Elements of the political system. Components of the political system

Among the many existing scientific literature definitions of the concepts of "political system" seems to us the most complete definition, which is given by Professor A.V. Malko:

The political system is ordered on the basis of law and other social norms set of institutions (government bodies,

In political parties, movements, public organizations, etc.) within which the political life of society takes place and political power is exercised.

Thus, the political system of society is a reflection of political life society as a whole.

Speaking of Structural Elements political system It should be noted that in the legal literature there are many points of view on this issue. At the same time, in most cases, only its static, organizational and structural elements (parties, public organizations, funds, etc.), which does not allow to fully reflect the functioning, practice of the political system, its dynamics in modern conditions. In this regard, the concept of a system involves the interconnection, interaction of all elements, their interdependence and dependence on each other, recognized to reveal its vital activity as a system of complementary connections and relations between the subjects of the political system.

In the legal literature, there are five structural elements political system, each of which characterizes different aspects of its life:

1. Institutional (organizational) element. It is the main one in the political system, because. gives stability to the system, forms its normative basis and other means of influencing society. This element includes state bodies, public associations (public organizations, foundations, bodies of public amateur performance, etc.) political parties- as a specific subject, etc.

2. The normative element includes the normative foundations of the activity of the political system (political norms contained in the Charters, political parties; legal norms contained in the Constitution, federal law"About public associations" and etc.; political customs and traditions (for example, the opening of the first session of parliament by senior deputies);

3. functional element. Reveals the content of specific actions and functioning in practice of this element of the political system (political actions - holding rallies, processions, demonstrations, picketing, etc.; political processes - the process of forming the parliament, government, public opinion, etc.); acts of implementing the functions inherent in the structural elements of the political system (for example, the actual nomination of a candidate for elected state bodies is an act of implementing the functions of a political party);

4. Ideological element. Includes theories, ideas, the concept of the basis and ways of its development, political consciousness in society, etc.;

5. Communicative element. Includes all types of funds mass media and represents the channels through which information about the activities of various components political system and decisions made by various bodies.

It should be noted that the above elements of the political system are considered in their unity and interconnection.

There is another classification of the structural elements of the political system, which includes the following components:

the political organization of society, includes the state, political parties and movements, public organizations, labor collectives etc.;

political consciousness, characterizing the psychological and ideological aspects political power and political system;

· socio-political and legal norms regulating the political life of society and the process of exercising political power;

· political relations, emerging between the elements of the system about political power;

· political practice, consisting of political activity and cumulative political experience.

In the legal literature, depending on various grounds, the following types of political systems are distinguished;

1. According to the types of legal cultures, political systems are divided into:

· political systems with Romano-Germanic legal culture;

· political systems with English legal culture;

· political systems with socialist legal culture;

· political systems with religious-traditional legal culture.

2. Depending on the character political regime divided into democratic and anti-democratic.

3. By types of political cultures, political systems are divided into:

a) the Anglo-American system;

b) continental European systems;

c) pre-industrial and partially industrial;

d) totalitarian systems.

4. According to the degree of participation of citizens in the political process, the following political systems are distinguished:

developing;

The communist

· « liberal democracy which is characterized by a high degree of voluntary but passive political participation.

In addition, systems are divided into open, i.e. having a dynamic structure and wide connections with other systems and closed, i.e. having a rigidly fixed structure and characterized by minimal links with external environment.

Speaking about the essence of the political system of society, it should be noted that it is most clearly manifested in its functions. In the legal literature, the following functions of the political system are distinguished:

1) political goal setting, i.e. development of political goals related to the change (strengthening) of power, political institutions, the development of democracy.

2) power-political integration, i.e. the use of politics and power to express the will of the entire people and the subordination of all the main links and society to it.

3) the function of regulating the regime of socio-political activity in society, i.e. the establishment of such ways of behavior and activities of people, groups, organizations, forms of their relationship with each other, with the state, which would ensure the observance of common interests and the stability of social relations.

4) the function of ensuring the holistic managerial impact of the subject of management on society as a whole, its spheres, sectors of the economy, culture, etc.

5) the function of organizing society as a whole.

6) the function of determining and distributing material and spiritual values, benefits in accordance with the interests and needs of each member of society.

7) Approval of this socio-political system, ensuring internal and external security.

