Social mobility table. Types and types of social mobility

reservoirs 26.09.2019

Social mobility happens:

Vertical and horizontal

Individual and group

intragenerational and intergenerational

Vertical mobility is the movement of an individual or group between strata with a change in social status.

Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or group from one position to another without changing social status.

Individual mobility - changes in the social characteristics of the individual as a result of his personal efforts.

Group mobility is a change in the social characteristics of an individual, caused by an increase or decrease in the importance of the social group to which he belongs, as a result of organized mass social movements.

Intragenerational mobility - changes in the social position of the individual throughout his active life, compared with his age groups.

Intergenerational mobility - changes in the current social status of one generation in relation to the previous one.

Today's migration processes, like a mirror, reflect the crisis situation in Russia, which has engulfed all spheres of society's life: politics, economics, and culture. The depth of the economic recession, the unprecedented scale of economic ruin characterize the current situation in our country. The economic crisis in Russia has an abnormal structural character with a clear tendency towards the primitivization of the production structure. The picture is complemented by such a feature, which has clearly manifested itself recently in Russia, as the paralysis of the investment process, which has accelerated the aging of the production apparatus, leading to its reduction. It is impossible not to point out such a feature of the Russian economic situation as the deepening of social inequality. To this we can add inflation, unemployment, the loss of many foreign markets.

The aggravation of the socio-political situation, the economic crisis, the social stratification of society, interethnic conflicts lead to destabilization processes and a significant increase in migration flows. Settlers, other things being equal, are less likely to find a job than local residents: “newcomers” are not included in the local system of informal ties, and their activity and choice are severely limited by the factor of housing and “registration”. As a result, despite the higher educational and qualification level of migrants in comparison with the Russian population, they lose to the latter in terms of employment.

The problems of assessing the trends and patterns of the migration process, its consequences, and the management mechanism are among the most important in theoretical and practical terms. In theoretical terms, we are talking about the role of migration in the movement of population and labor resources, the development of society as a whole. The growth in the number of migrants and the related time spent on resettlement and employment requires increased attention to the regulation of this process in the interests of raising and improving production, and stabilizing the economic situation. In practical terms, the study of migration is relevant in terms of creating a system of effective control over the consequences of this process, covering various aspects of life.

Today, more than ever, the correct formulation of the problem of migration as one of the types of social mobility in modern Russian society and development of a methodology for its optimization while minimizing social costs. This work is devoted to the study of these complex issues.

The problems of population migration and labor mobility, their interrelations in society are complex and diverse. By the beginning of the 1970s, the sociology of social mobility already had its own history within the framework of foreign and domestic sociology. Scientists sought to determine the factors affecting labor mobility and migration of the population, to determine its causes and factors underlying it.

Landmark works in the development of the theme of social displacement belong to American authors: S. Lipset and R. Bendix, P. Blau and O. Dunken, D. Fezerman and R. Houser. One of the areas of research of these sociologists is the establishment of coefficients of vertical mobility in different societies. P. Blau also developed a system of parameters that determine the position of an individual in society. Empirical study of mobility processes most actively began in the first post-war years, in particular, in the 50s they unfolded in such countries as Great Britain, Sweden, etc. Interest in social movements has not waned in Russian sociology for more than half a century. In the late 70s - early 80s, sociologists O.I. Shkaratan, T.I. Zaslavskaya, M.Kh. Titma and the research teams led by them conducted a large (within the region, several cities, the country as a whole) and long-term (on the same age cohort) study of social mobility "Social mobility of the urban population."1 They studied and systematized the factors affecting the intensity, scale, direction of movement. Their conclusions formed the basis of the practical social policy pursued at that time.

The methodological problems of the sociological study of labor mobility have been covered by many authors, among whom I would like to mention S.A. Makeeva, A.I. Vishnyak, V.I. Tarasenko, R. Shtolberg, R.V. Ryvkin, F.R. Filippova, H.A. Andrushchak, K.G. Barbakov, L.G. Gaft, V.N. Shubkin, V.I. Perevedentseva, G.A. Cherednichenko and others.2 In their works, in general, the problems of social mobility of different generations of people, professional self-determination of young people, their orientation towards education, social and socio-psychological motives for obtaining education were posed and solved, issues related to the dialectic of the general and the regionally special in the reproduction and change of the social structure of society, covered the main channels and sources of mobility, their direction, intensity and social consequences, links between different types of mobility were analyzed.

