing a relatively small number of people into their orbit, such as, for example, the seizure of an aircraft by hijackers, a shipwreck or explosions at oil storage facilities or individual industries.

3. Regional, covering more or less vast territories corresponding to several regions of the country, united by common economic, geographical and other features, and significant masses of people involved in them. An example of just such a catastrophe is the ongoing shallowing of the Aral Sea, which has catastrophic consequences for many thousands of people, the natural and social environment, and many species of plants and animals.

4. Country, covering the territory of the country or several of its large regions and having catastrophic consequences for several million people, causing enormous material, natural, environmental damage. An example of such a catastrophic event can be the devastating floods in 1993 in Bangladesh and in 1996 in China, which claimed several thousand lives and left homeless, livelihoods in both cases over 10 million people.

5. global, extending their destructive effect to many or most countries of the world and bringing catastrophic consequences for many millions of people. Examples of disasters of this type are the Second World War, which claimed over 60 million lives and caused colossal destruction of material and spiritual values, as well as the collapse of the Soviet Union, accompanied by catastrophic destructive consequences in the vast post-Soviet geopolitical space, where the CIS countries and their peoples are now in a deep socio-economic crisis.

According to the nature of the development of the disaster are divided into: 1. Functional. Their the possibility and rather high probability is due to the fact that there is a fundamental discrepancy between the scale and pace of natural fluctuations, on the one hand, and fluctuations of anthropogenic (including man-made) objects created by active world-transforming actions of man. For example, a significant discrepancy between the principles and methods of urban planning, on the one hand, and insufficient knowledge of geological

processes, their dynamics and periods of fluctuation polarization of natural elements, on the other hand, can lead to colossal negative consequences natural disasters such as, say, an earthquake in Armenia or Sakhalin.

2. Evolutionary. They are determined by the very specifics of the dynamics of a particular natural object. For example, the death of dinosaurs was predetermined internal features this species, which has not developed effective protection mechanisms in itself in the process of evolution, protecting its population from possible, including catastrophic, changes in the environment. The same, of course, with the need to identify the qualitative specifics of social objects, can be said about the collapse of the former socialist regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe.

The named types of catastrophes by no means exhaust all their diversity. If you refer to this important issue, as a determination of catastrophes, then the causes of catastrophic events, each acting in its own specific environment, differ from each other in frequency of manifestation, predictability, controllability, rapidity of development, short duration or duration of action, prevalence in space, scale, etc. Only when all these factors are taken into account is it possible to predict the expected destructive potential of a particular catastrophe and the behavior of various individuals and social groups correlated with it. When constructing a typology of catastrophes, it is necessary to take into account such psychological factors of a pre-catastrophic or catastrophic process as the presence or absence of a warning, awareness of a possible threat, the impact of panic, stress, etc.

In addition, the possibilities of taking into account the consequences of a catastrophe and post-catastrophe recovery should be taken into account, as well as the specifics of the catastrophes themselves, some of which are predictable (for example, an earthquake, an epidemic), while others (a plane crash or a collapse of a building) are unpredictable, as a result of which they cannot be controlled. Since kata-

stanzas fall into the research field of the sociology of catastrophes mainly due to the fact that they carry a more or less powerful potential for social destructiveness, they must be studied sociological methods from the point of view of how much each of them carries the threat of death, destruction, damage; with what degree-sharpness poses the problem of survival before an individual or a social community; how does it scale negative impact on a person, his psychological state and behavioral activity.

All these features of the study of disasters give grounds for the conclusion that the main components sociological analysis Ancestor of catastrophic, catastrophic and post-catastrophic events are social subjects and objects of these events, whether they are initiators, witnesses, victims of the latter. As such are:

individuals;

Small groups;

Organizations;

Commons;

Social institutions;

Society as a whole.

Despite the importance of each of the named components (units) of the sociological analysis of post-catastrophic events, priority is still given to the main social groups in which inter-individual, intra-group and other types of interaction are carried out by people experiencing deep stress shocks in extreme situations.

