Most Interesting Facts. Journey of Marco Polo

A resident of Venice, Marco Polo (1254-1324) was only seventeen years old when, in 1271, together with his father, named Niccolo, and Uncle Matteo, Venetian merchants climbed onto the deck of a ship and set off on a journey to travel. The Venetians were on their way to China.

At first they traveled by sea through Anatolia, that is, to the peninsula of Asia Minor (now in Turkey). Then by land, overcoming the passes, they passed through the Armenian Highlands, crossed Mesopotamia, the Iranian Highlands, the mountainous country of the Pamirs, which today belongs to Tajikistan. Passing through the deserts of Western and Eastern Turkestan (now Xinjiang), travelers - after three and a half years of travel! - finally got to the palace of the great khan. At the time when Marco Polo traveled around Asia, China was called Catai, and the capital of Catai, Beijing, was called Khanbalik.

In ancient Khanbalik there was a fortress of the great Mongol Khan Khubilai. He was the grandson of the founder of the Mongolian state, Genghis Khan. The Great Khan met the Venetians with great honor. He especially liked the young Marco, whom he soon invited to his service. Marco Polo became the Khan's personal envoy and traveled extensively throughout the Chinese provinces.

In 1295, Marco Polo said goodbye to the court of the great khan and set off on a journey back to his native Venice. According to some reports, having barely managed to return to his homeland, the traveler in 1298 took part in the war with Genoa, during which the Genoese captured Marco Polo. In prison, he told the story of his amazing adventures comrade in misfortune, the prisoner Rusticello (Rusticiano), who came from Pisa. The Pisan wrote down the stories of Marco Polo and compiled the Book of the Diversity of the World, which was a great success in Europe. But the work significantly expanded the knowledge of Europeans about the Asian continent, arousing their interest in geography and travel.

about the journey of Marco Paul

Genghis Khan founded his state at the beginning of the 13th century. The Mongol Empire in his reign reached incredible proportions - neither before nor after him such an immense country in the history of mankind was not. The Mongols conquered almost all of mainland Asia and a significant part of of Eastern Europe. But after the death of the conqueror, his empire began to disintegrate. Already in the middle of the XIV century. The Mongols were expelled from China. Modern Mongolia is an independent republic in Central Asia. Almost all of its territory (1565 thousand square kilometers) is occupied by steppes and deserts. But, despite the vast expanses of the country, its population is not numerous - on average per 1 sq. km. km does not account for two people.

Marco Polo
Born: unknown
Died: 1324

Biography

Marco Polo- the famous Italian traveler, Venetian merchant, writer.

Childhood

birth documents Marco not preserved, so all information is approximate and inaccurate. It is well known that he was born into a merchant family that was engaged in trade. jewelry and spices. He was a nobleman, had a coat of arms and belonged to the Venetian nobility. Polo became a merchant by inheritance: his father's name was Nicolo, and it was he who introduced his son to travel in order to open new trade routes. Your mother Marco did not know, since she died in childbirth, and this event occurred when Nicolo Polo was far from Venice, on his next trip. The boy was raised by his aunt paternal line until he returned from a long journey Nicolo with my brother Maffeo.

Education

There are no records of whether he studied anywhere Marco. But the fact is known that he dictated his book to his cellmate, a Pisan Rusticiano while he was a prisoner of the Genoese. It is known that in the future he learned many languages ​​​​during his travels, but whether he knew the letter is still a moot point.

life path

Your first trip Marco committed with his father to Jerusalem in 1271. After that, his father sent his ships to China, to the Khan Khubilai, at whose court the family Polo lived 15 years. M arco polo Khan liked his fearlessness, independence and good memory. He, according to his own book, was close to the Khan, participated in the decision of many government issues. Together with the khan, he recruited a great Chinese army and suggested that the ruler use catapults in military operations. Khubilai appreciated the quick and smart Venetian youth beyond his years. Marco traveled to many Chinese cities, carrying out the most complex diplomatic assignments of the khan. Possessing a good memory and powers of observation, he delved into the life and way of life of the Chinese, studied their language, never tired of marveling at their achievements, which sometimes surpassed even European discoveries in their level. All that I saw Marco in China over the years spent in an amazing country, he described in his book. Shortly before leaving for Venice Marco was appointed ruler of one of Chinese provinces- Jiangnan.

Khubilai never agreed to let his pet go home, but in 1291 he sent the entire Polo family to accompany one of the Mongol princesses married to the Persian ruler to Hormuz, the Iranian island. During this journey Marco traveled to Ceylon and Sumatra. In 1294, when they were still on the road, they received news of the death of the khan. Khubilai. Polo no longer had any reason to return to China, so it was decided to go home to Venice. A dangerous and difficult path lay through Indian Ocean. Of the 600 people who sailed from China, only a few managed to reach the final destination of the journey.

