Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution higher professional education

RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY OF TRADE AND ECONOMICS

Novosibirsk branch

Faculty of Trade and Economics

COURSE WORK

in the discipline "Economic theory"

on the topic “Research Methodology economic processes and phenomena"

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction

1.1 Basic concepts

1. Methodology analysis

2.1 Concept and types

2.2 Factor analysis methodology

3. Ways to improve

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

For a correct understanding of the course "Economic theory" it is necessary to define the methods of economic theory. For three centuries now, economists-theorists of various trends and schools have expressed contradictory views. During this time, ideas about the sources of society's wealth, about the role of the state in economic activity and even the name of the science itself was updated.

The first reason to study economic theory is that it deals with problems that concern us all without exception: what kinds of work should be done? How are they paid? How many goods can be bought per conventional unit wages now and during the period of galloping inflation? What is the probability that a time will come when a person will not be able to find a suitable job for himself only within an acceptable period?

Economic theory is designed to study and explain the processes and phenomena of economic life, and for this, economic theory must penetrate the essence of deep processes, reveal laws and predict ways to use them.

In economic processes, two peculiar layers of relations between people can be found: the first of them is superficial, externally visible, the second is internal, hidden from external observation.

The study of externally visible economic relations is, of course, accessible to everyone. Therefore, already from childhood, people develop ordinary economic thinking, which is based on direct knowledge of economic life. Such thinking, as a rule, is subjective in nature, in which the individual psychology of a person is manifested. It is limited by a person's personal outlook, often based on fragmentary and one-sided information;

Economic theory seeks to discover the essence behind the external appearance of economic phenomena - their inner content, as well as the cause-and-effect dependence of some phenomena on others. Professor Paul Heine (USA) made an interesting comparison: “An economist knows the real world no better, and in most cases worse than managers, engineers, mechanics, in a word, business people. But economists know how different things are related. Economics allows us to better understand what we see, to think more consistently and logically about a wide range of complex social relations.

The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that, without knowing the methods of studying economic phenomena, it is impossible to correctly assess this or that economic event, to calculate whether the enterprise will make a profit, or vice versa.

The purpose of the course is to consider methods for studying economic processes and phenomena.

Tasks term paper: we will consider the methodology in theory, conduct an analysis, and also consider ways to improve this topic.

1. The theory of studying the methods of economic processes and phenomena

1.1 Basic concepts

To begin with, let's consider the very concept of methodology, what is included in it.

The methodology of science, as you know, is the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods scientific knowledge. Therefore, the methodology of economic theory is the science of the principles of constructing economic system, about methods of studying economic activity.

Methodology of economic theory - the science of methods for studying economic life, economic phenomena. It presupposes the existence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, a single philosophical basis. The methodology is designed to help solve the main question: with the help of what scientific ways, methods of cognition of reality, economic theory achieves true coverage of the functioning and further development any economic system. In the methodology of economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:

1) subjectivist (from the standpoint of subjective idealism);

2) neopositivist-empirical (from the standpoint of neopositivist empiricism and skepticism);

3) rationalistic;

4) dialectical-materialistic.

In the subjectivist approach, the starting point for the analysis of economic phenomena is taken as an economic entity that influences the world around, and the sovereign "I" is relatively independent, hence everyone is equal. object economic analysis is the behavior of the subject of the economy ("homoeconomics"), and therefore economic theory is regarded as the science of human activity, determined by the boundaries of needs. The main category in this approach is need, utility. Economics becomes a theory of choice made by an economic entity from various options.

The neopositivist-empirical approach is based on a more thorough study of phenomena and their evaluation. The technical apparatus of research is put at the head, which turns from a tool into an object of knowledge (mathematical apparatus, econometrics, cybernetics, etc.), and the result of the research is various kinds of empirical models, which are the main categories here. This approach involves a division into microeconomics - economic problems at the level of the firm and industry, and macroeconomics - economic problems at the scale of society.

The rationalist approach aims to discover the "natural" or rational laws of civilization. This requires a study of the economic system as a whole, the economic laws governing this system, the study of the economic "anatomy" of society. F. Quesnay's economic tables are the pinnacle of this approach. aim economic activity of a person is the desire to benefit, and the goal of economic theory is not the study of human behavior, but the study of the laws governing the production and distribution of a social product (D. Ricardo). This approach recognizes the division of society into classes, in contrast to the subjectivist one, which represents society as a set of equal subjects. The main attention in this approach is paid to cost, price, economic laws.

The dialectical-materialist approach is considered the only correct one in solving scientific problems based not on empirical positivism (experience), but on an objective analysis that characterizes the internal connections of phenomena that exist in reality. Economic processes and phenomena constantly arise, develop and are destroyed, i.e. are in constant motion, and this is their dialectic. Methodology should not be confused with methods - tools, a set of research techniques in science and their reproduction in the system economic categories and laws.