So, the sociology of disasters in the object of its analysis includes, first of all, those extreme situations and their destructive consequences, in which the social existence of social systems - from society as a whole to its various communities (territorial, ethnic, family, professional, political, etc.) - undergoes destruction as a result of external or internal influence and is accompanied by socially negative, destructive processes - death of people,

the collapse of social groups, states or their deep degradation, as a result, an earthquake or flood is not interpreted from the point of view of sociology as a catastrophe if they do not show these characteristics, i.e. do not pose a threat of destruction of certain spheres of social life. The sociology of catastrophes considers the social aspects of the behavior of individuals and their communities in extreme situations and in post-catastrophic interactions in a broad sociological context, applying the conceptual schemes of various sociological theories: social action (T. Parsons), role theory (R. Merton, L. Limpton), the theory of conflicts (R. Koser, R. Dahrendorf) and others in their refraction to the theoretical framework and empirical methods research, characteristic of the sociology of disasters proper. Without such a broad theoretical and methodological integrative approach based on a paradigmatic starting point, it is hardly possible to move on to solving practical problems. And as such is the definition of resources and factors that can ensure organizational mobility and the effective operation of various communities and society as a whole in a catastrophic situation and post-catastrophic development.

A macrosociological analysis of the sociodynamics of pre-catastrophic, catastrophic, and post-catastrophic processes comes to the fore in the sociology of catastrophes. A catastrophe is a destructive variant of social changes rooted in previous causal relationships, so these relationships are considered in the context of pre-catastrophic development. Among them, the most important determinants are natural, technological, economic, political, military. Only when taking into account all the complexity, inconsistency, most often the mismatch of these connections, leading in their totality to the pre-catastrophic state of the studied social system (bank, state, family, etc.), will the transition of developing events to a qualitatively different stage become understandable and explainable - in fact catastrophic

a development that suddenly interrupts the usual situation and therefore must be interpreted in such terms as "extreme", "terrible", "catastrophic". From the same point of view, in macrosociological analysis, post-catastrophic development should also be considered, i.e. overcoming the catastrophe and minimizing its consequences, returning (full or partial) to normal conditions social being."

Within the framework of macrosociological analysis, the main attention is paid to the study of social catastrophes of a huge radius of action, affecting the whole society or a group of countries. This orientation is explained by the fact that it is in the process of deployment of large-scale disasters that such devastating disasters occur, such as the death of many people, the elimination of existing systems values ​​(identified in many cases with the end of a given social order), a sharp political differentiation of individuals and groups, the emergence of new social structures, the separation of states, accompanied by coups, the establishment of a dictatorship, etc. As for catastrophes of a shorter range, up to local events, they are not so destructive, cause much less social differentiation, and therefore the stages of their development, including the post-catastrophic one, proceed faster, do not carry huge socio-economic, spiritual and other destruction.

As large-scale social catastrophes, such events as wars, revolutions, coups d'état, carried out with the use of armed forces are considered. It is characteristic at the same time that the characteristics of deep socio-political and economic transformations are determined to a decisive extent by the orientation of the socio-political interests and goals of those subjects of mass social action (individuals, social groups, social movements, parties, etc.), which are included in the deployment of processes of fundamental transformations, interpreted by some as revolutions, by others as social catastrophes. So, for example, V.I. Lenin,

his supporters and followers characterized the October Revolution of 1917 as the Great Revolution, the champions of the preservation of capitalist Russia A.F. Kerensky, A.I. Denikin, as well as the largest Russian philosophers, sociologists, economists of the NA. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, V.V. Rozanov, E.P. Struve and others - as the greatest catastrophe. With such a sharp division of opinions and assessments, it must be borne in mind that fundamental changes in the socio-political structure of society can turn out to be catastrophic for some social groups, and non-catastrophic for others, and be assessed purely positively.