At home Marco Polo participates in the war with Genoa, with which Venice competed for the right of sea trade routes. Marco participating in one of naval battles, is captured, where he spends several months. It was here that he dictated to his comrade in misfortune, the Pisan Rusticiano, who found himself in the same cell with him, his famous book.

Nicolo Polo he was not sure that his son would return alive from captivity and was very worried that their family might be interrupted. Therefore, the prudent merchant remarried, and he had 3 more sons in this marriage - Stefano, Maffio, Giovanni. Meanwhile, his eldest son returns from captivity, Marco.

Upon return of the case Marco go well: he successfully marries, buys big house He is called in the city Mr Aktjory/Million. However, the townspeople were derisive towards their compatriot, considering this eccentric merchant a liar who tells tales about distant lands. In spite of material well-being recent years his life, Marco yearns for travel and in particular - for China. He could never get used to Venice, until the end of his days remembering love and hospitality Khubilai. The only thing that pleased him in Venice was the carnivals, which he attended with great pleasure, as they reminded him of the splendor of Chinese palaces and the luxury of the khan's outfits.

Personal life

Returning from captivity in 1299, Marco Polo married a rich, noble Venetian Donata, and in this marriage they had three lovely daughters: Bellela, Fantine, Maretta. However, it is known that Marco he was very sorry that he did not have a son who could inherit his merchant property.

Death

Marco Polo was ill, and in 1324 he died, leaving a prudent will. He was buried in the church of San Lorenzo, which was demolished in the 19th century. luxury home Marco Polo burned down at the end of the 14th century.

Main achievements of Polo

Marco Polo is the author of the famous Books about the diversity of the world”, About which the controversy has not subsided so far: many question the reliability of the facts described in it. Nevertheless, the story of the journey is very masterfully described in it. Polo across Asia. This book has become an invaluable source on the ethnography, geography and history of Iran, Armenia, China, India, Mongolia, Indonesia in the Middle Ages. It has become a reference book for such great travelers as Christopher Columbus, Fernando Magellan, Vasco da Gama.

The right to be called Motherland Marco Polo presented by Croatia and Poland: the Croats found documents according to which, until 1430, the family of a Venetian merchant lived on the territory of their state, and the Poles argue that “polo” is not a surname at all, but the national identity of the great traveler.

By the end of life Marco Polo turned into a rather stingy, stingy person who sued for money with his own relatives. However, historians still remain puzzled as to why Marco shortly before his death, he released one of his slaves into the wild and bequeathed to him a fairly large amount of money from his inheritance. According to one version, the Peter was a Tatar Marco did it in memory of his friendship with the Mongol Khan Khubilai. Maybe, Peter accompanied him on his famous journey and knew that most of the stories in his master's book are far from fiction.

In 1888, a butterfly was named after the great traveler, Jaundice Marco Polo.

Marco Polo went down in history as the first European to reach China. AiF.ru talks about some little known facts from his biography.

Italian, Croat or Pole

It is believed that Marco Polo was born in Venice in a family merchant Nicolo Polo. Father with his brother Maffeo he sold jewelry and spices, traded with the countries of the East, visited the Volga and Bukhara.

According to another version, the birthplace of the famous navigator was not the Apennine Peninsula, but the Balkans. Researchers claim that the first evidence of the Polo family's stay in Venice dates back to the second half of the 13th century, where they are referred to as Poli di Dalmazia. In their opinion, Marco Polo should be considered rather a Croat, because he was born on the island of Korcula, which belongs to the Balkan Republic.

There is also a version according to which Marco Polo was a Pole. The word "polo" title page the first edition of his work "The Book of the Diversity of the World" is written with a small letter and indicates not a surname, but rather a nationality.

Departure of Marco Polo from Venice on his second journey through Asia. 1271. Photo: www.globallookpress.com

Governor of Yangzhou City

The “smart and noble citizen of Venice” (as Polo called himself) began to travel the world with his father and uncle. After long wanderings, they became honored guests of the Mongolian Khan Khubilai(grandson Genghis Khan), who defeated the dynasty soong and ascended the throne as sole ruler Mongol Empire. In total, Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo Polo stayed in Asia for about seventeen years. According to Polo, the khan gave him various assignments and even appointed him the governor of the city of Yangzhou and a member of the secret council. Although in the chronicles of the XIII century nothing is said about this. Perhaps this was not an invention of Marco Polo, but a mistake by the translators of his book, who instead of "sejourna" (abides) wrote "seigneura" (rules).