The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are: a) the definition of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize the economic activity of organizations;

b) establishing the subordination of indicators with the allocation of cumulative effective factors and factors (main and secondary) that affect them;

c) identification of the form of the relationship between factors;

d) the choice of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;

e) quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.

The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes constitutes the methodology of economic analysis. The methodology of economic analysis is based on the intersection of three areas of knowledge: economics, statistics and mathematics. The economic methods of analysis include comparison, grouping, balance and graphical methods. Statistical methods include the use of averages and relative values, index method, correlation and regression analysis, etc. Mathematical methods can be divided into three groups: economic (matrix methods, theory of production functions, theory of input-output balance); methods of economic cybernetics and optimal programming (linear, non-linear, dynamic programming); methods of operations research and decision making (graph theory, game theory, queuing theory).

1.2 Characteristics of the main techniques and methods of economic analysis

Comparison - a comparison of the studied data and the facts of economic life. There are horizontal comparative analysis, which is used to determine the absolute and relative deviations of the actual level of the studied indicators from the baseline. Vertical comparative analysis used to study the structure of economic phenomena; trend analysis used in the study of the relative growth rates and growth of indicators over a number of years to the level of the base year, i.e. in the study of the series of dynamics.

A prerequisite comparative analysis is the comparability of the compared indicators, assuming:

unity of volumetric, cost, qualitative, structural indicators; the unity of the time periods for which the comparison is made; · Comparability of production conditions and comparability of methods for calculating indicators.

To study the mechanisms of the market system and test the validity of the proposed theories, an economic experiment is used, which in modern realities can be carried out not only on a limited scale. It allows obtaining information about the typical behavior of economic agents under control.

Founder of experimental economics

Vernon Smith, who was born into a family with socialist views on life, found active use of economic experiments. Therefore, one should not be surprised that this man began his research as an adherent of the state and social order. In his understanding, such a structure was drawn in which literate people make decisions for other people.

Interest in economics came to the scientist after spiritual evolution, when he became a classical liberal. In 1952, he managed to get a master's degree, and three years later - to defend his doctoral dissertation. Prior to that, he was educated as an electrical engineer.

Participation of the founder in the first scientific experiment

The not yet held Nobel laureate observed the first economic experiment under the guidance of his teacher. It was devoted to the formation of market equilibrium. Students were divided into sellers and buyers with budget constraints. For the first of them, an acceptable level of costs was set, and for the second, a monetary threshold.

As a result of the research, it turned out that when carrying out trades, persons who, in theory, could not conduct a transaction, under experimental conditions, made it with some benefit. Other bidders, who are in the opposite situation, sometimes managed to be forced out of the market. And it was not some kind of accident, since such effects happened quite often (with a probability of up to 25 percent).

It turned out that the general equilibrium can be influenced by more factors than the theory suggested. Even the correct result can be reached in different ways. In the course of scientific experience, methodological and technical difficulties arose. However, this economic experiment already predetermined two separate directions in the future discipline.

The purpose of the research

To date, the role of ongoing experiments has increased significantly, since not one serious discipline is simply unthinkable without them. Initially, the research was carried out at the micro level, when small economic structures are taken as a basis. However, over time, the situation has changed.

A large number of experiments in economic science began to be carried out at the macro level. They have to be carried out under certain conditions that cannot be completely leveled in the process of research. Most often, scientific experiments in macroeconomics are field, not laboratory. The differences from the micro level are significant enough.

Despite the different approaches, the main task of any research is to verify practical application certain programs and tasks that will help to avoid major mistakes and failures in economic activity. An economic experiment does not prove or disprove theoretical research, but it makes it possible to establish the likelihood of an event occurring.

Pilot Process Methodology

Controlled studies have common features. All of them are designed to simulate ongoing dynamic processes. However, the system itself this case formed by the experimenter. People in it act as economic agents who were recruited according to some criteria. In reality, participants perform many functions from which they cannot completely abstract. Therefore, the methods of economic experiment should be different.

The formation of a model is associated with the loss of some part of the data. This provides an opportunity to abstract away less significant elements. Attention in this case is concentrated on the basic components of the system and mutual relations. Two types of quantities can be entered into the model:

1. Exogenous. Implemented in finished form.
2. Endogenous. Appear inside the model as a result of solving a specific problem.

Thus, it can be argued that the economic experiment is closely related to the creation of models, which are a formalized description of the economic process, the structure of which is determined by objective properties and subjective characteristics.