The study of migration in our country was predetermined by the objective course of the dynamics of the movement of significant masses of people, due under socialism to the processes of industrialization, urbanization, the transformation of collective farms into state agricultural

1 See: Social mobility of the urban population. Tallinn, 1985.

2 See: Intergenerational labor mobility / Makeev S.A., Vishnyak A.I., Tarasenko V.I. Kyiv, 1988; Stolberg R. Sociology of labor. M., 1982; Filippov F.R. From generation to generation: Social mobility. M., 1989; Regional problems of social mobility / Andrushchak N.A., Barbakova K.G., Gaft L.G. et al. M., 1991; Ryvkina R.V. To study the links between different types of mobility. Novosibirsk, 1970; Makeev S.A. Social movements in a large city. Kyiv, 1989; Working youth: education, profession, mobility / Shubkin V.N., Perevedentsev V.I., Cherednichenko G.A. et al. M., 1984. enterprises are state farms, and in a post-socialist democratic society, the aggravation of the socio-political situation, the economic crisis, environmental disasters, and the expansion of the zone of interethnic conflicts. Most of the works devoted to migration are socio-demographic, economic-statistical, economic-geographical or sociological studies.

It should be noted that even under socialism there was a trend towards a comprehensive study of migration by representatives of different sciences. One of the first in Russian literature drew attention to this E.P. Pletnev. As disciplines studying migration, he singled out biology, physiology, anthropology, the science of hygiene and sanitation, geography, law, sociology, demography and economics.1 S.A. Kovalev believed that “migration problems are among the most complex problems of population and, more than others, require the joint work of scientists from various specialties.”2 However, the ideological limitations inherent in the Marxist-Leninist methodology for studying social phenomena did not allow these ideas to be fully realized.

IN AND. Perevedentsev, L.L. Rybakovsky, A.B. Topilin, A.U. Homra and many other authors believed that the directions and effectiveness of migration movements do not have a close connection with the level of labor supply of the regions, but depends, first of all, on the inter-district differentiation of the living conditions of the population. only labor-sufficient, but also (even mainly) labor-surplus areas:

1 See: Pletnev E.P. International migration work force. M., 1961. S.4 - 6.

2 See: Marxist-Leninist theory of population. M., 1971. S. 148.

3 See: Perevedentsev V.I. Methods for studying population migration. M., 1975; Rybakovsky J1.JI., Shapiro V. Factors of inter-district migration of the population // Where and why do people go. M., 1979; Topilin A.V. Territorial redistribution of labor resources in the USSR. M., 1975; Khomra A.U. Migration of the population: questions of theory, research methods. Kyiv, 1979. The outflow is not only to labour-surplus, but also to labour-deficient.”1 And the directions of migration flows are mainly oriented towards territories with a higher standard of living. However, modern Russia is characterized by migration flows caused by extraordinary circumstances - natural environmental disasters, economic and political crises, religious persecution, and wars. In this situation, in our opinion, it should be noted that refugees and forced migrants do not have to choose.

Certain aspects of the migration of the population and labor resources, in particular, the issues of migration as a way of redistributing labor resources, were covered in the studies of V.A. Boldyreva, M.V. Daragan, O.V. Larmina, I.S. Maslova, E.H. Ruzavina, E.S. Rusanova, M.Ya. Sonin, E.A. Yankovskaya, N. Velichko and others.2 They turned Special attention on the essence of economic and socio-demographic prerequisites that determine and shape the conditions for the redistribution of workers, questions about the correlation of objective and subjective factors, conscious and spontaneous in demographic processes, on the economic conditionality of the forms and directions of migration. In the works of the above authors, an attempt was made to reveal the specifics of the mechanism of redistribution of labor force in the unity of its objective and subjective sides, to substantiate the necessary directions for its improvement, taking into account the requirements of economic development, the characteristics of the demographic situation and the achieved level of employment of the able-bodied population in the national economy, characteristic of a socialist society.