Mister "Million"

Having visited China in the 13th century and wanting to convey his admiration for its untold riches, Marco Polo coined the word "million". In Italian, “mile” means “thousand”, and the ending “one” is an augmentative, corresponding to the Russian ending “looking for”. During his lifetime, the traveler had the nickname "Signor Million". The term "million" is found in the first printed arithmetic, published in the Italian city of Treviso in 1478, and even earlier in the book of the traveler Marco Polo.

Travel map of Marco Polo. Photo: www.globallookpress.com

Polyglot Traveler

Marco Polo knew several languages, including Italian, French, Persian, Mongolian and Chinese. This allowed him to most fully and colorfully tell in his memoirs about the customs and customs different peoples, as well as depict all the difficulties that a European may face in a foreign land. As a result, Marco Polo's book became a reference book for many outstanding travelers of the era of the Great geographical discoveries, including for Christopher Columbus.

Oriental delicacy and pasta

There is a misconception that pasta and ice cream were brought to Italy by Marco Polo. In fact, dry pasta was mentioned as early as 1279 in Genoa. And in the 9th century, thin noodles were eaten in Arab countries. This misconception began in 1929, when Marco Polo was first featured in an American pasta trade magazine. It is also unlikely that Marco Polo brought ice cream to the West, since there was no mention of it until the 17th century.

Prisoner of the Genoese prison

After the death of Kublai Khan, Marco Polo went to Venice, which was at that time at war with the Republic of Genoa. In 1297 Marco Polo was taken prisoner. From 1296 to 1299 he was imprisoned in a prison in Genoa, where he dictated to the prisoner Rusticello the text of his famous "Book on the Diversity of the World", which contains descriptions of his 24-year journey to the East. The work contains descriptions not only of China and the Asian mainland, but also of the vast world of islands - from Japan to Zanzibar. The handwritten original of the "Book", which was compiled by Rusticiano in the Franco-Italian dialect, has not been preserved. It is only known that this work spread very quickly throughout Europe and received several names. The author himself titled his manuscript "Divisament dou Monde" - "Description of the World".

Medallion depicting Marco Polo. Photo: www.globallookpress.com

Unrecognized and forgotten by contemporaries

Returning from prison, Marco Polo became rich by marrying a wealthy noble Venetian Donate. In this marriage, they had three lovely daughters: Bellela, Fantine and Maretta. Towards the end of his life, Marco became quarrelsome and greedy, often quarreling with his relatives and even suing relatives. The townspeople mockingly treated their compatriot, considering him a liar who tells tales about distant lands. Marco Polo died in Venice in 1324 at the age of 70. He was buried in the church of St. Lawrence; during the rebuilding of the church at the end of the 16th century, the burial was lost.

Marco Polo- an Italian merchant and traveler who presented the story of his journey through Asia in the famous "Book of the Diversity of the World." Despite doubts about the reliability of the facts presented in this book, expressed from the moment of its appearance to the present time, it serves as a valuable source on geography, ethnography, the history of Iran, China, Mongolia, India, Indonesia and other countries in the Middle Ages. This book had a significant impact on navigators, cartographers, and writers of the 14th-16th centuries. In particular, she was on the ship of Christopher Columbus during his search for a route to India.

Origin

Marco Polo was born into the family of the Venetian merchant Nicolo Polo, whose family was engaged in the trade of jewelry and spices. Since there are no records of the birth of Marco Polo, the traditional version of his birth in Venice was challenged in the 19th century by Croatian researchers, who argue that the first evidence of the Polo family in Venice dates back to the second half of the 13th century, where they are referred to as Poli di Dalmazia , while until 1430 the Polo family owned a house in Korcula, now in Croatia.

Journey of Marco Polo

Road to China

A new journey to China passed through Mesopotamia, the Pamirs and Kashgaria.

Travels 1271-1295

Life in China

The first Chinese city that the Polo family reached in 1275 was Shazha (modern Dunhuang). In the same year, they reached Kublai's summer residence in Shangdu (in modern China's Gansu province). According to Polo, the khan was delighted with him, gave various instructions, did not allow him to return to Venice, and even during three years held him governor of the city of Yangzhou (Chapter CXLIV, Book 2). In addition, the Polo family (according to the book) participated in the development of the Khan's army and taught him how to use catapults during the siege of fortresses.

The description of Polo's life in China rarely follows chronological order, which presents a problem in determining the exact route of his travels. But its description is geographically accurate enough, it gives orientation to cardinal directions and distances in terms of days of the route: "South of Panshin, in one day's journey, the great and noble city of Kaiu". In addition, Polo describes the daily life of the Chinese, mentioning the use paper money, typical crafts and culinary traditions of various regions. He stayed in China for fifteen years.