The main stages of the

Modern experiments take place in several stages:

1. A clear study of the system is being made, the dynamics of which is supposed to be subjected to research in order to choose the right desired section theory, on the basis of which the specification of the model will be constructed.
2. A simulation model for the studied system is being developed. It must include a large number of descriptions for the main objects, conditions for transition from one state to another.
3. An experiment is being carried out with the decision maker. During the process, he is asked to consider a certain situation. There must be a decision to be made.
4. The specification of the basic rules is determined, and the evaluation of the main parameters is also carried out. The developed principles are introduced directly into the model, after which it acquires autonomy.
5. An independent prototype is tested, thanks to which it is possible to obtain a time frame for the behavior of the system under changing initial states. After that, static research methods are applied.
6. Ready is used to improve the effectiveness of the management of the system under consideration by predicting the possible behavior in time.

The model takes into account various economic agents acquiring homogeneous products. The market in this case acts as external environment presented goods. Guided by the dynamics of price changes, consumers make a certain forecast.

Illustrative examples of economic experiments

One of good examples problem associated with the role of the experimenter, is a study conducted at the firm "Western Electric". At that time, it was planned to establish on what factors labor productivity depends. More than a dozen experiments have been conducted regarding free breakfasts, more breaks, and other perks for workers.

The result amazed everyone. After the abolition of worker benefits, labor productivity in the factory began to rise. The experimenters made a mistake that led to a distortion of the indicators. The Observer Turned into the Workers understood that the ongoing research was invaluable to the development of American society. It follows from this that the leader must be in the shadows.

A large number of economic experiments were conducted by Henry Ford. To increase the income of the enterprise, he offered the workers to receive a percentage of the total profit. As a result, their labor productivity increased significantly, since it was profitable for people to work efficiently.

Coordination games

Experienced economists, when considering such games, think about whether it is possible, if necessary, to coordinate laboratory elements on one of the equilibria. If possible, are there any general provisions that can help in a particular prediction. It turns out that under certain conditions, the test people can coordinate the best equilibria, even the less obvious ones.

Deductive selection factors are those that allow predictions to be made based on the properties of the game. As for the inductive principles, they make it possible to predict the result on the characteristic dynamics.

Market trading

The founder of experimental economics conducted a series of experiments on the consolidation of prices and volumes. He paid attention to theoretical equilibrium values ​​directly in market conditions. In the course of the research, the behavior of conditional sellers and buyers was studied. The economist found that in certain configurations of centralized trading, price indicators have a common facet with sales volumes.

As a conclusion

Although the economic experiment does not prove any theoretical assumptions, it allows you to make quality assessment a certain situation in the economic activity of the state or any other association. Much depends on the parameters taken into account in the research.

Under method research is understood as a sequence of stages and a set of methods or techniques for studying and describing a phenomenon.

The dialectical method serves as a truly scientific method of cognition. Using it, science has developed and applies various specific methods and techniques for understanding economic reality. These include statistical observations, proposition and testing of hypotheses, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, mathematical modeling, and others. These methods and techniques of cognition are used in all sciences, but the forms and boundaries of their application depend on the content of the given science.

In economic theory, the process of cognition consists of three stages:

1. The empirical stage is the collection and processing of facts related to a specific problem, and the comparison of facts with existing theories and hypotheses.

2. The theoretical stage is the identification general principles, regularities based on known facts and the creation of new hypotheses and theories.

3. The practical stage is the formation on the basis of the identified patterns, principles or approaches of economic policy.

Given the specifics of the subject, the main method of studying economic phenomena is the method of scientific abstraction, as well as analysis and synthesis, a combination of historical and logical.

At the empirical stage, the main way of knowing is analysis and synthesis.

During the analysis, static groupings are used, averages and limit values, dynamics is revealed. In the course of the analysis, generalizations arise and new concepts are formed, while the method of scientific abstraction is used. It includes two interrelated processes of cognition.

1. Movement from the concrete to the abstract and from the abstract to the concrete.

2. Movement from the phenomenon to the essence and from the essence to the phenomenon.

Abstraction means the purification of our ideas about the processes under study from random, transient, individual and the allocation of durable, stable, typical in them. It is thanks to the method of abstraction that the essence of phenomena is captured, the categories and laws expressing these essences are formulated.

As a result of abstraction, economic categories are derived, that is, scientific concepts that express the essence of economic phenomena. The deepening of economic knowledge makes it possible to find objective and stable relationships between economic phenomena, which are expressed in the form of economic laws.

Another important technique that economic theory uses at the stage of processing facts is the combination of historical and logical. All economic life consists of facts that need to be collected, analyzed and generalized. Facts can be very different, so you need to look for the principles of their relationship and identify the meaning that unites them.

The transition from the empirical to the theoretical stage occurs by induction, when new principles or hypotheses or deductions are derived from the facts, when the collection of facts is approached from the position of a certain theory.

deductive method- this is a method of research in which particular provisions are logically derived from general provisions or rules.

inductive method - this is a method of research, going from particular, isolated cases to a general conclusion, or from individual facts to a generalization.