1 Perevedentsev V.I. Methods for studying population migration. S. 80.

2See: Boldyrev V.A. Population in a developed socialist society. M., 1983; Larmin O.V. Methodological problems in the study of population. M., 1974; Maslova I.S. The mechanism of redistribution of labor under socialism. M., 1985; Ruzavina E.I. Economic forms of labor force under socialism. M., 1981; Yankovskaya E.A. Redistribution of labor resources. Kyiv, 1978, Velichko N. Inter-territorial redistribution of labor resources // Human resources. 1999, No. 1 - 2

However, the timing of the publication of these works also determined the conclusions of scientists, predetermined by the ideological dictate of communist doctrines in Russia. The conditions for the development of Russian society have changed dramatically since then. Currently, mobility is not considered as the key to understanding the social structure and social relations, but the reproduction of the latter is the key to understanding mobility. It should be noted that interest in the study of mobility is also stimulated by the need to understand and reflect social structure and its individual “sections”, taking into account the dynamism and contradictions of interests that make up the structure of different strata and groups of modern Russian society.

In the last decade of the past twentieth century, a number of articles were published in the leading sociological journals on the problem of social mobility. I would like to mention the following authors E.V. Klopov, G.A. Monusova, H.A. Guskova, O.V. Kryshtanovskaya, V.A. Borisov, M.F. Chernysh, V.E. Gimpelson, B.C. Magun, A.T. Konkov, G.A. Schister, M.M. Serni, I.K. Zolotova, A.E. Zuev, E.A. Hibovskaya, Z.V. Kupriyanova, L.A. Khakhutina, S.A. Stevenson, A.L. Temnitsky, G.P. Bessokirnaya, S.N. Oksamitnaya, I.I. Seregina, N. Orlyanskaya and many others.1 The works of these

1 See: Monusova G.A., Guskova N.A. Intra-company mobility and "closed" groups // Sociological research. 1996, No. 2; Gimpelson V.E., Magun B.C. dismissed in the labor market; new work and social mobility // Sociological journal. 1994, No. 1; Konkov A.T. Youth unemployment: the experience of studying downward mobility // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 18: sociology and political science. 1996, No. 1; Zolotova I.K., Zuev A.E. Youth in the labor market // Social sciences and modernity. 1994, No. 5; Klopov E.V. Secondary employment as a form of social and labor mobility // Sociological research. 1997, no. 4; Hibovskaya E.A. Secondary employment in different sectors of the economy// Economic and social changes: monitoring of public opinion. 1996. No. 3; Hibovskaya E.A., Kupriyanova Z.V. Secondary employment as a way to adapt the population to economic reforms // Where is Russia going?. Alternatives of social development. 11. International Symposium December 15 - 18, 1994 - M., 1995; Khatutina L.A., Stevenson S.A. Entrepreneurial activity of the population: conditions and prospects // Economic and social changes, 1996, No. 5, Temnitsky A.L., Bessokirnaya G.P. Secondary employment and its social consequences // Sociological research. 1999, No. 5, Oksamitnaya S.N. Trends in intergenerational mobility in Ukrainian society // Sociological research. 1999, No. 10, Seregina I.I. Professional career // Sociological research. 1999, No. 4, Velichko N. Interterritorial redistribution of labor authors reveal in more detail the process of social mobility both at the regional and federal levels, the modern methodological approach to the study of movements differs significantly from the works of the previous period, freedom from the ideological pressure of the ruling regime, the totality of use different methodological positions of both Western and Russian scientists.