These features of the perception, assessment and interpretation of socio-political processes as catastrophic are due to the fact that trends and patterns historical development do not act on their own, bypassing social activities people, but are refracted through this activity, weakened or strengthened by it. But since in this activity certain social groups are guided by different interests and goals, which quite often not only do not coincide or diverge from each other, but are also directly opposed to each other; assessments of the same events by different social classes, movements, parties, their leaders can be diametrically opposed. This range of estimates is typical not only for October revolution, which, undoubtedly, was perceived as a social good, a "holiday of the oppressed" (V.I. Lenin) by some; as the greatest social catastrophe - by others: by all those who, as a result of it, renounced power, property, and often - from their homeland and life. This disparity was just as clearly manifested during the collapse of the Soviet Union. Many people, especially the older generation, shocked by the processes of an all-encompassing crisis, disintegration and collapse (the collapse of the idea of ​​socialism, the collapse of a great country, a sharp decline in the standard of living of the people and the actual impoverishment of its majority, the decline of morality and culture, the rapid growth of crime, etc.) , profound socio-economic transformations

The formation and change of the social system evoke a feeling of an unprecedented social catastrophe. On the contrary, new social strata - entrepreneurs, managers, a significant part of the intelligentsia, young people - inspired by the collapse of partocracy and socialism, the collapse of the totalitarian system, as well as hopes for beneficial changes (a sharp expansion of democracy, freedom of speech and press, the revival of national culture, gaining state independence etc.), tend to characterize the ongoing processes of socio-economic and political changes as a revolution, a blessing, a triumph of freedom.

But no matter how various socio-political forces assess the turning points that occurred in 1917 and 1991 in the fate of the Belarusian, Russian, Ukrainian and other peoples that were formerly part of Russian Empire, later - into the Soviet Union, and now developing in the CIS system, there is no doubt the catastrophic nature of the processes associated with these events. In both cases, a single social integrity collapsed, qualitatively new socio-economic and political relations, other social structures; some authorities were replaced by others, sharply different from their first social entity, political orientation and forms of activity. In one and the other case, after the catastrophic destruction of the system, post-catastrophic processes began to unfold. In both cases, in the post-catastrophic social development many elements of instability, instability, unpredictability, multivariance, and dramatic confrontations were manifested. These features are clearly manifested in the modern socio-political development of Belarus, Russia, and other CIS countries. In them, every step forward along the path of reforming society, which is taking place in conditions of a deep crisis, encounters enormous difficulties, contradictions, resistance from anti-reformation forces, being in danger of falling into the abyss of chaos and catastrophic phenomena. It is characteristic that in such a post-catastrophic situation, both the forces of reformation and the forces of restoration,

both the forces in power and the movements and parties opposed to them achieve their goals with caution, fearing decisive actions, the consequences of which may turn out to be not only unpredictable, but also irreparable. Both those and others fear the worst and most tragic variant of the intensifying confrontation - the massive use of violence, civil war, which our society, weakened in all respects - economic, social, political, moral, etc. - will not be able to move, and which could become another devastating disaster.

This is the first and most characteristic feature of the post-catastrophic development of society. Its second feature lies in the protracted and deep crisis that has engulfed all aspects of public life - economics, politics, culture, social sphere. This crisis manifests itself in the decline in the rate and volume of production, and in the growing stratification of society into rich and poor, and in the continuing decline in the living standards of the majority of the population, and in the decline of the nation, education and culture, and in the disintegration of society, and in the social atomization of the components of society. individuals, in their alienation from the values ​​of culture, politics, and in the growth of elements of anomie, lawlessness, crime.

All these features of catastrophic and post-catastrophic development, characteristic of post-socialist countries, are sharply complicated in Belarus by the consequences Chernobyl disaster, which was a national tragedy of the Belarusian people, caused damage to our republic, the elimination of which will require 32 republican annual budgets. More than 2 million inhabitants of Belarus found themselves under the black shadow of this catastrophe, experiencing its devastating consequences. It destroyed their habitual way of life, forced many to leave their homes, caused irreparable damage to the health of tens of thousands of people, severed social and cultural ties that had been established for decades, caused numerous stresses and neuropsychiatric disorders, which will have to get rid of for many years.

All these destructive phenomena, which are the consequences of catastrophic and post-catastrophic development, our society will have to overcome on the path of strengthening state independence, overcoming the socio-economic crisis, strengthening democracy, raising the living standards of the people, reviving and developing national culture, which involves studying the specifics, causes , consequences of social and other catastrophes, ways out of a catastrophic state.