Return to Venice

Despite numerous requests from the Polo family, the khan did not want to let them go, but in 1291 he married off one of the Mongol princesses to the Persian ilkhan Argun. To arrange for her safe journey, he equipped a detachment of fourteen ships, allowed the Polo family to join as official representatives of the Khan, and sent a flotilla to Ormuz. In the process of sailing, the Polos visited Sumatra and Ceylon and returned through Iran and the Black Sea to Venice in 1295.

Life after returning

Very little is known about his life after his return from China. According to some reports, he participated in the war with Genoa. Around 1298, Polo was captured by the Genoese and remained there until May 1299. His travel stories were written down by another prisoner, Rusticello (Rusticiano), who also wrote chivalric romances. According to some sources, the text was dictated in the Venetian dialect, according to others - it was written in Old French with inserts in Italian. Due to the fact that the original manuscript has not been preserved, it is not possible to establish the truth.

After his release from the Genoese captivity, he returned to Venice, married and from this marriage he had three daughters (two were married to merchants from Dalmatia, which, according to some researchers, confirms the hypothesis of his Croatian origin, but the wife herself was from the famous Venetian kind, which rather speaks of the well-established ties of the Polo family in Venice). He also had a house on the corner of Rio di San Giovanni Crisostomo and Rio di San Lio. There are documents that he participated in two small trials.

In 1324, already a sick man, Polo wrote his will, which mentions the golden paiza received from Tatar Khan(he received it from his uncle Maffeo, who, in turn, bequeathed it to Marco in 1310). In the same year, 1324, Marco died and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo. In 1596, his house (where, according to legend, the things he brought from the Chinese campaign were kept) burned down. The church in which he was buried was demolished in the 19th century.

Researchers about the book

Cover of the English edition Books by Marco Polo, 1874

The book of Marco Polo is one of the most popular objects of historical research. The bibliography compiled in 1986 contains over 2300 scientific papers in European languages ​​only.

From the moment he returned to the city, stories from the trip were viewed with disbelief. Peter Jackson mentions as one of the reasons for distrust unwillingness to accept his description of a well-ordered and hospitable Mongol Empire, which ran counter to the traditional Western idea of ​​barbarians. In turn, in 1995, Francis Wood, curator of the Chinese collection of the British Museum, published a popular book in which she questioned the very fact of Polo's travel to China, suggesting that the Venetian did not travel beyond Asia Minor and the Black Sea, but simply used the known to him descriptions of the travels of Persian merchants. For example, in his book Marco Polo writes that he helped the Mongols during the siege of the Sung base in Sanyang, but the siege of this base ended in 1273, that is, two years before his arrival in China. There are other shortcomings in his book that raise questions from researchers.

Previous contacts with China

One of the myths that have developed around this book is the concept of Polo as the first contact between Europe and China. Even without taking into account the assumption of contacts between the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, the Mongol conquests of the 13th century facilitated the route between Europe and Asia (since it now passed through the territory of almost one state).

In the archives of Khubilai from 1261 there is a reference to European merchants from Lands of the midnight sun, probably Scandinavian or Novgorod. On their first journey, Nicolò and Maffeo Polo followed the same route as Guillaume de Rubruk, who was indeed sent by Pope Innocent IV, reached the then Mongol capital of Karakorum and returned in 1255. The description of his route was known in medieval Europe and could have been known to the Polo brothers on their first journey.

During Polo's stay in China, a native of Beijing, Rabban Sauma, came to Europe, and the missionary Giovanni Montecorvino, on the contrary, went to China. Published in 1997 by David Selbourne, the text of the Italian Jew Jacob from Ancona, who allegedly visited China in 1270-1271, shortly before Polo, is, according to most Hebraists and Sinologists, a hoax.

Unlike previous travelers, Marco Polo created a book that gained great popularity and throughout the Middle Ages competed in success with the public with the fantastic journey of John Mandeville (the prototype of which was Odorico Pordenone).

Book versions

Little is known about the extent of Marco Polo's literacy. It is most likely that he was able to keep commercial records, but it is unknown if he could write the lyrics. The text of the book was dictated to them by Rusticello, probably on his mother tongue, Venetian, or in Latin, but Rustichello could also write in French, in which he wrote novels. The process of writing a book could significantly affect the reliability and completeness of its content: Marco excluded from his description those memories that were not of interest to him as a merchant (or were obvious to him), and Rustichello could omit or interpret at his own discretion memories that were not interest or incomprehensible already for him. It can also be assumed that Rustichello was involved in only some of the four books, and Polo could have other "co-authors".