Recently, interest in the problems of migration management has increased in the literature. The problem lies not only in predicting the scale of migration, although it is very important to know the parameters of the migration mobility of labor resources both for the country as a whole and for individual economic regions, but it is much more important in which directions the population migration is carried out, whether these directions to the interests of society at this stage of its development. In other words, to eliminate negative elements in migration, it is necessary to study the mechanism of migration management. These issues are reflected in the publications of E.G. Panchenko, V.M. Moiseenko.1

The study of mobility, its types and functions, consideration of the impact of migration on the process of social mobility, their significance and forms of regulation constitute an important and independent section of the study of the mobility of the population and labor resources.

A number of works by B.C. are devoted directly to the analysis of migration as a type of labor mobility in modern Russian society. Belozerova, S.V. Ryazantseva, A.N. Popova, H.H. Suvorova, S. Pirozhkov, A. Khomra, G. Zheleznova, M. Moskvitina, E. Polkovnikova, G. Vitkovskaya? resources // Human resources. 1999, No. 1 - 2; Orlyanskaya N. Labor summer // Human resources. 1999, No. 1 - 2.

1 See: Panchenko E.G. Territorial management of socio-economic processes. Kyiv, 1984; Moiseenko V.M. Territorial movement of the population: characteristics and management. M., 1985.

See: Belozerov B.C. Ryazantsev C.B. The limits of hospitality; Popov A.N., Suvorova N.N. Migration potential; Pirozhkov S., Homra A. The fish is looking for where it is deeper; Zheleznova G. O

Assessing in general the degree of study of the problem of labor migration in modern conditions, it can be noted that at present there is a certain backlog in research on the sociological problems of migration of the population and labor resources. In our opinion, little attention is paid to such real-life aspects of mobility as the movement of labor resources in connection with a change in a person's profession and the branch of labor application.

Some issues of labor migration are controversial. Discussions are held on the nature of migration (whether it is planned or spontaneous), whether migration is good or not, the question of regulating this process and many other questions still remains open.

Some methodological problems remain unresolved. Among them is the problem of ways to improve organizational forms, the most important areas of redistribution of labor resources, directly related to the movement of the able-bodied population across the regions of the country. The study of this issue is of great theoretical and practical importance for the management of migration processes in order to ensure their optimization. There is very little statistical information and almost no scientific developments on the situation and problems of women migrants.

Currently, there is no single point of view about the importance of one or another socio-economic factor of migration. There has been a serious divergence of opinions on the issue of the predominant influence on migration processes of the regional need for labor resources and regional differences in the living standards of the population.

It should be noted that research on the methodology of problems related to the processes of migration and labor movements in Russia is essentially just beginning, which is why the research base is in a well-forgotten past; Moskvitina M. Employment services for forced migrants; Polkovnikova E. The Beginning of the Beginnings; Vitkovskaya G. Hope of Russia // Migration. 1998, No. 2. at the stage of formation, as evidenced by the small number of specialized works in this direction. An exception, perhaps, is the work of B.A. In the ointment on related topics, devoted to the problem of employment of the population of modern Russia.1 Today, new approaches are needed that will ensure a more complete coverage and development of a large amount of factual material, its qualitative analysis and the development of practical recommendations. All of the above also determined the working hypothesis of the study, which is that migration is one of the important types of social mobility, since it significantly changes the balance of labor supply and is accompanied by a turnover of personnel. Migration can be a powerful factor either contributing to the economic development of the region, or holding it back.

Based on the relevance and insufficient development of the problem, it is possible to formulate the purpose of this dissertation research as follows.

It consists in considering the social role of migration processes, due to the totality of socio-economic and political circumstances of the transition period of modern Russian society.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of interrelated tasks:

Find out the essence and content of the main socio-economic categories associated with migration and population mobility as objects of sociological analysis;

To reveal the socio-economic functions of migration in ensuring labor mobility in modern Russian society;

Find out the social reasons for the change in the content and direction of the population migration process in connection with the transition

1 See: Tar B.A. Employment of the population of modern Russia as social problem(questions of methodology). Saratov, 1997, p. 22.

Russia to a market economy, political conflicts and environmental disasters;

Determine the main forms and trends of modern migration, show their specificity, role and social consequences on the nature of the functioning of society, individual regions;

To identify the features of the influence of migration on the process of social mobility in modern Russian society;

Determine ways and means of regulating the processes of population migration.

