In 1911, E. Rutherford, on the basis of his experiments, substantiated ...
walls
By location - external and internal.
Exterior walls - the most complex building structure. They are subjected to numerous and varied force and non-force influences. Internal walls are divided into:
Inter-apartment;
26. General requirements and classification of walls.
walls called the vertical structural elements of the building that separate the premises from external environment and dividing the building into separate rooms. They perform enclosing and bearing (or only the first) functions. They are classified according to various criteria.
By location - external and internal.
Exterior walls - the most complex building structure. They are subjected to numerous and varied force and non-force influences. Walls perceive their own mass, permanent and temporary loads from ceilings and roofs, wind effects, uneven deformations of the base, seismic forces, etc.
From the outside, the outer walls are exposed to solar radiation, precipitation, variable temperatures and humidity of the outside air, external noise, and from the inside - to the effects of heat flow, water vapor flow, and noise. Performing the functions of an external enclosing structure and a composite element of facades, and often a supporting structure, the external wall must meet the requirements of strength, durability and fire resistance corresponding to the capital class of the building, protect the premises from adverse external influences, provide the necessary temperature and humidity conditions of the enclosed premises, have decorative qualities.
The design of the outer wall must meet the economic requirements of minimum material consumption and cost, since the outer walls are the most expensive structure (20-25% of the cost of building structures).
In the outer walls, there are usually window openings for lighting the premises and doorways - entrances and exits to balconies and loggias. Temperature joints arrange in order to avoid the formation of cracks and distortions in the walls caused by the concentration of forces from exposure to variable temperatures and shrinkage of the material (masonry, monolithic or prefabricated concrete structures, etc.). Often they are called temperature shrinkage. Temperature-shrinkage joints cut through the structures of only the ground part of the building. The distances between the temperature-shrinkage joints are assigned in accordance with climatic conditions and the physical and mechanical properties of wall materials. Sedimentary seams should be provided in places of sharp differences in the number of storeys of the building (settlement joints of the first type), as well as in case of significant uneven deformation of the base along the length of the building, caused by the specifics geological structure foundations (sedimentary seams of the second type). Sedimentary joints of the first type are appointed to compensate for differences in vertical deformations of ground structures of the high and low parts of the building, and therefore they are arranged similarly to temperature-shrinkage joints only in ground structures. Sedimentary seams of the second type cut the building to its entire height - from the ridge to the base of the foundation. Anti-seismic seams should be provided in buildings erected in areas with seismic activity of 7 points or more. The distance between anti-seismic seams should not exceed 60 m. Anti-seismic seams should also be arranged in places where the number of storeys changes and in buildings of complex shape in plan for division into independent symmetrical compartments.
The design of the anti-seismic joint should ensure the independence of the compartments.
Expansion joints in frame-panel buildings are separated by paired columns.
The minimum length (width) of the temperature compartment of a frame-panel building should be 60 m.
Internal walls are divided into:
Inter-apartment;
Intra-apartment (walls and partitions);
Walls with ventilation ducts (near the kitchen, bathrooms, etc.).
Depending on the adopted structural system and scheme of the building, the outer and inner walls of the building are divided into load-bearing, self-supporting and non-bearing. Partitions
Carriers
Self-supporting
Non-bearing
Partitions- these are vertical, as a rule, non-load-bearing fences dividing the internal volume of the building into adjacent rooms.
They are classified according to the following criteria:
By location - inter-room, inter-apartment, for kitchens and plumbing units;
By function - deaf, with openings, incomplete, that is, not reaching
By design - solid, frame, sheathed on the outside with sheet material;
According to the installation method - stationary and transformable.
Partitions must meet the requirements of strength, stability, fire resistance, sound insulation, etc.
Carriers walls, in addition to the vertical load from their own mass, perceive and transmit to the foundations loads from adjacent structures: ceilings, partitions, roofs, etc. (Table 5.1).
Self-supporting walls perceive the vertical load only from their own mass (including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other wall elements) and transfer it to the foundations directly or through plinth panels, randbalki, grillage or other structures.
Non-bearing walls floor by floor (or through several floors) are supported on adjacent internal structures of the building (floors, walls, frame).
27. Architectural and structural details of the walls.
On the outer surface of the walls there are horizontal and vertical divisions architectural and structural details and elements.
Horizontal divisions form a plinth, cornices, belts, and vertical - rafters, projections, pilasters, niches, columns and semi-columns and other elements.
plinth called the lower part of the building, located directly above the foundation (Fig. 5.4, a ... n).
Structural elements that protect the walls of buildings from rain and melt water are cornices (Fig. 5.4, d, e ).
Cornices there are crowning and intermediate . The cornice as an architectural element of the building can influence the expressiveness of the facade.
Protrusions are arranged above window and door openings - sandriks (Fig.5.5, 6). which are also architectural decorations. Around window and doorways are sometimes arranged casing and (Fig. 5.5, e). Often they are made from special shaped elements. In some cases, the outer wall of the building is brought out slightly higher than the coating; this part of the wall is called parapet.
Large elements that have both functional and architectural purposes are balconies, loggias, bay windows .
Balconies represent a platform consisting of a balcony slab and a fence (Fig. 5.6, a ).
bay window they call the fenced part of the room that protrudes beyond the outer plane of the facade wall and is usually illuminated by several windows (Fig. 5.6, b ). Bay windows enrich not only the general solution of facades, but also their volumetric and spatial structure.
niche called a local recess in the wall, pilaster - elongated vertically and insignificant in width local thickening of the wall.
Column - this is a separate support in the form of a pillar, semi-column - a pilaster protruding from the plane of the wall by half its width. Columns and semi-columns, as a rule, perform load-bearing functions
Loggia is an open space built into the dimensions of the building, protruding (partially or completely) from the plane of the outer walls (Fig. 5.6, c). According to the constructive solution, there are three types of loggias: sinking, completely placed in the dimensions of the building, partially sinking and remote.