According to the classification, social (specific) disasters include global and local military conflicts, epidemics, civil unrest, terrorism, epizootics, as well as environmental disasters - drying up of rivers and lakes, diseases of water bodies, global climate change. At a certain historical stage in the development of mankind, perhaps due to an increase in the population on the planet, social upheavals were added to the extraordinary phenomena - military conflicts and epidemics.

War has always been accompanied by mass terrorism, disease, and the deterioration of sanitary and hygienic conditions for the armies of the belligerents and their populations.

In the middle of the 20th century and in the 17th-19th centuries, wars were accompanied by mass infectious diseases, which in some cases developed into epidemics among the personnel of the troops and the population of combat zones.

In the wars of the past, the loss of people from infectious diseases was sometimes greater than from the lethal effect of weapons.

The development of civilization and the associated deterioration in the living conditions of the population, as well as its migration, contributed to the emergence of mass infectious diseases.

Recently, terrorism has become widespread in all countries of the world.

The development of scientific and technological progress (emissions into the atmosphere in huge amounts of industrial and human waste) leads to such negative phenomena as global warming on the planet (greenhouse effect) and other environmental disasters.

Medical and sanitary situation in the conditions of man-caused disasters determined by the factors that caused them.

In case of accidents at radiation hazardous facilities, the first place is occupied by radiation exposure of varying severity and contamination of the territory with radioactive substances. The experience of eliminating the consequences of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (1986) is of great importance for characterizing a large radiation catastrophe.

The consequence of the Chernobyl disaster was the exposure of the thyroid gland in excess of the permissible 150 thousand people, including 60 thousand children. The most dangerous radiation dose (over 2000 millisieverts) was received by 18,000 people, including 8,000 children. Over 120 thousand people who took part in the liquidation of the consequences of this radiation catastrophe received a radiation dose of more than 200 mSv.

According to the IAEA scale, the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is classified as class 7. In total, according to this scale, 8 classes of accident hazard at radiation hazardous facilities are distinguished.

In addition to an accident at a nuclear power plant, a tense radiological situation can arise in the event of accidents at experimental nuclear reactors, charged particle accelerators and other isolated radiation sources, leakage of radioactive isotopes, including actinides, tritium, fission products of uranium and plutonium, etc. According to available data, in similar situations in the world, 600 people received significant exposure, of which 37 died.

The medical consequences for people who have experienced exposure to radiation can be of a different nature. There are somatic (determining or non-stochastic) and stochastic (probable) effects. The first group includes early or late effects: radiation sickness, which can be acute or chronic, and radiation burns; to the second - early aging of the body, blood diseases, malignant tumors and genetic changes.

It is believed that due to an explosion at a nuclear power plant, sanitary losses can range from 22% to 33% of the population of the contaminated zone.

According to some researchers, the number of severely affected in this case can be 44%, moderate - 34%, mild - 22% (average data). Combined lesions can be in 50%, acute radiation sickness can be diagnosed in 10% of victims.

In the organization of medical protection of personnel and the population in emergency situations, the exclusion of the influence of determining factors and the maximum reduction in the influence of stochastic factors are of paramount importance. At the same time, it is considered that the threshold dose of radiation for the occurrence of acute radiation sickness is 1 gray (1 Gy), and for the occurrence of chronic radiation sickness - fractional exposure of 1.5 Gy or more for several years.

According to the International Register, a large number of toxic substances are used in industry, agriculture and for domestic needs in the world. Almost 500 substances belong to the SDYAV group, the most toxic to humans. SDYAV are chemical compounds that, in certain quantities exceeding the maximum permissible concentrations, can adversely affect a living organism.

Recently, the number of cases related to accidents at facilities with SDYAV has increased in the country. In 1997 alone, 26 emergencies occurred, including 9 of them of a local nature, and 17 of an object-based one. The accident killed 4 and injured 12 people.

Depending on the type of potent toxic substances, the centers of disasters are divided into four types.

All centers of chemical disasters are divided depending on the speed of the action of chemicals on the human body and the duration of the contamination of the area.

To fully characterize the foci of chemical disasters, it is necessary to distinguish between such concepts as the zone of contamination and the zone of destruction. TO the zone is polluted ion with chemicals belongs to the territory in which the action of a toxic substance extends. TO affected area belongs to a part of the contaminated area in which the concentration of a toxic substance reaches or exceeds the toxic dose and, as a result, causes damage to people and animals.