In the transition from the theoretical to the practical stage of cognition, positive and normative analysis is used.

positive analysis deals with facts that have already been processed and moved to the level of theory. Such an analysis is free from subjective judgments.

Regulatory Analysis, on the contrary, represents the value judgments of some people about what the economy should be like or what measures should be taken, based on a certain economic theory.

Positive analysis studies what is, while normative analysis expresses a subjective idea of ​​what should be.

The subject and method of economic theory are inextricably united with each other. As the content of the subject deepens, more diverse research methods are used. The result of these studies is knowledge expressed in the form of economic laws. They are objective in nature, which means that they do not obey the will and consciousness of people and cannot be either good or bad in people's assessment. They cannot be banned or abolished. People are obliged to study the mechanisms of these laws and make decisions in accordance with their requirements.

One of the existing causes of the crisis in our economy is voluntarism Russian politicians. Voluntarism is the adoption of decisions that are not compatible with the objective requirements of economic laws, it is arbitrariness in politics and economics.

Given the historical path traversed by economic science, we can say that the subject of study of economic theory is production relations and economic laws that govern people's behavior in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods and services in a world of limited resources.

4. Methods of economic research.

The word "method" (from the Greek "methodas") literally means: "the path to something", "the path of knowledge" (or research). In general philosophical sense it means a way of cognition as a certain set or system of techniques and procedures for the purpose of mental reproduction of the subject being studied. Therefore, in relation to economic theory, the concept of "method" is the way of knowing the system of economic relations in their interaction with the development of productive forces, the way of mental reproduction.

The system of receptions cannot be arbitrary. It must be consistent with the objective laws of the development of reality itself. Methodology is called upon to solve this problem as a science about a system of techniques, ways of knowing and transforming the world. The name "methodology" (from the Greek "methodas" and "logos") literally translates as the doctrine of methods. Since the objective laws of the development of reality are, first of all, the laws of dialectics, reflecting the laws of development of nature, society and human thinking, the dialectical method is an epistemological toolkit and a logical reflection of all dialectics.

At the same time, within the framework of this method, the subjective element must be taken into account, since the object of economic analysis is the behavior of people, and, consequently, human activity. The most important categories of this approach include needs, interests, goals, motives of human behavior, utility, use value of goods and services.

Investigating economic processes, economic theory applies a number of general scientific methods of cognition, that is, such techniques that are used by other social and natural sciences. The most important of them for the sphere of economy are the following nine (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Basic methods of economic research.

Let's consider these methods. So, it is obvious that observation (that is, a deliberate, purposeful perception of economic phenomena, processes in their real form) and collection of facts occurring in reality. It is thanks to this that it is possible, say, to trace how commodity prices have changed over a given period, how the volumes of production, trade and profits of an enterprise have increased.

In contrast, an experiment involves an artificial scientific experiment, when the object under study is placed in specially created and controlled conditions. For example, in order to test the effectiveness of a new wage system, its pilot tests are carried out within a particular group of workers.

Such a method as modeling is also actively used. It provides for the study of socio-economic phenomena according to their theoretical image - a model (from the Latin modulus - measure, sample), which replaces the object of study itself. Particularly effective is modeling on computers, which allows, say, to calculate the most rational variant of economic relations of an enterprise, city, region, country with their partners.

The method of scientific abstractions, or abstraction, is a special mental device that allows you to formulate certain abstract concepts - the so-called abstractions, or categories. People in their everyday life use a great variety of various abstractions at every step, without even thinking about it.

The method of scientific abstraction, which involves the rejection of the analysis of superficial, non-essential aspects of the phenomenon in order to reveal its internal, essential, stable and universal connections, to identify the actual trend of movement. The result of applying this method is the "derivation" (substantiation) of economic categories. Abstraction allows you to reflect in an ideal form the content that is already embedded in the phenomena under study. The more meaningful and capacious abstractions (in the form of categories, definitions, concepts) are developed by economic theory, the more fully and accurately they reflect reality, the more effective their use as a tool of knowledge.

An equally important aspect of this method of cognition is the need for selective consideration of economic phenomena or processes from a certain point of view while ignoring all other properties. Thus, when studying the structure of the social mode of production, productive forces are considered as its material content, production relations - as public form, and the technical and technological side of the productive forces (the technological structure of production) is omitted in this case.

For abstraction to be scientific, it is necessary to determine the boundaries of abstraction, to prove that consideration of an economic phenomenon or process in a certain aspect or from a certain point of view does not change their inner essence, the laws of development and functioning.