Walls should - protect, protect, and please the eye. Walls are the heaviest, labor-intensive and most costly building structures.
By the nature of the perception of loads walls may be load-bearing or non-bearing. Bearing walls perceive the load from their own weight, the weight of ceilings and coatings, as well as from the wind. They transfer the load to the foundations, and non-bearing ( interior partitions) - on floors.
It's easy enough to tell them apart. The load-bearing wall is a natural extension and an integral element of the building structure, serves as a support for beams or concrete slabs interfloor overlap, that is, it bears some kind of load. Try to mentally remove it: if the integrity of the structure is violated, the wall is load-bearing.
A non-bearing wall is, as a rule, an ordinary internal partition of a house, designed to divide the volume into several parts or to highlight functional areas in the room.
It is made from lighter materials. Its dismantling does not entail redistribution of loads in the building structure.
The walls are divided into:
Monolithic;
Small and large blocks;
Panel and panel;
Frame;
Prefabricated (log and timber);
Combined.
Construction materials
Materials for the walls are chosen taking into account the constructive solution, strength, durability, the required comfort and external expressiveness.
Wood (logs, beams, one- and two-layer frames with plank sheathing) is a traditional material for individual construction. A wooden frame is a dwelling based on centuries-old traditions. Such a house is not afraid of frost, especially when it has a fireplace or stove.
It can also be a more modern building stylized as a hut, in which logs and profiled timber (solid or glued) are only decoration, and mineral wool insulation is located inside the walls. The most serious disadvantages of such walls are fire hazard and high cost, as well as (if a solid beam is used) shrinkage deformations during the first 2–3 years of operation.
special case wooden house- frame. This technology is used to build up to 80% of private housing throughout the world, although our compatriots are still skeptical about it.
The basis of such a house - wooden frame from a bar, installed on columnar foundations. Its walls resemble a sandwich. The filling is usually mineral wool insulation. From the outside, it is sewn up with moisture-resistant plywood or OSB boards, which are finished with facade plaster, sheathed with siding or faced with brick.
Internal finishing - from gypsum cardboard. The fastening points of the elements of a frame house (frame posts to the foundation, beams to posts and rafters to beams) in the West are thought out at the design stage and, precisely executed by the builders, allow the house to withstand even during a hurricane.
stone walls the strongest and most durable. The material used is cobblestone, limestone, shell rock, tuff, sandstone. In terms of their thermal insulation properties, stone walls are significantly inferior to many others. Their use is expedient only in the southern regions. V middle lane stone is more often used for plinths, masonry fences and retaining walls.
Concrete- economical, durable and flame retardant wall material. A wall made of monolithic reinforced concrete or heavy concrete blocks has a high bearing capacity, but low heat and sound insulation properties. To rid concrete of these shortcomings, it is given a porous structure. Such concretes are called cellular.
Another way to increase the insulating properties of concrete is to add porosity to the aggregate. So get expanded clay concrete blocks(filler - expanded clay, which is foamed and fired clay), cinder blocks (filler - fuel slag), sawdust concrete blocks (concrete with the addition of woodworking waste).
Another modern technology using concrete is Termodom. This building is built from monolithic concrete with the use of stationary fixed formwork in the form of hollow polystyrene foam blocks, which perform the role of thermal insulation after the concrete has hardened.
Brick, without exaggeration, the most popular wall material. A brick house is considered safer for health in comparison, for example, with concrete. Recently, brick has undergone significant improvement: not only the range of products is expanding, but new technologies for lightweight masonry are being developed.
But the unequivocal conclusion that the brick is good, and all other materials are bad, is not worth doing.
Heat saving
There are three options for insulation, depending on the location of the insulation in the building envelope: inside, inside the wall and outside.
Insulation from the inside has two drawbacks: a decrease in the area of \u200b\u200bthe room and the danger of moisture condensation in the insulation layer, which can lead to dampness, mold, and subsequently even to the destruction of the wall. When finishing with drywall, a dew point may occur on the surface of the insulation in the place where it adjoins the wall, but only if moisture from the room penetrates there.
To prevent this, a vapor barrier layer (in other words, a film) is provided, which is located between the insulation and inner lining. Thus, steam is removed from the room by means of ventilation.
Insulation "inside the wall" is used, for example, in frame wooden houses and in a brick masonry. In the latter case, the thickness of the inner layer is determined by strength indicators, and for the outer layer, which protects the insulation from external influences, a front or plastered brick is used.
External insulation is the so-called "wet type" systems (with plastering or facade cladding) and a hinged ventilated facade.
The “wet” type insulation system consists of three layers: heat-insulating (mineral wool or expanded polystyrene plate), reinforced (it is an adhesive compound reinforced with mesh) and protective and decorative. This system has many advantages: condensate evaporation, heat accumulation in the enclosing structure, absence of temperature deformations of the load-bearing wall and efflorescence on the facades, increased sound insulation, and the possibility of using both new and reconstructed buildings. The disadvantages include the seasonality of the work.
The effectiveness of the "wet" type system depends on the compatibility of the layers. Its components are usually manufactured by different manufacturers, but the responsibility for the quality of the system is assumed by one company - its developer.
A hinged ventilated facade consists of a cladding (plates or sheet materials) and an under-cladding structure, which is attached to the wall in such a way that there is an air gap between the protective and decorative coating and the wall. If the wall is additionally insulated and attached to it thermal insulation material, a gap is left between the lining and the insulation.
Hinged facades allow load-bearing structures to work in "greenhouse" conditions: in the cold season, the wall remains dry and warm, and in summer it is cool, it "breathes" freely, which increases the comfort of the premises.
Hinged facades are assembled from high-quality elements of full factory readiness, do not require additional finishing, there are no “wet” processes during their installation. A variety of materials can be used as cladding: natural stone, ceramic granite, cement-fiber panels, vinyl siding, polyurethane, polyester and polypropylene panels.