The political system of society is a set of interactions (relations) of political subjects, organized on a single normative-value basis, connected with the exercise of power (by the government) and the management of society.

This concept combines a variety of actions and relationships between ruling groups and subordinate, governing and controlled, dominant and subordinate, theoretically generalizes the activities and relationships of organized forms of power relations - state and other institutions and institutions, as well as ideological and political values ​​and norms that regulate the political life of members this society. The concept of a political system denotes the structures of political activity and relations characteristic of a particular society and the types of political process.

The main forms of political systems:

Democracy

Views on the political system

The concept of a political system has many aspects. This explains the ambiguity of approaches in his analysis:

If we consider the system in institutional terms, then it can be reduced to a set of state and non-state institutions and norms within which the political life of a given society takes place.

In another version, the authoritative aspect of the political system is emphasized, and its definition is associated mainly with the legalization of state coercion as a means of regulating relationships between people.

In the third, the political system is considered as a system of authoritarian (with the help of power) distribution of values ​​in society.

Each of these approaches will be correct provided that the aspect of the definition of the concept is specifically indicated ...

Consistency

The political system can be seen as social system, for which such an interrelation of its elements is assumed, which forms a certain integrity, unity. And this means the unification of the subjects (social groups, organizations, individuals) included in the system with specific features that characterize the system, and not individual elements. Moreover, these signs are not reducible to the sum of the properties that make up the system of elements. In turn, the properties of the elements are not deducible from the attributes of the whole.

The political system is characterized by common features of social systems. In addition, it is characterized by specific features arising from the nature of politics and power. This system, in contrast to, say, the economic system, is formed mainly purposefully. Its foundation contains a set of relevant ideas, values ​​- an ideology that reflects the social interests of large social groups and determines the appearance of the system. The institutions that form the political system, as already mentioned, are objectified political ideas and projects. Hence the need to take into account in the analysis the special role of the spiritual factor in working out the mechanisms of functioning and modernization of the system.

The political system, being conditioned by socio-economic structures, acts in relation to them and to the entire social environment as a whole, functions as a relatively independent complex. social institutions and political relations. It has its own life, its own laws, which is determined by the presence of special structural ties, roles, functions, as well as their consolidation and regulation by special norms - legal and political.

As part of society, functioning in a social environment, the political system is influenced by those influences that come from outside, from society, as well as impulses from within - the interactions of its institutions, values, etc. (2)

This paper will address questions such as:

1. The concept of "political system of society" its structure and functions.

AT social management various subjects take part: the state (specially designed for this purpose), parties, political movements, public associations, etc. All of them, exerting an active influence on the political life of society and exercising political power, unite into a political system.

The political system of society is a set of institutions (state bodies, political parties, movements, public organizations, etc.) ordered on the basis of law and other social norms, within which the political life of society takes place and political power is exercised.

The concept of "political system of society", which entered into scientific circulation in the second half of the 20th century, shows how political processes are regulated, how political power is formed and functions. It is a mechanism for organizing and implementing political activities.

The political system has a number of characteristic features:

1) it is within its framework and with its help that political power is exercised;

2) it depends on the nature of the social environment, the socio-economic structure of society;

3) it has relative independence.

Any system of society, including a political one, is an integral, ordered set of elements, the interaction of which gives rise to a new quality that is not inherent in its parts. The category "political system" makes it possible to penetrate deeply into the political interests of classes, social and ethnic groups, to understand the interconnection and interdependence of political phenomena reflecting these interests. The political system, ultimately, regulates the production and distribution of benefits between social communities on the basis of the use of state power, participation in it, struggle for it.

The following components of the political system are distinguished:

1) the political organization of society, which includes the state, political parties and movements, public organizations and associations, labor collectives, etc.;

2) political consciousness, which characterizes the psychological and ideological aspects of political power and the political system;

3) socio-political and legal norms governing the political life of society and the process of exercising political power;

4) political relations that develop between the elements of the system regarding political power;

5) political practice, consisting of political activity and cumulative political experience.

Each organization that is part of the political system occupies its own special place in it, has a special purpose, its own functions, in accordance with which it participates in the decision common tasks society.

Depending on the nature, the following types of political systems are distinguished: democratic, command-administrative, theocratic, transitional, etc.