Methods of analysis and synthesis involve the study of socio-economic phenomena both in parts - this is analysis (from the Greek analysis - decomposition, dismemberment), and as a whole - synthesis (from the Greek synthesis - connection, combination, composition). For example, comparing the economic performance of individual mines is an analysis, and determining the industry-wide results of managing the entire coal industry in Russia is a synthesis (Fig. 2).

Thanks to the combination of methods of analysis and synthesis, a systematic, integrated approach to complex (multi-element) research objects is provided. Such objects (systems) are considered as a complex of interrelated parts (subsystems) of a single whole, and not as a mechanical connection of some disparate elements. Importance integrated approach due to the fact that the entire economy essentially consists of many large and small systems ( National economy- from industries, industries - from enterprises, enterprises - from workshops, the cost of goods - from cost elements, the market - from many sectors, niches, participants, etc.).

The division of economic theory into micro- and macroeconomics (from the Greek mikros - small and makros - large) is logically connected with the method of analysis and synthesis. different levels consideration of economic systems (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Two levels (two areas) of economic research.

Thus, microeconomics deals with individual elements (parts) of these systems. She studies:

a) such separate economic units as industry, enterprise, household;

b) individual markets (for example, the grain market);

c) production, sale or price of a particular product, etc.

The microeconomic approach is thus close to the method of analysis.

In contrast, macroeconomics explores economic systems as a whole, or the so-called aggregates (from the Latin aggregatus - attached), that is, the totality of economic units. These units include world economy, the national economy, as well as large subdivisions of the latter - the public sector, households (taken in aggregate), the private sector, etc. Macroeconomics, based on the synthesis method, operates with generalizing, or aggregate, indicators such as: gross output, national income, total expenditures . In addition, the macroeconomic sphere also includes consideration of general concepts - cost, market, budget, taxes, etc.

The division of economic science into micro- and macro-spheres should not be made absolute. They are closely related. Many problems intrude into spheres, albeit at different levels of generalization. Where, for example, to attribute questions of profit? After all, to compare the income of two specific factories (microeconomics), you need to use general concept profits, and it is produced by macroeconomics.

Induction and deduction are two opposite but closely related ways of reasoning. The movement of thought from particular (separate) facts to a general conclusion is induction (from the Latin inductio - guidance), or generalization. It allows us, in the words of Dostoevsky, "to gather our thoughts into a point." And the discussion in reverse direction(from general position to particular conclusions) is called deduction (from the Latin deductio - derivation). Therefore, the meaning of induction and deduction follows from the very etymology of these words. Thus, the facts of an increase in the price of milk, bread, vegetables, etc., suggest an increase in the cost of living in the country (induction). From the general proposition about the rising cost of living, one can deduce individual indicators of consumer price increases for each product (deduction).

Historical and logical methods (or approaches) are also applied in unity. Here, a detailed study of socio-economic processes in their historical sequence is accompanied by logical generalizations, that is, an assessment of these processes as a whole and general conclusions. For example, a detailed study of the specific course and features of the construction of socialism in the twentieth century in different societies is a historical approach. And the conclusions based on it (on the inefficiency of the economy in socialist countries, on the daily loss of incentives to work, on commodity shortages, etc.) are a logical approach.

Finally, very wide application in economic sciences it has a graphical method (from the Greek grapho - I write, I draw, I draw). It displays business processes and phenomena with the help of various systems, tables, graphs, diagrams, providing brevity, conciseness, clarity in the presentation of complex theoretical material. Thus, the graph visibly demonstrates the dependence of certain quantities on each other, reflecting, say, the relationship between ticket prices and the number of theater spectators (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Graph of the dependence of the number of theater spectators on ticket prices. It is easy to see that there is an inversely proportional (or negative) relationship here: the higher the prices, the fewer viewers. This causes the descending nature of the curve. In other cases, we will find directly proportional (or positive) dependencies that look like ascending lines on the graph (for example, with an increase in sales of products, the company's income also grows).

Conclusion

In all definitions of economic science by well-known and little-known economists, the idea of ​​the economic life of a person or society as a whole, its organizational and management fundamentals that determine the efficiency of production as the basis of the subject of this science.

However, an expanded interpretation of this subject leads to the fact that economic science includes the entirety of the functioning of both a separate production link - an enterprise, a firm (micro level), and the entire national or international economy (macro level).

It might be expected that a science dealing with questions so important to the well-being of mankind would attract the attention of many of the most talented thinkers of every age and would now be on the verge of full maturity. But in reality the number of economic scientists has always been small compared with the complexity of the problems that this science had to solve, and as a result it is still almost in its infancy.

One of the reasons for this lies in the underestimation of the impact of economics on the achievement of higher human well-being. In fact, the science of which wealth is the object of study often seems to many researchers at first glance repulsive, for those who do most to expand the frontiers of knowledge rarely care about acquiring wealth for its own sake.