Important for assessing the medical and sanitary situation in the focus of a chemical disaster is to determine the magnitude and structure of sanitary losses. World experience suggests that the average structure of sanitary losses can look like this: out of the total number of victims of chemical disasters, 60% experience toxic injuries, 20% - traumatic injuries, 15% - burns and 5% - combined injuries. In terms of severity, experience shows that almost 65% of the victims can receive minor injuries, 20% - moderate injuries, up to 10% - severe injuries, and almost 5% - fatal injuries. However, such a distribution is most likely provided that people are located directly on the territory of a chemically hazardous facility, on open area without personal protective equipment. Under other conditions, the structure of sanitary losses may change towards a decrease in fatal and severe injuries. There are also options for increasing the number of victims with a severe degree of damage, which may be due to the compatible action of several toxic substances, as well as the influence of secondary toxic substances.

The most difficult in organizational terms are the identification and elimination of centers of chemical disasters that occur during the transportation of chemically hazardous substances, but this category accounts for about 60% of emergencies. This is primarily due to the impossibility of preliminary prediction of the location of the outbreak and its size, the nature of substances that can enter the environment, as well as the number of people in the affected area. Therefore, the system for eliminating the medical and sanitary consequences of chemical disasters should be focused not only on stationary chemically hazardous facilities, but also on options with rolling stock. Besides, in environment may fall toxic substances, the action of which is unknown or insufficiently studied. In this case, health measures should be carried out by methods adopted for the elimination of accidents occurring most often.

Explosive and flammable objects pose a significant danger to the population. Especially large losses occur when explosions and fires occur in enclosed spaces with significant crowding.

In the structure of sanitary losses, 19% of the injured may be in a very serious condition, 61.1% with severe injuries, 16.4% with moderate damage, and 3.5% with light injuries.

Transport accidents in Ukraine occupy one of the leading places in the structure of man-made disasters in terms of the number of cases and the size of losses. The consequences of these emergencies have a direct and indirect effect on people. The latter are associated with emergencies accompanied by the release of radioactive and toxic substances into the environment, which are transported by various modes of transport (railway, river and sea, road).

The dynamics of mortality from injuries during road accidents is generally proportional to the dynamics of injuries. The mortality rate from injuries is determined by their frequency and severity. Recently, aggravation of injuries has been noted, that is, more often in the event of an injury, not only the musculoskeletal system is damaged, but also the internal organs of a person. Death at the scene is due to the severity of injuries and their complications - blood loss, shock, damage to the central nervous system. So, in the case of an accident, 30% of the fatal consequences occur at the pre-hospital stage. The majority of victims (96.8%) die at the scene.

In case of accidents in railway transport, the following are determined: mechanical injuries, thermal burns, acute poisoning and chemical burns, radiation and combined injuries. It is difficult to predict the structure of lesions by their type due to the variability of catastrophes. At the same time, based on the experience of liquidation of accidents at railways, it can be considered with considerable certainty that lightly affected will be 35 - 40% of the victims, moderate and severe - 20 - 25%, the most severe - 20%, and in the terminal state - 20%. The number of victims in the event of a train accident, as well as other transport accidents, varies in a significant range.

World practice shows that mechanical and burn injuries belong to the main types of damage during aviation accidents. Oxygen starvation is also possible as a result of depressurization of the aircraft cabin, which is located at high altitude.

In the event of an air crash, the size of sanitary losses can reach 80 - 90% of the total number of people on the aircraft. The maximum number of victims can be: on the An-2 aircraft - 12 people, An-24 - 47, Yak-42 - 113, Tu-154 - 168, Il-86 - 324 people. Among the victims, persons with mechanical injuries can make up 90%, including those in a state of shock - 10%, with a traumatic brain injury - 40%, 10 - 20% with combined injuries and burns. About half of those affected may have severe or very severe injuries. Due to injuries, about 40% of them will need to apply bandages to wounds, 50 - 60% - the introduction of painkillers, 35% - immobilization of fractures, 60 - 80% - evacuation on a stretcher or improvised means.