The object of research is the process of migration of individuals as one of the types of social mobility in society.

The subject of the study is the theoretical and methodological aspect of the study of migration and its impact on social and labor movements, both at the federal and regional levels.

The methodological and theoretical basis of the study are the ideas about social and labor movements and the migration process of P. Sorokin, S. Lipset, P. Berthoud, R. Bourdon, E. Durkheim, M. Weber, D. Treiman, L. Warner, W. Breed , R. Bendix, B. Barber, R. Dahrendorf, A. Touraine, R. Park, E. Bogardus, P. Bourdieu, D. Lensky, P. Blau, K. Davis, W. Moore, T. Parsons. In understanding the processes of modern life in Russia, they relied on the materials of discussions and discussions that unfolded in the periodical press, scientific literature and electronic means. mass media recent years, on the ideas, conclusions and generalizations presented in them. And since the topic of the dissertation research is at the junction of several disciplines, the materials contained in the economic and geographical literature, which to some extent address the problems of migration and social mobility, are used. The empirical basis of the dissertation research was the data of statistical collections of Russia, as well as statistical data for the Saratov region. The dissertation uses materials from the results of sociological research carried out both by individual scientists and institutions in various regions of Russia, and materials on migration, collected by us with the support of the Saratov Source Association, the Saratov Migration Service.

The scientific novelty of the dissertation research topic is due to the changed socio-economic and political conditions of modern Russian society, in which migration processes are manifested, the lack of theoretical and methodological development of this social phenomenon.

Specifically, the elements of novelty are as follows:

The content of the sociological categories of migration and labor mobility has been clarified in relation to the conditions of modern Russian society; for the first time, the specifics of the implementation of the functions of the social mechanism for regulating migration and its role in ensuring mobility at the federal and regional levels are analyzed;

Analyzed modern information about the sources of existence of refugees and internally displaced persons in their former and current place of residence;

The modern affiliation of migrants to various socio-professional groups is characterized and the main directions of changes in their social status are identified;

Provisions for defense:

1. Social mobility, which takes place in the conditions of modern Russian society, has a clearly expressed specificity, it is not only one of the forms of movement of significant masses of the population, determined by the system modern societies relations, accepted patterns of behavior of a modernizing society, but also carried out through individuals placed in the conditions of the struggle for survival and striving to achieve their own goals and attitudes. It is mobility that largely determines today the dynamics and specifics of the reproduction of the main social structures of the population.

2. In modern research processes of migration, in explaining large interregional flows, the concept of “pull-push” occupies a priority position, which, in our opinion, plays a dominant role today in the study of certain aspects of population movement due to changes in the socio-economic development of various regions, since it most adequately reflects the modern situation in Russian society.

3. Modern migration in Russian society is a spatial movement of part of the population caused by the collapse of socialist society and the corresponding changes in the political, economic, social spheres, environmental disasters, as well as changes in the development of production and the living conditions of individuals forced to adapt to the new realities of life.

4. The most important prerequisites for modern movements of Russians are not only the deterioration of living conditions in their former place of residence, caused by a combination of various factors, but also hopes for improvement in material, social or psychological living conditions, in connection with moving to a new place of residence, a change in profession; salary gain, and improvement of living conditions; the opportunity to improve health by living in better climatic conditions; great chance of promotion.

5. The migration process is closely related to both horizontal and vertical mobility, since each migrating individual, in addition to moving to another social group, seeks to find better economic, political or social conditions of existence in a new place, in other words, the migration process has a significant impact on social and labor mobility.

6. The social mechanism for regulating mobility ensures a smooth transition of the mass of migrants who have arrived in the region, including spontaneous ones who have practically nothing, to people who have settled down in a new place of residence, have housing, work, that is, who have joined the regional society and are an active reserve for carrying out reforms.

The scientific and practical significance of the dissertation research is determined by the relevance and novelty of the problem statement and consists in the fact that sociological studies of migration in modern Russian society are an integral part of the study of methodological and theoretical aspects of the reproduction of labor resources and increasing the efficiency of their use.