The considered concepts and categories, reflecting the system of production relations, contain strong interconnections among themselves. Each side of these relationships is characterized by its own characteristics, its own patterns. Therefore, one law is characteristic of production, others are characteristic of exchange and distribution, and consumption and accumulation have their own laws and patterns. Their interactions remain objective as well as the fact that these relations themselves remain objective: production, distribution, etc.

List of used literature.

1. Borisov E.F. Volkov F.M. Basics of economic theory. M. Higher school. 1993.

2. Nuriev R.M. Basics of economic theory. Microeconomics. Textbook for high schools. M. Higher school. 1996.

3. Rokhlin E. Fundamentals of economic theory. Microeconomic theory of input markets. M. "Science", 1996

Introduction 3
1. Methodology of economic theory 5
1.1. Methodology as a science of economic theory 5
1.2. Classification of methods of economic theory 10
2. Economic categories and laws 19
2.1 Economic laws 19
2.2 Economic categories 24
Conclusion 27
List of used literature 29

Introduction

Economic theory is a fundamental (from Latin Fimdamentum - basis) economic science that studies the general patterns of economic life, the basis of economic sciences. It is also a system of scientific views on the economic life of society, which give a comprehensive idea of ​​the patterns of its development. It not only explains how society is reproduced, but also contributes to its development, prevents the recurrence of some negative economic phenomena, and makes it possible to predict the future development of the economy.
Economic theory is designed to study and explain the processes and phenomena of economic life, and for this, economic theory must penetrate the essence of deep processes, reveal laws and predict ways to use them. A necessary condition in the study of economic theory is a certain constancy and correct order in the phenomena it studies. Science concerning every kind of phenomena is possible when it can be shown that these phenomena are subject to certain kinds of laws, i.e. they constantly accompany each other or follow one after another in a certain order accessible to observation and study. The subject of economic theory is the laws and factors of economic growth.
If the subject of science is characterized by what it studies, then the method is how it is studied. One follows from the other. The reality of the results depends on the correctly adopted method.
Economics as a science uses a wide range of methods of scientific knowledge.
A method is a set of techniques, methods, principles by which ways to achieve a goal are determined.
The problem of methodology for the study of economic processes and phenomena is relevant in modern conditions. This is evidenced by the frequent study of the issues raised.
The current state of science is characterized by a transition to a global consideration of the problems of the topic "Methodology for the study of economic processes and phenomena." Many works have been devoted to research questions. Basically, the material presented in the educational literature is of a general nature, and in numerous monographs on this topic, narrower issues of the problem are considered. Consideration of issues related to this topic has both theoretical and practical significance.
object This study is an analysis of the terms "Methodology for the study of economic processes and phenomena."
Wherein subject research is the consideration of individual issues formulated as the objectives of this study.
The purpose of the study is the study of the topic "Methodology of the study of economic processes and phenomena" in terms of the latest domestic and foreign research.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks :
1. Study the theoretical aspects on this topic;
2. To study the main methods of studying economic processes and phenomena;
3. Determine the essence of economic categories and laws.
The work includes an introduction, the main part, consisting of 2 chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography. In the introduction, the relevance of the choice of topic is substantiated, the goal and objectives of the study are set. Chapter one reveals the general questions of the problem "Methodology for the study of economic processes and phenomena." The basic concepts are defined, methods of studying economic processes and phenomena are considered. In chapter two, the concepts of economic categories and laws are considered. In conclusion, an assessment of the effectiveness of the considered methods is given.
The sources of information for writing the work were basic educational literature, fundamental theoretical works of the largest thinkers in the field under consideration, and reference literature.

1. Methodology of economic theory

1.1 Methodology as a science of economic theory.
Methodology - the doctrine of the ways, techniques, methods that are used by certain sciences to study their subject. You can also give another definition of methodology.
Methodology - a general approach to the study of economic phenomena, based on special principles of construction and methods of cognition. It presupposes the existence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, a single philosophical basis. The methodology is designed to help solve the main question: "with the help of what scientific methods, methods of cognition of reality, economic theory achieves true coverage of the functioning and further development of a particular economic system."
The methodology of economic theory is a set of methods, techniques for understanding the economic relations of people and reproducing them in a system of economic categories, principles, laws, models. At the same time, economic processes and phenomena are considered both in statics and in dynamics. Taken in continuous movement and development, in the transition from one qualitative state to another, they are analyzed in order to identify and resolve (remove) contradictions. Concretizing scientific conclusions in the form of certain recommendations, economic theory performs the practical functions of developing the foundations of the state's economic policy. one
The methodology of theoretical economics is the science of methods for studying economic life and economic phenomena. It presupposes the existence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, a single philosophical basis.
In the methodology of general economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:
1. positivist;
2. structuralistic;
3. dialectical;
4. synthetic.
1. Positivist the approach is based on the philosophy of positivism (“positive” philosophy), which recognizes as the main source of knowledge the data of specific (empirical) sciences that do not need proper methodological justification. Positivism was formed in the first half of the 19th century (O. Comte, G. Spencer, etc.), later taking the form of neo-positivism or logical positivism (R. Carnap, M. Schlick, etc.), and then post-positivism (T. Kuhn, K. Popper and others). 2
The most characteristic features of the positivist approach are:

phenomenalism (reflection of specific factors as a phenomenon);
verification (direct reduction scientific knowledge to specific knowledge)
pragmatism (the significance of knowledge depending on narrow practical consequences).