In the event of disasters in water transport, the size and structure of sanitary losses will depend on the nature of the development of the event and the number of passengers and crew members on board.

Considerable features characterize the medical and sanitary situation during mine accidents. This is due to working conditions in underground workings, mine equipment and a complex of factors that can lead to emergencies.

First of all, attention is drawn to the level of injuries that accompanies the production cycle. An analysis of injuries among miners shows that, despite some stabilization, it accounts for 88.2% of the total injuries in all industrial sectors of Ukraine. At the same time, 64.2% of injuries due to mine accidents have serious consequences. The specificity of emergencies associated with accidents at the enterprises of the coal industry is their mass character.

In the case of mine accidents associated with methane explosions, according to domestic and foreign researchers, 41.3% of the victims had carbon monoxide poisoning, 14% had combined injuries, where mechanical injuries were combined with carbon monoxide poisoning, 12% of the victims had mechanical injuries, associated with thermal burns and carbon monoxide poisoning. The combination of burns with carbon monoxide poisoning was observed in 10.7% of victims, mechanical injuries with burns - in 9.3%, and severe mechanical injuries without signs of poisoning with toxic gases and burns - in 2.7% of victims. Among the victims, up to 10% had only thermal burns. However, with regard to the latter group, according to the researchers, the data is not very accurate, since it is hard to imagine that the victims, finding themselves in the explosion zone, would not have signs of poisoning. Obviously, during the medical examination and examination of the victims in this case, the clinical picture of thermal lesions dominated, and the symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning were not pronounced and went unnoticed. Thus, during explosions of digging gas and coal dust in mines, combined injuries in various combinations (burn + mechanical damage, burn + mechanical damage + CO poisoning, etc.) account for 46% of all cases.

Conclusions:

In this way, emergency is a consequence of a combination of exceptional circumstances that have developed in the corresponding zone as a result of an emergency event of a man-made, natural, anthropogenic and military nature, as well as under the influence of possible emergency conditions.

Today, the humane task is at the forefront - to minimize the danger of the consequences of emergency situations for people. Therefore, each specialist needs the appropriate knowledge and skills so that, if necessary, he can not only protect himself, provide assistance to the injured, but also take an active part in the aftermath of accidents, catastrophes, natural disasters, as well as with the possible use of modern weapons.

Literature:

1. Law of Ukraine “On legal regime emergencies”, 2000 (1, 4-9,13, 16, 27-29).

2. Law of Ukraine “On the zone of ecological emergency”, 2000 (Art. 1-7,10-15).

3. Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated February 16, 1997 No. 174 “On the State Commission on Technogenic and Environmental Safety and Emergency Situations”.

4. Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated 16.12.1999 No. 2303 “On the Creation of the Government Information and Analytical System for Emergency Situations”.

5. Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated March 24, 2004 No. 368 “On approval of the procedure for classifying man-made and natural emergencies according to their levels”.

6. Order of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine dated August 3, 2000 No. 189 “On Approval of the Regulations for Presenting Information in the Functional Subsystem of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine within the Government Information and Analytical System for Emergency Situations”.

7. Fundamentals of disaster medicine / Edited by Bondarenko N.I., Kovaleva E.Z. - Donetsk: "Cassiopeia", 1998.

8. Gridasov V.I., Kovalyov V.M., Katris M.V. and others. Disaster Medicine / Textbook - Kharkiv.: “Golden Pages”. - 2002.

9. Dubitsky A.Yu., Semenov I.O., Chepkiy L.P. Disaster Medicine / Textbook. Kiev: Course, 1999.

10. Vorobyov O.O., Kardash V.E. Disaster Medicine / Textbook. - Chernivtsi. – 2000.

11. Organization of the work of the information and analytical system of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine on emergency situations (Practical guide) / Ministry of Health of Ukraine, Ukrainian Scientific and Practical Center for Emergency Medical Care and Disaster Medicine / Ed. prof. Voloshin V.O. - 2000.