The theoretical knowledge obtained and the conclusions made by the author are a certain increment of knowledge in the field of theoretical ideas about migration as a form of social mobility and can be used in the media when discussing the problems of organizing and managing the migration process, as well as in further research on this social phenomenon.

The main provisions of the dissertation can be used in scientific and pedagogical activities, in teaching courses in theory, methodology and history of sociology, in educational work.

Theoretical provisions, methodological approaches, practical results of the study, proposals and recommendations were presented in 1997 - 2000. at the annual final conferences of the Department of Sociology and Mass Communication of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Saratov State University named after N.G. Chernyshevsky, at the Olympiad for students and young scientists on the basis of the joint UC of the Institute of Agrarian Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Saratov State University "Social Geography and Regional Analysis", at the scientific conference of the Samara State Technical University "Actual Problems in Modern Science" (2000).

Dissertation structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three sections, a conclusion and a list of references.

People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in their status, is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time. The unexpected rise of a man or his sudden fall is a favorite subject. folk tales: a cunning beggar suddenly becomes a rich man, a poor prince becomes a king, and a hardworking Cinderella marries a prince, thereby increasing her status and prestige.

However, human history is made up not so much of individual destinies as of the movement of large social groups. The landed aristocracy is being replaced by the financial bourgeoisie, low-skilled professions are being squeezed out of modern production by representatives of the so-called "white collars" - engineers, programmers, operators of robotic complexes. Wars and revolutions reshaped the social structure of society, raising some to the top of the pyramid and lowering others. Similar changes took place in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917. They are still taking place today, when the business elite is replacing the party elite.

Between ascent and descent there is a certain asymmetry: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. Usually, ascent - the phenomenon is voluntary, descent - forced.

Studies show that those with higher status prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but those with lower status want the same for themselves and their children. So it turns out in human society: everyone is going up and no one is going down.

In this chapter, we will look at essence, causes, typology, mechanisms, channels And factors affecting social mobility.

Exist two main types social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and two main types - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, break down into subspecies And subtypes, which are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility assumes that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents. Example: A miner's son becomes an engineer.

Intragenerational mobility takes place where the same individual, beyond comparison with the father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called social career. Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a shop manager, plant director, minister of the engineering industry.

The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes.

In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second - movement from the sphere physical labor into the realm of the mind.

Vertical mobility implies a movement from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are upward mobility (social rise, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement). Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demolition is an example of downward mobility.

Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level. An example is the movement from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one's own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction.

Variety horizontal mobility serves geographical mobility . It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility becomes migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and found a job here, then this is migration. He changed his profession.

Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. In general, young people and men are more mobile than older people and women. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Professional mobility is typical for the young, economic mobility for adults, and political mobility for the elderly. The birth rate is unevenly distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, while the higher classes tend to have fewer.

There is a pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he has. Even if every son of a rich man follows in the footsteps of his father, voids are still formed on the upper steps of the social pyramid, which are filled by people from the lower classes. In no class do people plan for the exact number of children needed to replace parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for the occupation of certain social positions in different classes is different.

Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees do not have enough children to fill their jobs in the next generation. By contrast, farmers and agricultural workers, in the US, have 50% more children than they need to be self-sustaining. It is not difficult to calculate in which direction social mobility should proceed in modern society.

High and low birth rates in different classes have the same effect on vertical mobility as population density in different countries has on horizontal mobility. Strata, like countries, can be overpopulated or underpopulated.

It is possible to propose a classification of social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish:

· individual mobility, when moving down, up or horizontally occurs in each person independently of others, and

· group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after social revolution old class cedes its dominant positions to a new class.

Individual mobility and group mobility are connected in a certain way with assigned and achieved status. Individual mobility corresponds more to the status achieved, and group mobility to the assigned status.

Individual mobility occurs where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category rises or falls. The October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who previously did not have a recognized high position. Brahmins became the highest caste as a result of a long and stubborn struggle, and earlier they were on an equal footing with the kshatriyas. IN Ancient Greece after the adoption of the constitution, most people were freed from slavery and climbed the social ladder, and many of their former masters went down.