1.2. Classification of methods of economic theory
Theoretical economics uses a wide range of methods of scientific
knowledge. In this regard, general scientific and specific methods are distinguished..
General scientific- these are methods that are used in the study of any science: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology, economics, etc. Let's consider them in more detail.
Dialectical method. Dialectics is the science of development. In this regard, the dialectical method involves answers to such questions: Why did this phenomenon arise? How will it develop? And why sooner or later a new phenomenon comes to replace it? The essence of dialectics is that "everything flows - everything changes." 6 Scientists - economists, like scientists of all other sciences, use the method of dialectics as a general scientific method.
If scientists see the basis of changes in social phenomena in the objective, or independent of the will and consciousness of a person, then in scientific analysis used materialistic method. In conjunction with dialectics, it is the method of dialectical materialism, or the method of materialist dialectics. This method is used in studies of the Marxist trend.
If scientists see the basis of changes in the subjective, or dependent on the will and consciousness of people, then the idealistic method takes place.
Specific are methods that are used economic theory, and other humanities: history, psychology, sociology, etc. These include: methods of abstraction, deduction and induction, analysis and synthesis, the unity of the logical and historical, the critical method, mathematical and statistical analysis, graphic representation, etc. Let's consider some of them.
abstraction method. Critical method economic theory, it consists in abstracting in the process of cognition from external phenomena, non-essential aspects and highlighting (singling out) the deepest essence of the process. Scientific abstraction is a general scientific method of cognition, its importance increases when the possibility of experimental verification of economic theory is excluded. Abstraction is an exclusion from economic analysis of specific facts not related to the study. By itself, the process of collecting the necessary facts already involves abstracting from reality. However, the abstract nature of economic theory does not make this theory impractical and unrealistic. Thus, abstraction, or deliberate simplification, in economic analysis has not only scientific, but also practical significance.
Method of analysis and synthesis. Through analysis, economic theory divides economic relations into their component parts and examines each of these parts separately; through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single holistic picture of the economic process (this takes place at any level, for example, enterprises have special economic departments that actively use method of analysis and synthesis).In analysis, the phenomenon is mentally decomposed into its component parts and its individual aspects are singled out in order to identify the specific that distinguishes them from each other. This is important for solving the subsequent problem of theoretically explaining those features from which they are initially abstracted. With the help of analysis, the essential in the phenomenon is revealed. If we talk about the process of cognition, then analysis is used when moving from the contemplation of reality to abstract thinking, i.e. from the concrete to the abstract, and ends with the development of economic scientific abstractions.
During synthesis, the mental unification of the parts and sides dissected by the analysis takes place in order to reveal the common thing that connects these parts, the sides into a single whole. Synthesis occurs when moving from the abstract to the concrete. In the process of synthesis, the phenomenon under study is studied in the interconnection of its constituent parts, in integrity and unity, in the movement of contradictions, due to which ways and forms of their resolution are opened.
When analyzing various data, a method such as correlation is used - this is a technical term indicating that the ratio of two groups of data is systemic and interdependent.
There are two very different levels of analysis from which an economist can deduce laws about economic behavior. The level of macroeconomic analysis refers either to the economy as a whole, or to such major subdivisions that make it up, or aggregated indicators (aggregates). On the other hand, microeconomic analysis deals with specific economic units, with a detailed study of the behavior of these individual units.
Inductive and deductive methods. By means of induction, the transition from the study of single facts to general provisions and conclusions. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from the most general conclusions to relatively particular ones. Induction is a study in which the knowledge of reality takes place in the process of developing single statements that provide an opportunity to draw general conclusions and formulate general provisions. Induction is characterized by the knowledge of reality by moving from the concrete to the abstract. And at the level of abstract thinking, economic categories are developed.
Assumption method ceteris paribus, or "ceteris paribus". Economists, in constructing their theories, assume that all other variables, with the exception of those in which they are this moment considered remain unchanged. This method simplifies the process of analyzing the relationship under study. In the natural sciences, it is usually possible to conduct control experiments in which "everything else" is actually held constant or substantially unchanged. In this case, the proposed relationship between the two variables can be subjected to empirical verification with great accuracy. However, economic theory is not a laboratory, not an experimental science. The process of empirical testing carried out by the economist is based on “real life” data, but the end result does not always match the theoretical conclusion. In the course of the actual functioning of the economy, in this rather chaotic environment, “other conditions” often change and, accordingly, the theoretically justified goal is not achieved in a particular life. This method, as it were, refines and complements the method of abstraction, as a result of which together they can lead to theoretical generalizations, or economic principles.