Porous concrete blocks
With a relatively small volumetric weight, porous concrete blocks have enough high strength, which allows you to make ceilings from ordinary reinforced concrete hollow core slabs.
Depending on the method of production, cellular concrete is divided into foam and aerated concrete.
aerated concrete obtained by introducing into the cement mortar special substances that cause the process of gas formation. Most often it is aluminum powder. Aluminum reacts with cement hydration products, hydrogen is released, which causes porization cement mortar. When concrete hardens, its porosity is preserved.
foam concrete obtained by mixing cement mortar with specially prepared foam. Bubbles containing air are evenly distributed throughout the volume of the mixture.
Cellular concrete can have different porosity. The density of concrete, that is, the weight of one cubic meter, depends on the number and size of pores: the more pores, the lighter it is, the higher its heat and sound insulating properties, but less strength. With a decrease in porosity and an increase in density, strength increases, but heat and sound insulating properties deteriorate. Depending on the density of cellular concrete, its purpose also changes (for external or internal walls).
Cellular concrete do not burn and do not support combustion. They are impeccable from the point of view of ecology - they are often called "bioblocks" abroad. Like wood, foam blocks can be sawn with a hacksaw, nails can be hammered into them, arches can be made from them, which allows you to give the house an architectural expressiveness.
Dimensional accuracy allows placing blocks on adhesive mixtures with a minimum joint thickness (3–5 mm), which minimizes the number of “cold bridges” and significantly reduces heat loss. In addition, the cost of subsequent wall decoration is significantly reduced.
Due to the high thermal resistance of foam concrete buildings, they are able to accumulate heat, which reduces heating costs by 20–30%. The reduction in weight also results in savings on foundations.
Which is better: aerated concrete or foam concrete - it is impossible to say for sure. Foam concrete is cheaper, but it loses some strength. In Germany, for example, they are often used together: load-bearing walls are made of more durable aerated concrete blocks, and foam concrete is used for partitions that do not carry significant loads.
Many private developers think that using foam blocks they will immediately solve all problems - both in terms of warmth and strength. However, the construction of a box of foam blocks with a density of 800, sufficient in strength, although it is quite cheap, entails the need for insulation - blocks with a lower density will not cope with the load-bearing functions.
A definite plus of using foam blocks is that construction is fast and can be divided into two stages: first, build a box, install windows and doors, mount a roof, and, having saved up money, start warming and finishing in a year or two. But in winter it is better not to live in an uninsulated house: when heated, the walls can lock up.
brick walls
Brick is an expensive and prestigious building material. A brick mansion is an indicator of the security of its owners and the seriousness of their intentions: with any architecture, this is a house for several generations.
Brick is a multifunctional material. It performs both a bearing role and an insulating one - and quite convincingly. However, according to today's standards, it no longer works as a heater (unless, of course, the walls are not a meter thick). Therefore, a multilayer structure is being constructed, in which only the bearing role is assigned to the brick, and other materials take on the function of insulation (see "Heat Saving" above).
In terms of bearing capacity, almost any brick is suitable for building a private house - as long as its brand matches that laid down in the project, the appearance is not important. With regard to thermal conductivity, in this ordinary brick is inferior to large hollow brick blocks.
So, we offer you three options for the design of external walls. The first is a brick wall with insulation from the inside, the second is a wall of foam blocks with external insulation and siding, the third is a wall of foam blocks with external insulation “wet”.
Structures of external walls of civil and industrial buildings
The structures of the outer walls of civil and industrial buildings are classified according to the following criteria:
1) by static function:
a) carriers;
b) self-supporting;
c) non-bearing (mounted).
On fig. 3.19 shows a general view of these types of external walls.
Load-bearing exterior walls they perceive and transfer to the foundations their own weight and loads from adjacent structures of the building: ceilings, partitions, roofs, etc. (simultaneously perform load-bearing and enclosing functions).
Self-supporting external walls perceive the vertical load only from their own weight (including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other wall elements) and transfer them to the foundations through intermediate load-bearing structures - foundation beams, grillages or plinth panels (simultaneously perform load-bearing and enclosing functions).
Non-bearing (hinged) external walls floor by floor (or through several floors) are based on adjacent load-bearing structures of the building - ceilings, frame or walls. Thus, curtain walls perform only a protective function.
Rice. 3.19. Types of external walls according to static function:
a - bearing; b - self-supporting; c - non-bearing (mounted): 1 - floor of the building; 2 - frame column; 3 - foundation
Bearing and non-bearing external walls are used in buildings of any number of storeys. Self-supporting walls rest on their own foundation, so their height is limited due to the possibility of mutual deformations of the outer walls and the internal structures of the building. The higher the building, the greater the difference in vertical deformations, therefore, for example, in panel houses allowed to use on its own bearing walls with a building height of no more than 5 floors.
The stability of self-supporting external walls is ensured by flexible connections with the internal structures of the building.
2) By material:
a) stone walls are built from brick (clay or silicate) or stones (concrete or natural) and are used in buildings of any number of storeys. Stone blocks are made of natural stone (limestone, tuff, etc.) or artificial (concrete, lightweight concrete).
b) concrete walls they are made of heavy concrete of class B15 and higher with a density of 1600 ÷ 2000 kg / m 3 (bearing parts of walls) or lightweight concrete of classes B5 ÷ B15 with a density of 1200 ÷ 1600 kg / m 3 (for heat-insulating parts of walls).
For the manufacture of lightweight concrete, artificial porous aggregates (expanded clay, perlite, shungizite, agloporite, etc.) or natural lightweight aggregates (crushed stone from pumice, slag, tuff) are used.