Shortly after its appearance, the book was translated into Venetian, Latin (different translations from the Venetian and French versions), back into French from the Latin version. In the process of translation and correspondence of the book, fragments of the text were changed, added or deleted. The oldest surviving manuscript (Manuscript F) is substantially shorter than the others, but textual evidence suggests that other surviving manuscripts are based on more complete original texts.

Fragments in doubt

Essential defaults

Francis Wood notes that neither hieroglyphics, nor typography, nor tea, nor china, nor the practice of bandaging women's feet, nor the Great Wall of China are mentioned in Polo's book. Arguments put forward by proponents of the authenticity of the journey are based on the peculiarities of the process of creating a book and Polo's goal in transmitting his memories.

Polo knew Persian (the language of international communication of the time) while living in China, learned Mongolian (the language of the Chinese administration during this period), but did not have to learn Chinese. As a member of the Mongol administration, he lived at a distance from Chinese society (which, according to him, had a negative attitude towards European barbarians), had little contact with its daily life, and did not have the opportunity to observe many traditions that are obvious only in the household.

To a person who had not received a formal education and was a stranger to literature, local books represented "Chinese writing", but Polo describes in detail the production of paper money, which differs little from the printing of books.

Tea was by that time widely known in Persia, therefore it was of no interest to the author, in a similar way it is not mentioned in Arabic and Persian descriptions of that time.

Porcelain was briefly mentioned in the book.

With regard to the binding of the feet, there is a mention in one of the manuscripts (Z) that Chinese women walk with very small steps, but this is not explained more fully.

The Great Wall as we know it today was built during the Ming Dynasty. In the time of Marco Polo, these were mostly earthen fortifications, which did not represent a continuous wall, but were limited to the most militarily vulnerable areas. For a Venetian, fortifications of this kind might not be of significant interest.

Inaccurate descriptions

Descriptions of Marco Polo are full of inaccuracies. This applies to the names of individual cities and provinces, their mutual location, as well as descriptions of objects in these cities. A famous example is the description of the bridge near Beijing (now named after Marco Polo), which actually has half as many arches as described in the book.

In defense of Marco Polo, it can be said that he was describing from memory, he was familiar with Persian and used Persian names, which were often also inconsistent in their rendering of Chinese names. Some inaccuracies were introduced during the translation or rewriting of the book, so some surviving manuscripts are more accurate than others. In addition, in many cases, Polo did use second-hand information (especially when describing historical or fantastic events that happened before his trip). Many other contemporary descriptions of this kind also sin with inaccuracies, which cannot be blamed for the fact that their authors were not in that place at that time.

Role at court

Kublai's honor to the young Polo and his appointment as governor of Yangzhou do not seem credible, and the absence of Chinese or Mongolian official records of merchants' presence in China for nearly twenty years is, in Frances Wood's opinion, particularly suspicious. Most authors mention only a reference from 1271 in which Phagba Lama, a close adviser to Khubilai, mentions a foreigner who is on friendly terms with the Khan, but it does not indicate the name, nationality, or length of stay of this foreigner in China.

It is possible that Polo's role in China is greatly exaggerated in his book, but this error can be attributed to the author's bluster, the embellishment of scribes, or the problems of translators, as a result of which the role of adviser could be transformed into the post of governor.

In the book, Polo shows an awareness of relationships in the Khan's court, information about which would not have been available without proximity to the court. Thus, in Chapter LXXXV (On the treacherous plan to revolt the city of Kambala), he, emphasizing his personal presence at the events, describes in detail the various abuses of Minister Ahmad and the circumstances of his murder, naming the killer (Wangzhu), which exactly corresponds to Chinese sources. This episode is significant because the Chinese Yuan-shih dynasty chronicle mentions the name of Po-Lo as a person who was on the commission investigating the murder and stood out in that he sincerely told the emperor about Ahmad's abuses. It was a common practice to use Chinese nicknames for foreigners, making it difficult to find references to Polo's name in other Chinese sources. Many Europeans who officially visited China during this period, such as de Rubruck, did not even get a mention in the Chinese chronicles.

Evaluation of the book by modern researchers

Most modern researchers reject Frances Wood's opinion about the complete fabrication of the entire trip, considering it an unsubstantiated attempt to cash in on a sensation.

A more productive (and generally accepted) point of view is to look at this book as the source of the merchant's records of places to buy goods, the routes of their movement, and the circumstances of life in these countries.