The essence of the political system of society is most clearly manifested in its functions. Hence, the characterization of the political system will be incomplete without their consideration.

The following functions of the political system are distinguished:

ensuring the political power of a certain social group or the majority of members of a given society (the political system establishes and implements specific forms and methods of government - democratic and anti-democratic, violent and non-violent, etc.);

management of various spheres of people's life in the interests of certain social groups or the majority of the population (the action of the political system as a manager includes setting goals, objectives, determining the ways of development of society, specific programs for the activities of political institutions);

mobilization of funds and resources necessary to achieve these goals and objectives (without huge organizational work, human, material and spiritual resources, many of the goals and objectives set are doomed to deliberate failure to achieve);

identification and representation of the interests of various subjects of political relations (without selection, a clear definition and expression of these interests at the political level, no policy is possible);

satisfaction of the interests of various subjects of political relations through the distribution of material and spiritual values ​​in accordance with certain ideals of a particular society (it is in the sphere of distribution that the interests of various communities of people collide);

integration of society, creation of the necessary conditions for the interaction of various elements of its structure (by uniting different political forces, the political system tries to smooth out, remove the contradictions that inevitably arise in society, overcome conflicts, eliminate collisions);

political socialization (through it, the political consciousness of the individual is formed, and he is "included in the work" of specific political mechanisms, due to which the reproduction of the political system occurs by training all new members of society and involving them in political activity), etc.

Thus, the political system has many functions through which it fulfills its purpose, ensures normal political relations, links all subjects of politics into a single political organism. (one)

1. The concept of a political system: basic approaches. Components of the political system.

2. The mechanism of the political system.

3. Functions of the political system.

4. Typology of modern political systems. The main trends in modern political systems.

1. The concept of a political system: basic approaches. Components of the political system.

The totality of interactions about political power forms a political system. The term "political system" was introduced into political science discourse in the 1950s. Until that time, the concepts of "type of government", "system of government" were usually used to describe political relations, which reduced politics to the activities of the state and its institutions. However, the processes of development of civil society have led to a wide spread of non-state political actors - local governments, parties, interest groups, which began to have a tangible impact on government structures. Public power ceased to be a monopoly of the state, which made it necessary to reconsider the prevailing institutional and behavioral approaches to explaining politics from the standpoint of the methodology of system analysis. Another, no less important reason for the introduction of a systematic approach into political science was the need to clarify the universal patterns and mechanisms that ensure the survival and sustainable development of society in an unfavorable external environment.

When discussing a political system, one should proceed from the fact that systemic nature is inherent in the entire human community. Any person during his life an infinite number of times comes into contact with other people and consciously or unconsciously, intentionally or accidentally builds a system of relationships. At the heart of this phenomenon lies the natural motivation for a person: everyone performs those actions that bring him the greatest benefit, and avoid those that could bring obvious harm. In other words, everyone pursues his own benefit, understood in the very broad sense words (from the desire to earn as much money as possible to the desire to enjoy works of art). Trying to reduce losses and increase profits, people create many different systems and thereby streamline their lives.

Particular interest in the study of systems arose at the beginning of the 20th century. The concept of "system" was introduced into scientific circulation by the German biologist L. von Bertalanffy to denote the processes of cell exchange with the external environment. It was then that it was determined that any system is characterized by at least three features: 1. a set of several interdependent elements; 2. the presence of a certain principle of interaction between elements; 3. the presence of a more or less clear boundary separating it from the external environment.

One of the first to turn to the study of social systems was the American sociologist T. Parsons. He considered the whole society as a system of interaction of a huge number of people. At the same time, society itself, in turn, contains great amount subsystems, each with a specific purpose. In his opinion, the main subsystems can be considered: economic, legal, system of beliefs and morals, political. In some ways, they resemble individual human organs: each is important in itself, different from the others, but can exist only in interaction with the others.

Thus, the economic subsystem performs the function of adaptation to the environment, i.e. helps to "dress and feed" people, allows them to simply physically survive. The legal subsystem unites society, develops the necessary rules and norms of behavior, creates laws by which people's relations with each other become normal and orderly. The subsystem of beliefs and morals ensures continuity in society, does not allow the ties of generations to be interrupted, preserves traditions, values, and historical memory. Finally, the political subsystem determines the tasks of society, “thinks” about how it should develop further, sets goals and looks for ways to achieve them. At the same time, Parsons believed that all subsystems depend on each other: the state of one of them affects the state of the whole society, and vice versa.