The transition from a hereditary aristocracy to a plutocracy (an aristocracy based on the principles of wealth) had the same consequences. In 212

n. e. almost the entire population of the Roman Empire received the status of Roman citizens. Thanks to this, huge masses of people who were previously considered to be deprived of their rights have raised their social status. The invasion of the barbarians (Huns, Lobards, Goths) disrupted the social stratification of the Roman Empire: one after another, the old aristocratic families disappeared, and they were replaced by new ones. Foreigners founded new dynasties and new nobility.

Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. They are literally torn between dissimilar cultures and lifestyles. They do not know how to behave, dress, talk in terms of the standards of another class. Often adaptation to new conditions remains very superficial. A typical example is Moliere's tradesman in the nobility.

These are the main types, types and forms (there are no significant differences between these terms) of social mobility. In addition to them, organized mobility is sometimes singled out, when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state a) with the consent of the people themselves, b) without their consent. Voluntary organized mobility should include the so-called socialist organization set, public appeals for Komsomol construction projects, etc. Involuntary organized mobility includes repatriation (resettlement) of small peoples and dispossession during the years of Stalinism.

It is necessary to distinguish from organized mobility structural mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure National economy and occurs beyond the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people. In the 1950s and 1970s, small villages were reduced and enlarged in the USSR.

2. Individual and group mobility and factors influencing it.

3. Channels of vertical mobility (according to P. Sorokin).

4. Marginality and marginals.

5. Migration and its causes. Types of migration.

1. The concept of “social mobility” was introduced into sociology by the well-known Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin.

Under social mobility understand the totality of social movements of people between various positions in the hierarchy of social stratification.

There are two main types and two types of social mobility.

TO main types include:

ü intergenerational mobility, which suggests that children in relation to their parents occupy a lower or higher status position.

ü Intragenerational mobility, which implies that one individual changes status positions several times throughout his life.

tions. Intragenerational mobility has a second name - social career.

TO main types social mobility include:

ü Vertical mobility, which implies movement from one stratum to another.

Depending on the direction of movement, vertical mobility can be ascending(upward movement, example: promotion) and descending(downward movement, example: demotion). Vertical mobility always involves a change in the status of an individual.

ü horizontal mobility, which implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level. With horizontal mobility, there is no change in the status of the individual.

A variation of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility.

Geographic mobility involves the movement of an individual or group from one place to another while maintaining the same status. She can turn into migration if a change of status is added to the change of the individual's place of residence.

2. You can classify social mobility according to other criteria. There are also:

ü Individual mobility when social movements (up,

down the horizontal) occur in an individual independently of others.

On the individual mobility is influenced by such factors as:

The social status of the family;

Level of education;

Nationality;

Physical and mental abilities;

external data;

Location;

Favorable marriage, etc.

They are the reasons why one person achieves great

success than the other. The mobile individual begins socialization in one class and ends in another.

ü group mobility- changing the position of a social group in the system of social stratification.

The reasons for group mobility, according to P. Sorokin, are the following factors:

social revolutions;

military coups;

Change of political regimes;

Replacing the old constitution with a new one.

Group mobility occurs when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category rises or falls. And it takes place where there is a change in the system of stratification itself.

3. There are no impenetrable boundaries between strata, but there are various “elevators” along which individuals move up or down, as P. Sorokin believed.

As channels of social circulation are used social institutions.

ü Army how a social institution functions as a channel of vertical circulation to a greater extent in wartime.

ü Church- is both a descending and an ascending circulation channel.

ü School, which refers to the institutions of education and upbringing. In all ages it has served as a powerful impetus for the social uplift of individuals.

ü Own, manifested in the form of wealth and money - they are one of the simplest and most effective ways of social advancement.

ü Family and marriage becomes a channel of vertical mobility in the event that representatives of different social strata join the union.