When erecting non-bearing external walls, cellular concrete (foam concrete, aerated concrete, etc.) of classes B2 ÷ B5 with a density of 600 ÷ 1600 kg / m 3 is also used. Concrete walls are used in buildings of any number of storeys.
v) wooden walls used in low rise buildings. For their construction, pine logs with a diameter of 180 ÷ 240 mm or beams with a section of 150x150 mm or 180x180 mm, as well as board or plywood panels and panels with a thickness of 150 ÷ 200 mm are used.
G) non-concrete walls are mainly used in the construction of industrial buildings or low-rise civil buildings. Structurally, they consist of outer and inner cladding made of sheet material (steel, aluminum alloys, plastic, asbestos cement, etc.) and insulation (sandwich panels). Walls of this type they are designed as load-bearing only for one-story buildings, and with a larger number of storeys - only as non-bearing.
3) by constructive solution:
a) single layer;
b) two-layer;
c) three layers.
The number of layers of the outer walls of the building is determined by the results of the heat engineering calculation. To match modern standards in terms of resistance to heat transfer in most regions of Russia, it is necessary to design three-layer structures of external walls with effective insulation.
4) according to the construction technology:
a) by traditional technology hand-made stone walls are erected. In this case, bricks or stones are laid in rows along the layer cement-sand mortar. The strength of the stone walls is ensured by the strength of the stone and the mortar, as well as by the mutual ligation of the vertical joints. To further increase the bearing capacity of masonry (for example, for narrow piers), horizontal reinforcement with welded meshes is used after 2 ÷ 5 rows.
The required thickness of stone walls is determined by heat engineering calculation and linked to standard sizes bricks or stones. Apply brick walls with a thickness of 1; 1.5; 2; 2.5 and 3 bricks (250, 380, 510, 640 and 770 mm, respectively). Walls made of concrete or natural stones when laying 1 and 1.5 stones have a thickness of 390 and 490 mm, respectively.
On fig. 3.20 shows several types of solid masonry made of bricks and stone blocks. On fig. 3.21 shows the design of a three-layer brick wall 510 mm thick (for the climatic region of the Nizhny Novgorod region).
Rice. 3.20. Types of solid masonry: a - six-row brickwork; b - two-row brickwork; c - laying of ceramic stones; d and e - masonry made of concrete or natural stones; e - masonry of cellular concrete stones with external brick cladding
Floors and load-bearing structures of the roof rest on the inner layer of a three-layer stone wall. Outer and inner layers brickwork are interconnected by reinforcing meshes with a vertical pitch of not more than 600 mm. The thickness of the inner layer is assumed to be 250 mm for buildings with a height of 1 ÷ 4 floors, 380 mm for buildings with a height of 5 ÷ 14 floors and 510 mm for buildings with a height of more than 14 floors.
Rice. 3.21. Three-layer structure stone wall:
1 - inner carrier layer;
2 - a layer of thermal insulation;
3 - air gap;
4 - outer self-supporting (facing) layer
b) prefabricated technology used in the construction of large-panel and volume-block buildings. In this case, the installation of individual elements of the building is carried out by cranes.
The outer walls of large-panel buildings are made of concrete or brick panels. Panel thickness - 300, 350, 400 mm. On fig. 3.22 shows the main types of concrete panels used in civil engineering.
Rice. 3.22. Concrete panels of external walls: a - single-layer; b - two-layer; c - three-layer:
1 - structural and heat-insulating layer;
2 - protective and finishing layer;
3 - carrier layer;
4 - heat-insulating layer
Volumetric-block buildings are buildings of increased prefabrication, which are assembled from separate prefabricated block-rooms. The outer walls of such volumetric blocks can be one-, two- and three-layer.
v) monolithic and precast-monolithic construction technologies allow you to build one-, two- and three-layer monolithic concrete walls.
Rice. 3.23. Prefabricated-monolithic external walls (in plan):
a - two-layer with an outer layer of thermal insulation;
b - the same, with an inner layer of thermal insulation;
c - three-layer with an outer layer of thermal insulation
When using this technology, a formwork (form) is first installed, into which the concrete mixture is poured. Single-layer walls are made of lightweight concrete with a thickness of 300 ÷ 500 mm.
Multi-layer walls are made of precast-monolithic using the outer or inner layer of stone blocks made of cellular concrete. (See Figure 3.23).
5) by location window openings:
On fig. 3.24 shows various options for the location of window openings in the outer walls of buildings. Options a, b, v, G used in the design of residential and public buildings, option d– when designing industrial and public buildings, option e- for public buildings.
From the consideration of these options, it can be seen that the functional purpose of the building (residential, public or industrial) determines the constructive solution of its external walls and the appearance as a whole.
One of the main requirements for external walls is the necessary fire resistance. According to the requirements of fire safety standards, load-bearing external walls must be made of non-combustible materials with a fire resistance limit of at least 2 hours (stone, concrete). The use of slow-burning load-bearing walls (for example, wooden plastered) with a fire resistance limit of at least 0.5 hours is allowed only in one-, two-story houses.
Rice. 3.24. Location of window openings in the outer walls of buildings:
a - a wall without openings;
b - a wall with a small number of openings;
c - panel wall with openings;
d - load-bearing wall with reinforced piers;
e - wall with hinged panels;
e - fully glazed wall (stained glass)
High requirements for the fire resistance of load-bearing walls are caused by their main role in the safety of the building, since the destruction of load-bearing walls during a fire causes the collapse of all structures based on them and the building as a whole.
Non-load-bearing external walls are designed to be fireproof or slow-burning with lower fire resistance limits (from 0.25 to 0.5 hours), since the destruction of these structures during a fire can only cause local damage to the building.