MARCO POLO(Marco Polo) (1254-1324), Venetian traveler. Born in the family of the Venetian merchant Niccolo Polo. In 1260, Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, Marco's father and uncle, went to Beijing (Khanbalai, or Tatu), which Khan Kublai, grandson Genghis Khan, made the capital of his possessions. Khubilai made them promise to return to China and bring some Christian monks with him. In 1271 the brothers set out on a long journey to the east, taking Marco with them. The expedition reached Beijing in 1275 and was warmly welcomed by Khubilai. Marco was a diligent young man and had a gift for languages. While his father and uncle were engaged in trade, he studied the Mongolian language. Khubilai, who usually brought talented foreigners closer to the court, hired Marco into the civil service. Soon Marco became a member of the secret council, and the emperor gave him several instructions. One of them was to draw up a report on the situation in Yunnan and Burma after the latter was conquered by the Mongols in 1287, the other was to buy a tooth of the Buddha in Ceylon. Marco subsequently became the prefect of Yangzhou.

For 15 years of service, Marco studied China, collected a lot of information about India and Japan. In 1290, he asked to be allowed to go home, but Khubilai refused. Marco managed to get out of China only in 1292, when he was appointed to accompany the Mongol princess Kokachin, who was going to Persia, where she was to marry the local viceroy Arghun, Kublai's great-nephew. On reaching Persia, Marco received news of Kublai's death. This released him from the obligation to return to China, and he went to Venice.

The following year, after returning to Venice, Marco, once on board a Venetian merchant ship, was captured by the Genoese in the eastern Mediterranean. From 1296 to 1299 he was in prison in Genoa, where he dictated the Book of Marco Polo (or the Book of Wonders of the World) to a certain Rustichello from Pisa. The book contains descriptions not only of China and the Asian mainland, but also of the vast world of islands, from Japan to Zanzibar.

In 1299 Marco was released. In the eyes of fellow citizens, he remained an eccentric, no one believed his stories.

When it comes to the brave Venetian merchant from the Polo family, they remember, first of all, his visit to China, which also revealed the most valuable information about distant countries, which turned the minds of Europeans and dispelled thousands of ridiculous tales and legends. But all this looks simple only for someone who has never delved into the life history of this difficult person.

The first mystery is the origin

Only at first glance, everything is clear here. Genus - a well-known merchant family of Venice, a wealthy and very respected family. The Polos traded spices and jewels. With such specialization, it is impossible not to get rich and become influential. Spices were just appearing in Europe and were valued much more than gold. But who were the merchants of the Polo house by origin?

There are three main versions:

• The version is "Venetian" - they are Venetians, that is, Italians. As evidence, the fact is given that only the "native" inhabitants of Venice could go on such a long journey, recruit a reliable team. Foreigners in the XIII-XIV centuries caused prejudice and distrust, even in such an "advanced" trading city as Venice. In addition, the "natives" would not allow such a strong competitor from outsiders to flourish. The version is solid enough, but not flawless. Among the wealthy Venetian families there are people from different countries, although not very often.
• Version "Croatian" - family - Slavs, Croats. As evidence, the fact is cited that for a long time merchants of this kind signed as "Polo di Dalmatia (Croatia)". And also had family home on the island of Korcula, which belonged to the same Dalmatia. Doubtful version. Venetian merchants had homes all over the world. In Novgorod, for example, or in Kyiv or the Crimea, as well as in India and Persia. The merchants were famous. And so as not to be confused, they were given the nicknames "Indian", "Russian", etc. What meant, first of all, the range of trading interests of a particular family. But the version about the "Croatian" origin of Polo also has the right to life.
• The "Polish" version - they are Poles! The thing is that Polo is not a surname, but a nickname that is written with a small letter (as on the title page of the first edition of the famous book by Marco). And "polo" means Pole. The version is so-so. Actually, why not? Just too far-fetched.

Childhood

The mother died during childbirth. Nicolo Polo's father was on his way at that time - he went to the Crimea on business, and from there went to China itself (Yes, it was Marco's father who visited the Celestial Empire before his son!). So on September 15, 1254, the aunt of the future traveler takes the baby.
Relatives did not care much for Marco, since it was not known whether his father would return from the trip. In a rich family, even a poor relative got quite a fat piece. But no one was involved in the education of the young Polo. From an early age, he helped to the best of his ability in simple trading operations, but his role was limited to the well-known formula "bring, serve." There is not a single document that would confirm that great traveler Marco Polo could read and write. Such paradoxes were quite common in the Middle Ages.

short youth

Papa Nikolo returned to Venice only in 1269, when he was already 15 years old. By the standards of the 13th century - an adult, the main assistant to his father and a ready groom. In fact, the teenager's life changed - he immediately became a profitable fiancé and heir to a huge fortune (Nikolo Polo brought not only impressions and souvenirs from distant countries). But to engage in raising his son, albeit belatedly, Polo had no senior time at all. All his thoughts were connected with the fulfillment of the instructions of the ruler of China, Khan Kublai (the founder of the Yu-an dynasty). It was about an audience with the Pope to ask for blessings for the conversion of China to Christianity. At least that's what this mission looks like as outlined by Marco in his book. We will return to this.