Political system: basic approaches.

It is very difficult to define the concept of "political system": its meaning and content are very broad. Indeed, in one term it is necessary to “grasp” and fix the extremely wide, living, changeable phenomenon - the political life of society. The researcher in this case was likened to a pilot who, from the cockpit of his plane, looks from a height at a huge city and sees sharp lines streets and "cubes" of houses. Of course, the charm of old courtyards, architectural beauties, and heaps of garbage also escape his gaze. However, he sees the main thing - the scheme, structure, system. So in our case: it was necessary to “forget” about the details and diversity of political life, highlighting the main thing in it.

This formulation of the problem has brought to life many options for its solution. Today in political science there are many definitions of the concept of "political system". With a certain degree of conventionality, they can be divided into several groups.

The first group consists of definitions in which the political system is seen as mechanism decision making in society. In their interpretation, it appears as a kind of special device that "captures" what is happening in society, "thinks" about it and "works out" general political decisions. This approach allows one to search for the most effective procedures for the formation of a political course, to detect "malfunctions and breakdowns" in real-life political systems.

The second group includes definition of a political system as set of political institutions. Proponents of this approach are guided by the fact that humanity in its development has created a number of stable entities that are traditionally involved in politics. These are the state, local self-government bodies, parties, interest groups, social movements, etc. Taken together, they constitute the political system. In this interpretation, it appears as an organism with its own "hands", "legs", "head". It allows you to see the material, tangible basis of the political system.

The third group is represented by definitions in which political system is understood as system of political roles. Proponents of this approach believe that each participant in the political process plays some political role- the head of state or a small official, a party leader or an ordinary voter. They interact with each other and create a certain system. In many ways, this is reminiscent of what we see in the theater: everyone plays his role - the main or secondary, and together they create a performance based on their interaction.

In the fourth approach, the political system appears as system of interactions and communication of political subjects. In this case, our attention is drawn to how and for what reason and with what result people communicate in politics. The subject of scientific analysis is not faceless mechanisms, institutions or roles, but living people who have entered into communication with other people. They can be power-hungry or power-seeking activists or apolitical citizens, and so on. Communicating among themselves, they create a political system.

So, the political system is a set of political institutions, roles and subjects interacting with each other in order to form and implement the political course of society or its constituent groups. Wherein the object of such interaction is political, primarily state power. It is that attractive force that unites people and forces them to bring their interactions into a system. It can be said that power is the core that holds the entire political system together. At the same time, the political system is a way of exercising power, its real embodiment in society.

The political system has certain components, without which its existence is impossible. First of all, this is a political community - a set of people standing at different levels of the political hierarchy, but linked together by a certain political culture, knowledge of politics, the history of the country, traditions and value orientations, as well as feelings about the political system and goals of government.

Second required component- officials whose decisions are recognized by the political community as binding. Officials personify official posts, they are the basis of political power, they rule and act on behalf of and in favor of the system. There are two layers of officials. The first is officials who hold positions in the system-wide hierarchy, which is more general in nature. These are the president, head of government, ministers, head of the presidential administration, governors, etc. The second layer - persons performing executive work of a special profile, as well as performers - intermediaries, i.e. officials who must impartially manage, accurately and conscientiously carry out orders, instructions, strengthen state discipline and serve the state interest in accordance with the law.

The third component is the legal norms and norms of political ethics that regulate the operation of the system, methods, and ways of exercising political power. This component finds its expression in the political regime.

The fourth component is the territory, which plays a connecting role and has certain boundaries. The territory as a component of the political system is not necessarily equivalent to the state. A city, urban or rural area with its political community, local government, territory is also a political system.

The political system has a certain structure - stable elements and stable links between these elements. Political systems may be complex or simple structure. It depends on the institutions included in it, the degree of differentiation and specialization of the elements of the system, the depth of the political division of labor. Political systems of the traditionally patriarchal type are characterized by weak differentiation. Modern political systems are distinguished by complex differentiation. They have a broad base of structures that make decisions or influence decision-making: an extensive state apparatus, interest groups, political parties, associations, the media, etc.