Exterior walls- the most complex building structure. They are subjected to numerous and varied force and non-force influences (Fig. 1). The walls perceive their own weight, permanent and temporary loads from ceilings and roofs, wind exposure, uneven deformations of the base, seismic forces, etc. From the outside, the outer walls are exposed to solar radiation, precipitation, variable temperatures and humid outside air, external noise, and from the inside - to the influence of heat flow, water vapor flow, noise. Performing the function of an external enclosing structure and a composite element of facades, and often a supporting structure, the outer wall must meet the requirements strength, durability and fire resistance, corresponding to the capital class of the building, to protect the premises and adverse external influences, to provide the necessary temperature and humidity conditions of the enclosed premises, to have decorative qualities. At the same time, the design of the outer wall must meet the industrial requirements, as well as the economic requirements of minimum material consumption and cost, since the outer walls are the most expensive structure (20-25% of the cost of building structures)
In the outer walls, there are usually window openings for lighting the premises and doorways - entrances and exits to balconies and loggias. The complex of wall structures includes the filling of window openings, entrance and balcony doors, structures open spaces. These elements and their interfaces with the wall must meet the requirements listed above. Since the static functions of the walls and their insulating properties are achieved by interacting with internal load-bearing structures, the development of structures of external walls includes a roar depending on the natural-climatic and engineering-geological conditions of construction, and also, taking into account the features of space-planning decisions, they are cut by vertical expansion joints various types: temperature-shrinkage, sedimentary, anti-seismic, etc.
Classification.
By static function load-bearing, self-supporting or non-load-bearing structures.
load-bearing walls in addition to the vertical load from its own mass, they perceive and transfer to the foundations loads from adjacent structures: ceilings, partitions, roofs, etc. Self-supporting walls perceive the vertical load only from their own weight (including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other wall elements) and transfer it to the foundations directly or through plinth panels, end beams, grillage or other structures. Curtain walls floor by floor or through several floors, it is supported on adjacent internal structures of the building (ceilings, walls, frame). They carry the load from their own weight and wind within the floor with a height of not more than 6m. Bearing and self-supporting walls perceive, along with vertical and horizontal loads, being vertical elements, the rigidity of structures.
Bearing and non-bearing external walls can be used in buildings of any number of storeys. The height of self-supporting walls is limited in order to prevent operationally unfavorable mutual displacements of self-supporting and internal load-bearing structures, accompanied by local damage to the finish of the premises and the appearance of cracks.
By material There are four main types of wall structures: concrete, stone, non-concrete materials and wood. In accordance with the building system, each type of wall contains several types of structures: concrete walls- from monolithic concrete, large blocks or panels; stone walls - hand-made, walls made of stone blocks and panels; walls made of non-concrete materials - fachwerk and panel frame and frameless; wooden walls - chopped from logs or bars, frame-sheathing, frame-panel, panel and panel.
Constructive decisions . Exterior walls can be single-layer or layered construction. Single layer walls are built from panels, concrete or stone blocks, cast-in-place concrete, stone, brick, wooden logs or beams. in layered walls performance of different functions is assigned to different materials. Strength functions provide concrete, stone, wood; durability features - concrete, stone, wood or sheet material(aluminum alloys, enameled steel, asbestos cement, etc.); thermal insulation functions - effective heaters(mineral wool boards, fibrolite, expanded polystyrene, etc.); vapor barrier functions - rolled materials (roofing felt, foil, etc.), dense concrete or mastics; decorative functions - various facing materials. An air gap can be included in the number of layers of such a building envelope. Closed - to increase its resistance to heat transfer, ventilated - to protect the room from radiation overheating or to reduce deformations of the outer facing layer of the wall.
Structures of single-layer and multi-layer walls can be made prefabricated or in traditional technique.
Walls made of small-sized elements (stone walls): scope; materials and types of masonry; basic measures to ensure strength, stability, durability, heat-shielding ability; details of stone walls (plinths, openings, cornices and parapets).
Handmade walls. material for stone walls, bricks or stones of the correct form are used, made of natural or artificial (baked clay, concrete) materials, and a mortar (lime, lime-cement or cement), along which the stones are laid in horizontal rows with mutual dressing of the seams. Brick (clay and silicate, solid and hollow) has a mass of up to 4-4.3 kg, stones (ceramic hollow with a density of up to 1400 kg / m3, lightweight concrete hollow with a density of up to 1200 kg / m3, from autoclaved and non-autoclaved cellular concrete with a density of up to 800 kg / m3, from natural light stone materials with a density of up to 1800 kg / m3) have a height of up to 20 cm and a weight of up to 30 kg.
Structural strength of the wall ensure the strength of stone and mortar and laying stones with mutual ligation of vertical seams. At the same time, the dressing of the masonry seams is provided not only in the plane of the wall, but also in the plane of the transverse walls adjacent to it. The most common type of masonry is six-row, where five spoon rows successively laid with dressing in the plane of the wall are tied up (in the plane and from the plane of the wall) with the sixth row. Only with high requirements for the strength of the wall, a more labor-intensive two-row masonry is used with dressing of all vertical seams in each row (the so-called chain masonry).
Stability of stone exterior walls provided by their spatial interaction with internal load-bearing structures - walls and ceilings. To ensure spatial interaction, the outer walls are rigidly connected to the inner walls by bonding the masonry, and with the ceilings made of reinforced concrete flooring - by inserting the latter into the wall by at least 100 mm, resting on the wall through a layer of strong mortar and connecting the walls with the ceilings with steel anchors. When arranging ceilings along beams, the latter are inserted into the wall by 250 mm and connected with anchors to masonry every b m. In multi-storey buildings, in addition, floor-by-floor reinforcing belts are provided, located in the mortar joint under the ceiling or above it (with high window lintels).
Durability stone walls provides frost resistance of materials used for the outer part of the masonry. Accordingly, the brands of stones and facing materials for frost resistance for the outer walls of residential buildings of medium and high-rise buildings under construction in temperate climate, take at least 15 Mrz, and for individual parts of the walls (cornices, parapets, window sills, belts, plinths, etc.) subject to especially intense atmospheric moisture - 35 Mrz.