The mission turned out to be almost impossible. The thing is that Pope Clement has already died, and the cardinals still could not choose a new Pope. A year passed, followed by another, but things did not move forward. There was no way to find a candidate for the position of "apostle", and when it was found, it turned out that the candidate for "apostle" himself was this moment actively cuts off the head of the Saracens in Palestine. Nicolo and his brother Maffeo did not have this information, and as time went on, someone else could enlist the trust of the Chinese ruler. And this means that trading privileges, super profits and the most favored nation treatment in China can be said goodbye forever. The brothers were on their way.

Since it is impossible to receive blessings from the Roman "apostle" himself, then you can bring incense and fragrant oil from the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. So the brothers decide and gather an expedition to Palestine and further to China. Immediately the question arose: what to do with the son? Leave all business in Venice to him? Too young, and not married - what if he spends all his profits on girls? Relatives flatly refused to look after him: he has already grown up, there is nothing to look after him, he has his own head. There was no time to look for a bride. The decision came by itself - to entrust trade to relatives, under a tough contract, of course, and take Marco with you, a young and strong guy will come in handy on such an expedition. So we decided. A new life has begun.

Journey of Marco Polo - the main mystery

What did Marco Polo discover? and what was his journey like? With the exception of a book written under the dictation of Marco Polo, nothing is known about this expedition. The Polos left in 1271 and returned in 1295. That's all. Where were you? What did you see? What they were doing? Responses to simple questions merchants avoided. True, they returned simply "monstrously" rich. They became perhaps the wealthiest in Venice. That's all for now, let's pay attention only to the map and the travel route of Marco Polo.

War and captivity

Returning to their hometown, the Polos went to fight with the eternal rival of Venice - Genoa. The war was serious, they fought for a place in the sun, for their piece of the world pie. In this struggle, all means were good. After one of the battles, Marco from the Polo clan was also captured by the Genoese. In a prison cell (why kill such a prisoner? You can get a good sum for him! And in general, this whole war was mainly fought with money received as numerous ransoms of wealthy prisoners) Marco Polo meets with a fellow countryman named Rusticello, who was from Pisa is the second enemy of Genoa.

Rusticello is a mysterious figure. Leaving behind several brilliant literary works, he left almost no information about himself. Meeting Marco was a gift for the writer of chivalric novels. Both prisoners had enough time. Polo talked about his journey and life in China, Rusticello wrote down. But here we must not forget that Marco, like any Venetian, loved to brag, and the writer, like any writer, loved to add. As a result of this collaboration between the two prisoners, a manuscript called "The Book of the Diversity of the World" was born. She will still make noise in Europe!

Return

After being released from prison, he triumphantly returns to Venice. He is a war hero, the richest merchant and an influential citizen. The book, written in prison, made a lot of noise, but it slightly spoiled the commercial reputation. Few believed in the journey. Many believed that everything in it was fiction. Too unprecedented things were described. The reputation of "eccentric writer" stuck to Polo. But this did not prevent the traveler from successfully marrying. At the time of the wedding, Marco was 45 years old, an old man by the standards of that time, but a huge fortune has always made a bachelor attractive, regardless of age. The bride was found quickly. Young, from a wealthy family. She will bear Marco three daughters.

Old age and death are two mysteries at once

This period of the life of the great traveler is the most convenient for studying. Many documents have been preserved that characterize Marco Polo as a person. Alas, nothing particularly interesting. Basically, these are court petitions and court decisions related to financial disputes with relatives. With age, Polo became obscenely stingy. His fortune was huge, but everything was small. Increasing wealth has become an obsession.

Shortly before his death, Marco sets free his slave, the baptized Tatar Pietro. Moreover, he gives the former slave a round sum, which allowed Pietro to return home and become the most successful merchant of the Crimea. Why did the stingy Polo make such an exception for the Tatar slave? There are several versions again:

• The "romantic" version - this noble act was the price for many years of impeccable service and accompaniment of the Polo family on a long journey to China and back. For loyalty to the family and sharing with her all the troubles and hardships that overtook the Polo family during their travels.
• Version "cynical" - Pietro really accompanied the Polo family on a journey. He saw everything, heard everything and knew perfectly well how this 17-year voyage went. A free and generous gift - payment for silence and refusal to expose all the "fantasies" of the book, written from the words of Marco.