Political structures include various organizations, both purely political - the state, political parties, and non-political ones that can pursue serious political interests, for example, trade unions, business associations, the church and others.

Political structures are not only organizations, but also stable relationships, interactions of various policy participants - political actors who play certain roles. MPs, judges, voters, party functionaries - these are all roles that are closely interconnected in politics and make up the structure of the political system. The political system is thus a stable interaction of role structures.

Political structures have a certain stability. Unlike rapid changes - processes or functions, structural changes occur slowly. Fast Conversion political structures or their scrapping are characteristic of the period of revolutions and carry significant social costs. Political systems at this time are characterized by instability. Antagonistic aspects of political interests dominate over integration ones.

In the political system social groups seek to realize their interests with the help of the mechanism of power. Power enables competing groups to distribute values, benefits in accordance with the weight of their influence. Political sphere, as noted by the American political scientist G. Lasswell, answers the questions, who gets what, when and how? Specific policy, i.e. decision-making and their implementation at the state level, is the social result of the interaction between interests and power.

The functioning of the political system is greatly influenced by political culture. Being the bearer of fundamental political knowledge and values, political culture acts as the deep foundation of the entire socio-political structure. In political culture, the subjective orientation of people to politics and power is fixed. It is the political and cultural phenomenon that makes normatively identical forms state government and devices multivariate in real life. The political culture can nullify all attempts at reform if they do not fit into its context.

Applying a systematic approach to politics, political scientists sought to give a general theory of political power, to reveal the mechanism of its stability. The model of the political system proposed by D. Easton gives an idea of ​​how the political system develops a policy through which values ​​are distributed in society and collective goals are achieved.

The political system has certain components, without which its existence is impossible. First of all, this is a political community - a collection of people standing at different levels of the political hierarchy, but linked together by a certain political culture, knowledge of politics, the history of the country, traditions and value orientations, as well as feelings regarding the political system and goals of government.

The second necessary component is officials whose decisions are recognized by the political community as binding. Officials personify official posts, they are the basis of political power, they rule and act on behalf of and in favor of the system. There are two layers of officials. The first is officials holding positions in the system-wide hierarchy, which is more general in nature. This is the president, the head of government, ministers, heads of the presidential administration, the governor, etc. The second layer - persons performing executive work of a special profile, as well as performers - intermediaries, i.e. officials who must impartially manage, accurately and conscientiously carry out orders, instructions; strengthen state discipline and serve the public interest in accordance with the law.

The third component is the legal norms and norms of political ethics that regulate the operation of the system, methods, ways of exercising political power. This component finds its expression in the political regime.

The fourth component is the territory, which plays a connecting role and has certain boundaries. The territory as a component of the political system is not necessarily equivalent to the state. A city, urban or rural area with its political community, local government, territory is also a political system.

The political system has a certain structure - stable elements and stable links between these elements. Political systems can be complex or simple in structure. It depends on the institutions included in it, the degree of differentiation and specialization of the elements of the system, the depth of the political division of labor. Political systems of the traditionally patriarchal type are characterized by weak differentiation. Modern political systems are distinguished by complex differentiation. They have a broad base of structures that make decisions or influence decision-making: an extensive state apparatus, interest groups, political parties, associations, the media, etc.

Political structures include various organizations, both purely political - the state, political parties, and non-political ones that may pursue serious political interests, for example, trade unions, business associations, the church and others.

Political structures are not only organizations, but also stable relationships, interactions of various political actors - political actors who play certain roles. MPs, judges, voters, party functionaries - these are all roles that are closely interconnected in politics and make up the structure of the political system. Thus, the political system is a stable interaction of role structures.

Political structures have a certain stability. Unlike rapid changes - processes or functions, structural changes occur slowly. The rapid transformation of political structures or their demolition are characteristic of the period of revolutions and carry significant social costs. Political systems at this time are characterized by instability. Antagonistic aspects of political interests dominate over integration ones.

In the political system, social groups seek to realize their interests through the mechanism of power. Power enables competing groups to distribute values, benefits in accordance with the weight of their influence. The political sphere, as noted by the American political scientist G. Lasswell, answers questions; who gets what, when and how? Specific policy, i.e. decision-making and their implementation at the state level, is the social result of the interaction between interests and power.