Heat shield ability exterior walls in the design is assigned in accordance with hygienic requirements and taking into account the need to save fuel resources. The wall thickness is taken according to the largest of the values obtained as a result of calculations of the required R 0 tr, economically feasible heat transfer resistance R 0 eq and static calculation. Materials and designs of stone walls have a variety of thermal qualities. The thermal conductivity coefficient of solid masonry varies from 0.7 W/(m°C) for tuff masonry to 0.35 W/(m°C) for masonry of ceramic hollow stones. This makes it possible, by choosing the most heat-efficient material, to significantly reduce the cross section of a single-layer wall, its massiveness, cost and labor intensity of construction. Therefore, the solid masonry of the outer walls is mainly made of hollow ceramic, lightweight concrete stones or bricks. To save stone and labor costs while maintaining the required heat-shielding ability, lightweight multilayer walls are used. In residential buildings, the most common are three-layer lightweight masonry structures. They contain longitudinal walls half a brick thick and between them an internal insulating layer. Sometimes, according to the strength requirements, the inner layer of masonry, to which the load from the floors is transferred, is made 1 brick thick.
The differences in masonry designs are in the ways of ensuring joint static work of the outer layers of the masonry, as well as in the insulation material and the participation of this material in the static work of the wall. The bonds between the layers are designed to be flexible or rigid. Flexible connections are made in the form of steel brackets. With flexible connections, the brick layers of the wall separately perceive the loads that fall on them.
Rigid connections are made in the form of transverse diaphragms connecting the outer layers. According to the location of the transverse diaphragms, wall structures with horizontal and vertical ties are distinguished. In walls with horizontal diaphragms, the latter are performed every five rows; in walls with vertical diaphragms (well masonry), the step of the diaphragms is 0.65 or 1.17 m. fiberboard, foam glass, liners made of lightweight or cellular concrete, monolithic lightweight concrete with a density of up to 1400 kg/m3 or mineral backfills with a density of up to 1000 kg/m3.
Stone wall details. plinths stone walls are made of solid solid bricks of solid masonry. Brick brand for frost resistance - 50 Mrz. At a distance of 15-20 cm from the top of the blind area, a horizontal waterproofing layer is laid that protects the ground part of the wall from ground moisture. The waterproofing layer is made of two layers of roofing material on mastic or cement mortar. In accordance with the compositional solution, sometimes brick plinth lining is used with natural stone slabs or leaning ceramic tiles.
When making a plinth from concrete foundation blocks or plinth panels, the latter are placed indented inward from the facade surface (the so-called undercut plinth). At the same time, in the outer wall hanging over the basement, the facade stones of the lower row of masonry are replaced with reinforced concrete bars. Plinths made of concrete blocks are usually lined with ceramic tiles, and plinth panels have a protective and finishing layer made at the factory from decorative concrete or facing tiles.
openings window and door windows in stone walls are made with quarters on the outside along the vertical and upper edges. The quarters protect the junction of the masonry with the carpentry block filling the opening from infiltration. The size of a quarter in brickwork is 65x120 or 88x120, in stone - 100x100mm. Openings are blocked, as a rule, by prefabricated reinforced concrete lintels, which perceive the vertical load from the overlying masonry, and in load-bearing walls from ceilings.
The crowning part of the outer walls is made in the form of a cornice with external drainage from the roof or a parapet with internal drainage.
Cornice in stone walls they are often laid out of brick or stone, however, the size of the removal of such cornices, according to strength conditions, is limited to half the thickness of the wall, and the successive overlap of bricks to form an overhang should be no more than 1/3 of the stone in each row. If necessary, a cornice with a large extension is made of prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs anchored into the masonry.
Parapet is a part of the wall, rising above the roof, made in solid masonry. The thickness of the wall in the area of the parapet is taken reduced (up to 1 stone). The elevation of the parapet above the roof surface must be at least 300 mm. The upper plane of the parapet masonry is protected from moisture by a drain made of galvanized steel or a concrete parapet stone.
Large-block walls: scope; materials for large blocks; types of blocks depending on their location in the wall; cutting walls into large blocks; ensuring strength, stability, durability of block walls.
Large-block houses are usually designed frameless, based on two structural schemes: with longitudinal walls for 5-story buildings and with transverse walls for multi-story buildings. Sometimes (in separate sections of the building volume) a combined structural system of large-block buildings with an internal frame is used. Accordingly, large-block walls are carried out as load-bearing or self-supporting with cutting along the floor height into 2, 3 or 4 rows of blocks. The choice of cutting type depends on the material and the static function of the walls.
Materials for large blocks, lightweight concrete with a density of up to 1600 kg/m3 on various porous aggregates, autoclaved cellular concrete with a density of up to 800 kg/m3, solid brick or lightweight masonry, natural stone(limestone, tuff, etc.) with a density of up to 1800 kg/m3.
For any of the cuts, the principle of dressing the seams and laying blocks on the mortar is observed. In accordance with the location, there are wall, lintel, window sill, basement, cornice, parapet, ordinary and corner blocks. Lintel blocks have quarters on the inside: on top to support the ceilings, on the bottom to install the filling of the opening. In the wall blocks for installing the filling of openings, quarters are provided along the vertical side faces. From the outside, the blocks have a protective and finishing layer.
Strength large-block walls are achieved by the strength of concrete blocks and mortar, bandaging of masonry blocks and their adhesion to the mortar, floor-by-floor strapping with lintel blocks connected by steel ties. The brand of concrete in terms of compressive strength for lightweight concrete blocks is assigned according to static calculation, but not less than M 50, and mortar - not less than M25.
Sustainability large-block external walls provide them with spatial interaction with ceilings and internal transverse walls, combined with external walls with special steel ties.
In mid-rise buildings, the connections of intersecting walls are designed from L- or T-shaped welded meshes, from strip or round reinforcing bars laid in a solution of horizontal seams.