12. Disaster medicine. Textbook / Ed. prof. Kochina.- K: “Health” - 2001.

8. Lecture equipment : lecture material, tables, transparencies, graphic projector.

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SOCIAL DISASTER - spasmodic changes in society that occur as a sudden response of the social system to a smooth change in external conditions. The ideas of catastrophism arise in ancient times, being embodied in various versions of eschatology. For example, antiquity views evolution as a sequence of global catastrophes that rhythmically destroy the cosmos and clear space for a new cycle; Christianity puts forward the idea of ​​the second coming of the Messiah, when the end of time comes and through the Last Judgment, the transformed humanity will enter into perfect being. In the 19th century within the framework of geology and biology (J. Cuvier), a theory of catastrophes is being formed, which considers the history of the planet as a series of global catastrophes, accompanied by the death of all living things and the sudden appearance of qualitatively different forms of it. The modern theory of catastrophes has been rapidly developing since the 70s of the 20th century. in the form of a universal mathematical method for studying any abrupt transitions (R. Tom, Prigogine); their causes and ways to establish a new equilibrium. The catastrophe occurs as a result of synchronization of various crises, accumulation of a huge number of errors that are not corrected for a long time, as a result of the "decrepitude" of the system at the cellular level. It is important to consider that the underlying cause of SC. potentially associated with the transformation of the spiritual foundations of society, their erosion and change of worldviews, when a catastrophic consciousness develops and "the crowd rushes about in deathly anguish" (A. Akhmatova). Such consciousness is strengthened when the idea of ​​a break with the former cultural tradition is affirmed in society (and such tendencies are very characteristic of the genotype of European civilization), with the depths of religious consciousness, in which, as experience shows, the positive principles of social life are rooted. The sense of fear inherent in a person (due to his freedom of choice) is exacerbated, which causes a desire to find quick and simple, and therefore ineffective, ways out of a rapidly changing situation. To S.K. are trying to implement various kinds of utopias that claim to know the future; the natural collapse of utopias sharply sharpens the catastrophic consciousness. The tendency towards catastrophic consciousness is characteristic of marginal lumpen, plebeian social strata, not rooted in cultural traditions and prone to nihilism and maximalism, simplification and leveling. Theoretically, this method of social action is substantiated in various radicalist concepts, for example, in anarchism with its preaching of the lumpen rebellion, the idea of ​​creativity of the total destruction of the existing society. It is also necessary to take into account national peculiarities. For example, the superimposition of two cultures, traditional and European, which is characteristic of Russia, their incompatibility and constant split largely determined the catastrophic nature of Russian history. Various forms of SC are possible. Catastrophes are most clearly expressed in social revolutions (which was noted in the works of Frank, Sorokin, Berdyaev, and others). Although the theories of revolution justify S.K. as a way to achieve a better society, in fact, the revolution leads to its degradation, to a return back, to mass insanity of society, to deformations of human behavior. At the same time, it must be taken into account that revolutionary catastrophes are the result of a long-term suppression of the creative forces of society that cannot find an outlet, a delay in urgent social changes. However, having united with a catastrophic consciousness, the revolution leads to an anthropological catastrophe in the form of the destruction of the fundamental spiritual and moral foundations of people's lives. And the more radical the revolution, the stronger the catastrophe, which was shown by the experience of the communist revolutions of the 20th century, which also revealed, in full accordance with the theory of catastrophes, that the "trigger" of destruction can be very insignificant, but, having broken out, the catastrophe acquires its own logic of movement, in the course of which, spontaneously, through a lot of human suffering and the deepest upheavals, a certain new social balance is being formed. One of the best ways to prevent S.K. imprisoned in "social engineering" (Popper), i.e. method of timely gradual and partial changes, reforms that take into account human nature and are subject to constant review and adjustment in order to prevent the accumulation of errors. However, under the conditions of "anomalous" social systems, which did not take into account the feedback principle for a long time, this method did not work in many respects. Attempts to reform totalitarian regimes lead to a deterioration in the situation, an increase in resistance, and most often end in disaster. Systems that have arisen catastrophically can leave the historical arena only in a similar way. As the mathematical modeling of "perestroika" shows, the most effective method for abnormal social systems is the method of "shock therapy", in unity with a return to the deep foundations of culture. For all its morbidity, such a one-time catastrophic shift from a perspective point of view is much more effective than a permanent catastrophe that depresses and decomposes the life potential of an individual. G.Ya. Minenkov

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