The functioning of the political system is greatly influenced by political culture. Being the bearer of fundamental political knowledge and values, political culture acts as the deep foundation of the entire socio-political structure. In political culture, the subjective orientation of people to politics and power is fixed. It is the political and cultural phenomenon that makes normatively the same forms of state government and arrangements multivariate in real life. The political culture can bring to naught all attempts at reform if they do not fit into its context.

Applying a systematic approach to politics, political scientists sought to give a general theory of political power, to reveal the mechanism of its stability. The model of the political system proposed by D. Easton gives an idea of ​​how the political system develops a policy through which values ​​are distributed in society and collective goals are achieved.

Model of the political system

Within the framework of the system approach, any system, including a political one, is autonomous and has boundaries with the environment. Peculiar boundary pillars that point to the limits of the system are called "entrance" and "exit". Modern political analysis attempts to study the exchanges of the political system with the environment and explain how it copes with social problems, conflicts and ensures the dynamism and constancy of the system itself and society as a whole.

"Entrance" is almost any event that is external to the political system, affects it and is able to change it.

"Exit" is a response to the interaction, transformed by the political system, its specialized institutions into decisions. Decisions are transmitted as an information signal to the environment. Feedback between "input" and "output" is carried out through environment. This is the so-called "feedback loop".

Impulses of various kinds are sent to the "entrance" to the political system. First, there are the requirements. Demands are sent to the authorities and serve as a signal of the existence of certain needs in society. Requirements are nothing more than an expression of opinion about the legality or illegality, justice or injustice of the decisions of the authorities related to the distribution of public goods and the use public resources. In addition to requirements, a lot of various information is introduced into the political system: expectations, preferences, values, moods. All this may coincide with the requirements or act as incentives for the requirements.

Secondly, there is a support momentum at the "entry". Support is an expression of the members' loyalty to the system. This is the legitimation of the political system, a kind of permanent plebiscite of members of society for trust in political institutions. Support can be open or covert. Open support materializes in action. This is observable behavior: participation in elections, support for certain parties and leaders, verbal approval of decisions. Hidden support is expressed in the internal attitudes and orientations of the individual, in a predisposition to certain political ideals, norms, and behaviors.

D. Easton came to the conclusion that political support can be emotional (diffuse) and instrumental (specific). Emotional support is relatively strong and stable. It legitimizes this political system in the conditions of even the most severe crises, and ultimately helps the state and society to withstand and adapt to new environmental conditions. Instrumental support is formed under the influence of government performance. It is formed by introducing "rewards" for loyal behavior and is based on the expectation of such a reward. Instrumental support is conditional, less durable, subject to erosion.

Without support, political systems are short-lived. A bayonet is good for everyone, but you can’t sit on it, said Talleyrand. Without support, one can rule, relying only on bare power, on force, but it is impossible to govern calmly. Support just provides the necessary conditions for the government, the normal functioning of the political community.

Political systems differ in different combinations of emotional and instrumental support. When they harmoniously complement each other, the political system functions stably and has a large credit of trust among citizens. Lack of support means that the system is in deep crisis and doomed to death.

At the "exit" from the political system on Wednesday, the results of its work are manifested - binding decisions and actions to implement them. Binding decisions may be in the form of laws, executive orders, court decisions. The political system processes a huge amount of social information and turns it into specific authoritative-imperious decisions. The process of converting requirements into policy decisions is called intrasystem conversion. In turn, decisions and actions have an impact on the environment, as a result of which new requirements arise. "Input" and "output" of the system constantly affect each other. This continuous cycle is called the "feedback loop". In political life, feedback is fundamental to validating decisions taken, their correction, elimination of errors, organization of support. Feedback is also important for possible reorientation, moving away from a given direction and choosing new goals and ways to achieve them.

A political system that ignores feedback is ineffective because it fails to assess the level of support, make constructive adjustments to the environment, mobilize resources, and organize collective action in accordance with societal goals. Ultimately, this turns into a political crisis and loss of political stability.

The process of receipt and registration of requirements at the "input", their transformation (conversion) by the system into solutions and transfer to the output with subsequent control over the implementation - this is the political process. The political process shows how social demands arise, how they turn into universally significant problems, and then into the subject of political institutions aimed at shaping public policy, at the desired solution to problems. Systems approach helps to understand the mechanism of formation of new political strategies, the role and interaction of various elements of the system in the political process.