Durability large-block walls are ensured by the use of concrete with a frost resistance grade of at least 25 Mrz with the corresponding frost resistance grades of concrete and solutions of protective and finishing layers. The frost resistance grade of concrete for cornice, parapet and basement blocks is 35-50 Mrz.
Panel concrete walls and their elements: scope; main types of wall cuts on the panel; material and construction wall panels; rigid and flexible connections in three-layer wall panels.
External walls made of large panels can be load-bearing or non-bearing. The mass use of panel walls in almost all countries of the world determined the exceptional variety of their designs and cuts. However, in most cases, only single-row cutting is used (without ligation of vertical seams) and sometimes (for low and medium-rise buildings) two-row, vertical, cruciform and tee.
Panels made of concrete materials are designed as layered and single-layer. Bearing walls are designed from laminated reinforced concrete panels made of heavy or structural lightweight concrete. Single-layer panels made of lightweight structural and heat-insulating concrete are used for load-bearing walls of a building with a height of no more than 12 floors. Carriers panel walls from autoclaved cellular concrete is used only in low-rise buildings. Non-bearing walls are made of panels of any design.
Single layer concrete panels are made of lightweight or autoclaved cellular concrete. The density of concrete should be no more than 1400 kg/m3. Panels of load-bearing and self-supporting single-layer walls are designed as eccentrically compressed concrete structures. Nevertheless, single-layer panels of even non-load-bearing walls contain structural reinforcement that protects against brittle fracture and the development of cracks during transportation and installation.
The concept of "single-layer panel" is conditional. In fact, in addition to the main structural layer of lightweight or cellular concrete, such panels contain an outer protective and finishing layer and an internal finishing layer.
The facade protective and finishing layer of lightweight concrete panels is made with a thickness of 20-25 mm from vapor-permeable decorative concretes, mortars or from ordinary mortars (with subsequent painting), the shrinkage deformations and the modulus of elasticity of which are close in magnitude to those of the main concrete layer of the panel. For the facade layer, ceramic and glass slabs, thin slabs of sawn natural stone, crushed stone materials are also used. From the inside, a finishing layer of mortar with a density of up to 1800 kg/m3 and a thickness of no more than 15 mm is applied to the panels.
The required density and water resistance of the facade protective and finishing concrete layer is achieved when the panels are molded with the facade surface to the pallet of the “face down” form. The same molding method guarantees maximum adhesion of the concrete panel to the slab cladding.
concrete panels double layer construction have a bearing and insulating layers: bearing - from heavy or structural lightweight concrete, warming - from structural and heat-insulating lightweight concrete of a dense or cellular structure. A denser carrier layer has a thickness of at least 100 mm and is located on the inside.
concrete panels three-layer construction have outer and inner structural layers of heavy or light structural concrete and an insulating layer enclosed between them. The minimum grade of heavy concrete is M 150, light - M 100. For the insulating layer, the most effective materials with a density of not more than 400 kg / m3 are used in the form of blocks, slabs or mats of glass or mineral wool on a synthetic binder, foam glass, fiberboard, polystyrene or phenolic foam.
The concrete layers of the panel are combined with flexible or rigid connections, which ensure its assembly unity and meet the requirements of strength, durability and thermal insulation. The most perfect design of flexible connections consists of separate metal rods, which provide the mounting unity of the concrete layers with the independence of their static work. Flexible connections do not interfere with thermal deformations of the outer concrete layer of the wall and completely exclude the occurrence of thermal forces in the inner layer. Elements of flexible connections are made of low-alloy steels resistant to atmospheric corrosion or of ordinary structural steel with durable anti-corrosion coatings. In three-layer panels with flexible connections, the outer concrete layer performs only enclosing functions. The load from it, as well as from the insulation, is transmitted through flexible connections to the inner concrete layer. The outer layer is designed with a thickness of at least 50 mm from concrete of the Mrz 35 frost resistance grade and reinforced with a welded mesh. These measures provide the necessary durability and crack resistance of the facade layer. Along the butt edges of the panel and along the contour of the openings, the outer concrete layer is thickened for the device of waterproof profiling of the joints and edges of the openings. The thickness of the inner concrete layer of three-layer panels with flexible connections in load-bearing and self-supporting walls is prescribed at least 80 mm, and in non-bearing walls - 65 mm. The panels are insulated with the most effective materials - expanded polystyrene, mineral wool and glass wool plates. Steel elements designed to connect the panel with the rest of the building structures are located in its inner layer.
In three-layer concrete panels, along with flexible ones, rigid connections are also used between the layers in the form of transverse reinforced ribs molded from heavy or light concrete. Rigid connections provide joint static operation of concrete layers, protection of connecting fittings from corrosion, ease of implementation, allow the use of any type of heaters. The disadvantage of the design is the through heat-conducting inclusions formed by the ribs. They can lead to condensation on the inner surface of the wall in their area. To eliminate the danger of condensate, the heat capacity of the inner concrete layer is increased, thickening it to 80-120 mm (according to the results of calculating the temperature panels), and the thickness of the connecting ribs is set to no more than 40 mm.
Structural reinforcement of three-layer panels with rigid connections is performed on both sides. It consists of spatial reinforcing blocks, similar to those used in single-layer panels, but supplemented with a welded mesh with a cell of 200X200 mm, reinforcing the facade concrete layer.
When creating a project for their home, the owners want to have a cozy and comfortable room. They think over the interior decoration of each room, plan the arrangement of furniture. But the most important thing in the construction of a quality house is its decoration, which provides the building with waterproofing and thermal insulation of the walls, is the necessary barrier between warm room and cold air outside. The house has external and internal walls - which ones are better to insulate?
Sheathing the walls of the house from the inside, you significantly lose living space, and cold and moisture continue to affect the outer part of the building. If the outer walls are insulated and sheathed, then the living space will not decrease in volume, there will be no additional load on the foundation, but the brickwork will be reliably protected from moisture, temperature differences, fungi and bacteria. According to statistics, 40% of heat loss in houses is carried out through the walls. If the outer walls of the house are carefully insulated, then energy costs will be significantly reduced.