economic experiment. Economic experiments are reasonable and necessary, although it is far from always possible in economic life to accurately predict the likely results of experiments. Verification of the reliability of the conclusions and provisions obtained by economic theory is carried out in economic practice, which is the decisive criterion for their truth. However, the incompleteness of taking into account all the circumstances, the limited scale of the experiment being carried out can lead to incorrect, erroneous conclusions, which can be revealed when the experiment is extended to the economic system as a whole. In the course of the experiment, the researcher's desire to highlight the aspects of interest to him, and ignore the others, may also appear.
In the process of cognition, experiment and theory interact with each other. The experiment not only confirms or refutes this or that hypothesis, but also provides material for the development of the theory.
Unlike the natural sciences, economic theory cannot conduct experiments outside of direct economic activity, and, therefore, outside of economic entities, people. Therefore, any reforms, no matter how large they are, always affect the interests of people, their lives.
Quantitative analysis and qualitative certainty. Each economic process or phenomenon can be characterized by both qualitative and quantitative assessment. For quantitative analysis, economic theory quite widely uses statistical and mathematical methods of research, with the help of which it is possible to determine the quantitative relationship between economic variables. However, the accumulation of quantitative changes ultimately causes qualitative transformations of the existing economic relationships. Therefore, economic processes and phenomena should be studied in the inextricable connection of their quantitative and qualitative certainties. At the same time, computer technology is widely used. The method plays a special role here. economic and mathematical modeling. Modeling as a tool of scientific thinking contributes to the penetration into the essence of objects of knowledge, the identification of their inherent patterns.
Modeling of any phenomenon, object is understood as the creation of its simplified analogue - textual, graphical, mathematical and computer.
The modeling process includes the following steps:
1. Formulation of the subject and purpose of the study.
2. Allocation of economic objects of interest in the considered economic system. Study of the object. Understanding how an object is arranged, how it functions, what factors affect its functioning, what are the criteria for its evaluation or optimization, under what restrictions in the case of optimization a given goal is achieved.
3. Identification of the most important and essential characteristics of each economic object that meets the task. Descriptive modeling. Fixation and verbal, qualitative description of the relationship between them.
4. Mathematical modeling. The introduction of symbolic designations for the characteristics of the economic object taken into account. Formalization (as far as possible) of the main characteristics of the object and the relationships between them, formulating a mathematical model of the economic object. Translation of a descriptive model into a formal mathematical language using mathematical tools such as variables, functions, equations and inequalities, and others.
5. Choosing a solution method and obtaining it.
6. Solution analysis. Check for compliance with a real object.
According to one or another criterion, economic and mathematical models are divided into microeconomic and macroeconomic, theoretical and applied, static and dynamic, equilibrium and non-equilibrium, optimization and non-optimization, deterministic and statistical. 7
Methods occupy a special place in economics. empirical verification(verification, substantiation, evaluation) of quantitative economic and mathematical models and qualitative statements or hypotheses based on available economic data using methods of probability theory and mathematical statistics adapted to the processing of economic data.
Any economic research always involves the use of statistical data. Statistical data in the economy are the basis for identifying and substantiating empirical patterns. Without specific quantitative data characterizing the functioning of the economic object under study, it is impossible to determine the practical significance of the economic model.
Economic data is usually divided into two types: cross-sectional data and time series. Cross-sectional data is data on some economic indicator obtained for similar objects or for different regions. Time series are data characterizing the same object, but at different points in time. Analysis of time data (short-term interest rates, inflation, unemployment, GNP and other economic indicators) allows you to identify trends in these values ​​and extrapolate them for forecasting purposes without analyzing the internal causes of the time dependence of the studied values.
The purpose of collecting economic data is to obtain an information base for decision-making. Naturally, data analysis and decision making are based on some intuitive (implicit) or quantitative (explicit) economic model. Therefore, they collect exactly the data that is necessary for the corresponding model.
Any economic data are quantitative characteristics of any economic objects or their properties, which are the basis for identifying and analyzing the empirical patterns of behavior of the object of study. They are formed under the influence of many factors, not all of which are available to external control. Uncontrollable factors can take on random values ​​from a set of values ​​and thereby cause the randomness of the data they determine. The statistical nature of economic data necessitates the use of special statistical methods adequate to them for their analysis and processing.
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