Marco Polo died in 1324, having lived 69 years and 4 months. As befits a Venetian, the traveler left a detailed will and ensured a comfortable life not only for his three daughters, but also for his grandchildren and great-grandchildren, since the huge fortune was enough for everyone.

What did Rusticello tell his cellmate in prison about? Book about the diversity of the world - main riddle Mark Polo. Researchers love the book dictated by Marco Polo. This story of a family's journey inspired later writers to create more than two thousand of the most various studies, analyzes, monographs. Everyone is trying to find in the composition something that has not been noticed before. But still not finalized main question: Was Marco Polo really in China, or did he come up with everything?

In fact, the book describes not only China. Marco talks about what he saw in the Pamirs, in the Gobi desert, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, on the island of Ceylon and Madagascar, Java and Sumatra, even the Japanese island is mentioned in the book. But China and all the stories about it were of most interest to the traveler's contemporaries, and to his descendants too.

Europe of the XIII-XIV centuries lived with fabulous ideas about distant countries. Stories about fabulous monsters and humanoid monsters were considered quite reliable and truthful. There is nothing of the kind in the book of the Venetian traveler Marco Polo. But the miracles that he talks about made no less impression: the printing of paper money, cities with a million inhabitants (in Europe at that time a city with a population of 30,000 was considered an unimaginable metropolis), a special Chinese cuisine, the relationship between officials and the ruler, the intrigues of the Chinese imperial court and much more.

What arguments are given by those who consider the book of Marco Polo not as memoirs of a journey, but as a collection of stories of experienced merchants that the Venetian "overheard" while staying no further than the Crimean peninsula:

• Polo never mentions the Great Wall of China;
• Only once and casually does he talk about porcelain;
• Not once in the book is the tea ceremony and tea itself mentioned;
• There is not a single mention of the outlandish for any European tradition of "binding the legs of women";
• Printed books, hieroglyphs are never mentioned;
• The names of many cities and provinces are inaccurate.

The version is quite plausible. For the inhabitants of Europe, the Crimea is already far away, and there were plenty of Persian merchants here. Every Venetian knew three or four languages. In Crimea, it was possible to learn not one, but several languages ​​in six months or a year. So he sat quietly in the shop of Marco Polo, listened to stories about distant countries from visiting merchants, remembered eagerly. For two decades, such stories have accumulated abound, so a rich merchant remembered them in prison, and dictated to Rusticello.

Most researchers still believed Marco Polo. What are their arguments:

• During Polo's stay in China" great wall"Earth fortifications were called, which simply could not impress a European, accustomed to the high and powerful walls of city fortifications;
• Porcelain was also known to Marco, it is obvious that his father brought several outlandish vases, and even during a long stay in the Celestial Empire one could get used to this type of dishes;
• Tea for the wealthy Polo family was no longer a curiosity. Arab merchants by that time had arranged the supply of this "miracle" to Venice. As for the ceremony, according to Marco Polo, their family lived mainly at the court, and it was “Mongolian” in those days and tea drinking looked completely different, for the same reason the Venetians did not know anything about the Chinese tradition of bandaging their feet women;
• Printed books, like any other, Marco was not interested. He couldn't read. So these intricate icons, which are called hieroglyphs, worried the young merchant a little;
• As for inaccurate names, we should not forget that they were all recorded by Rusticello "by ear", and he had never heard them before, so "as he heard, so he wrote."

All researchers agree on one thing: in the part of the book where Polo talks about his relationship with the lord of the Celestial Empire, the Venetian boasted quite famously. It is hard to believe that the ruler of a multi-million dollar empire was delighted with the abilities and sharp mind of a twenty-year-old European. And the appointment of Marco as the governor of one of the provinces is completely reminiscent of Khlestakov's stories in the famous Russian play. Knowing that the veracity of this information, as well as all the rest, is almost impossible to verify, Polo decided to slightly embellish reality. Almost all travelers did this. This tradition lived for several more centuries, until the era of the Great Discoveries ended.

Despite all the mysteries and inaccuracies, the memoirs became the first literary description of the countries of Central Asia and China in Western Europe. His work has long been the only authoritative source of knowledge about distant countries. It is known that during his search for India, Rusticello carefully studied the work, perhaps, if not for these memoirs of Marco Polo, America would have remained "closed" to the rest of the world for a long time.

Informative video about Marco Polo