The choice of insulation
Before starting any work, you need to take care of the materials and think about which insulation is better to take. For sheathing the outer wall of the house, mineral wool, consisting of artificial mineral fibers, is suitable. It is divided into two types: stone and slag. It is sold in slabs or rolls. It does not let moisture through, does not burn, does not react to dampness, is resistant to mechanical damage, protects against insects and retains heat well. It is very convenient to work with her.
You can use glass wool for insulation, made from waste from glass production. She has similar properties with mineral wool, but during insulation work with such material, protective gloves, a face mask and goggles must be worn. This will prevent small parts from getting into Airways and eyes.
Styrofoam or expanded polystyrene is very popular. Plates made of this material are very light, have a cellular structure. It is the cheapest material, so it is often used in the construction of houses. There are two types: dense and porous. Now those with incombustibility have appeared. This is an important quality for the safety of your home. After installing such a material on the outer walls, you need to apply a layer of plaster or other type of cladding. V open form such a heater is not left.
Wall insulation
There are two ways to apply insulation to the surface of an external brick wall:
- A fastened way of laying plates joint-to-joint, which does not leave gaps.
- Crate stuffed on outer surface at home, in the cavity of which pieces of insulation are inserted.
Now the bonded method of insulation is very popular, since with such laying of the material the so-called "cold paths" do not remain - these are places where the insulation material does not come into contact with each other behind the crate, and unprotected strips of the wall remain. With the bonded method, the tiles are well joined, and the house is completely protected, without gaps.
The first step in warming will be leveling the surface of the walls. To do this, the surface is plastered, then a layer of glue is applied and an insulation plate is applied. The edges and the center are strengthened with special dowels, the cracks are blown out mounting foam. If the distance between the plates is significant, then it is better to fill the space with a cut-out strip of insulation.
The next stage of work on the insulation of the outer walls of the house is the application of a reinforcing layer, which is a fiberglass mesh or a metal mesh. A thick layer of glue is applied to the insulation plates and the mesh is pressed in. Smoothing movements level the layer of reinforcement. After the glue has completely dried, the surface is cleaned and prepared for the last stage of finishing. decorative plaster which is subsequently stained.
Plastered and painted house
After applying insulation, economical owners can simply plaster the house and paint it with paint for open surfaces. Plaster can be made embossed, voluminous or textured. It is widely used in our time for finishing work. Relief plasters on the facade are in harmony with smooth surfaces from natural material.
To form a relief layer of plaster, a trowel and trowels, a sponge and various graters are used. In this case, you need to act quickly, forming a relief pattern on the base coat that has not yet dried. An interesting element decoration relief plaster is the painting of the texture with several contrasting colors. To do this, after applying the main color is not yet dried paint you need to shade with a special mitten.
House cladding with natural stone
The stone facades of the outer walls give the impression of solidity and respectability. Natural stone is always pleasing to the eye, even if the house is not fully lined, but only, for example, the basement. This is an environmentally friendly and durable material that creates coolness in the house in summer and does not release heat outside in winter. Installation work performed easily and quickly.
The only drawback of this material is its weight. The delivery of the material will be quite expensive, and the stone itself is not cheap. There is an artificial substitute that is much lighter and cheaper, but its service life is much shorter.
Facade tiles
Facade tiles are used to decorate and protect the house from moisture. It comes in several varieties: clinker, terracotta and decorative.
Clinker tile resembles brick in appearance, only smooth and bright. Such tiles can sheathe a building made of foam blocks or silicate bricks.
After finishing work, the house acquires the clarity of lines, the brightness of the brickwork. Yes, and such a coating will serve for a long time. Therefore, both in Europe and in Russia, this sheathing is very popular. From the tiles you can lay out the tracks on the plot.
Terracotta and decorative tiles less popular, but have the same properties. Diversity colors and shapes will attract the attention of people who want to have an original and unique design for their home.
wood paneling
Since ancient times, the sheathing of the outer walls of the house with wood has been very popular. Now the material called "block house" is popular. After covering the walls, the structure becomes like a wooden frame. This material looks expensive and has good characteristics. It is lightweight, easy to install and durable. With minor mechanical damage, the material can be sanded and repainted.
Exterior wall decoration can also be done using wooden lining. The quality and durability of the material depends on the choice of wood. Inexpensive and comfortable lining made of pine. But if you buy oak, then the service life will last significantly: oak does not rot, it looks expensive, but it is also expensive.
Any wooden wall covering requires treatment with special compounds that protect the wood from decay, protect against fungus, mold, and insects. Lacquer or paint the facade will often have to. This will keep the building looking neat.
Siding
Modern plastic material are made by extrusion through holes of various shapes of the vinyl mixture. Now the siding is produced in two layers: it is more durable, non-flammable, well protected from water and seasonal temperature changes. The material is not subject to erosion, does not rot, does not conduct electricity, resistant to mechanical damage, has a long service life (50 years).
According to the type of installation, vertical and horizontal panels are distinguished. They are attached with self-tapping screws.
In addition to vinyl, metal siding is produced. For the production of such panels, they are used which are wrapped on all sides with a passivated layer and painted over with a protective paint.
Material selection
Before you decide and purchase sheathing material for the exterior walls of the house, you need to weigh the pros and cons. Consider the weight, price and quality of the material. When buying, be sure to check the integrity of the package so as not to get poor-quality trim with broken corners.
At the time of buying natural stone you need to check that the stones are the right color.
Wooden lining is selected without knots and blue spots.
The siding should have a uniform color, the same thickness and shape.
When buying expensive material, it is advisable to use the services of trusted manufacturers who have proven themselves in the market, or listen to the reviews of professional builders.