4. Marginality(from the French marginal - side, in the margins) is a special phenomenon of social stratification. This concept describes the position of large social groups of people occupying a position "on the borders" between strata.

Outcasts- these are people who left one stratum and did not adapt to another. They are on the border of two cultures, have some identification with each of them.

In the 20th century, Park (the founder of the Chicago school of sociology in the USA) put forward the theory of outcasts and marginal groups.

In Russia, the phenomenon of marginality was first addressed in 1987. According to domestic sociologists, the reason for the emergence of marginal groups is the transition of society from one socio-economic system to another. In Russia, marginalization covers huge masses of the population. Particular concern is caused by the increase in the number of persistent marginal social groups (“homeless”, refugees, homeless people, etc.) But quite prosperous people who have not decided on the current social structure of society can be marginalized.

5. Migration(from Latin migration - resettlement) - change of residence, movement of people to another territory (region, city, country, etc.)

Migration is usually distinguished four kinds : episodic, pendulum, seasonal and irrevocable.

Irreversible migration is essential for social, economic and demographic development.

The state directly or indirectly influences the direction of migration.

The reasons for migration can be political, economic, religious and criminal.

Migration significantly affects ethnic processes. As a result of the migration exchange of various ethnic groups, various interactions occur in language, life, and culture.

There are also immigration and emigration.

Migration- displacement of the population within the country.

Emigration- travel outside the country for permanent residence or long-term residence.

Immigration- entrance to this country for permanent residence or long-term residence.

38 social relationships

Exists two main types of social mobility:

Intergenerational

Intragenerational

And two main types:

vertical

Horizontal.

They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes that are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility- when children reach a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents.

Intragenerational mobility- the same individual changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called a social career.

Vertical mobility is the movement of an individual or social group from one stratum to another, while there is a change in social status. Depending on the direction of movement highlight the following types of vertical mobility:

Rising (social rise);

Descending (social descent).

There is a certain asymmetry between ascent and descent: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a voluntary phenomenon, and descent is forced.

Channels of vertical mobility.

According to P.A. Sorokin, in any society between the strata there are channels("elevators"), on which individuals move up and down. Of particular interest are social institutions - army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social mobility.

Army functions most intensively as such a channel in wartime. Large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies from lower ranks.

Church moved big number people from the bottom to the top of society, and vice versa. The institute of celibacy obliged the Catholic clergy not to have children. Therefore, after the death of officials, the vacant positions were filled with new people. At the same time, thousands of heretics were put on trial, destroyed, among them were many kings, aristocrats.

School: the institution of education at all times served as a powerful channel of social mobility, because education was always valued, and educated people had a high status.

Own manifests itself most clearly in the form of accumulated wealth and money, which is one of the simplest and most effective ways social promotion.

Family and marriage become a channel of vertical mobility in the event that representatives of different social statuses enter the union.

Horizontal mobility- this is the transition of an individual or a social group from one social group to another, located at the same level, i.e. without changing social status.

A kind of horizontal mobility is an geographical mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

Also distinguish individual And group mobility.

Individual mobility- moving down, up or horizontally occurs for each person independently of others. TO factors individual mobility, those. reasons that allow one person to achieve greater success than another include: the social status of the family; the level of education received; nationality; physical and mental abilities; external data; received upbringing; location; profitable marriage.

group mobility- Movements happen collectively. For example, after a revolution, the old class cedes its dominant position to the new class. According to P.A. Sorokin reasons for group mobility the following factors serve: social revolutions; foreign interventions; invasions; interstate wars; civil wars; military coups; change of political regimes, etc.

It is also possible to highlight organized And structural mobility.

Organized mobility occurs when the movement of an individual or social group up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state. This process can take place with the consent of the people themselves (for example, public calls for Komsomol construction projects) and without their consent (resettlement of small peoples, dispossession).

Structural mobility It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people employed in them.

During the mobility process, a state may arise marginality. This is a special sociological term for the boundary, transitional, structurally indefinite social state of the subject. people, by different reasons out of the ordinary social environment and unable to join new communities (often due to cultural inconsistencies), experiencing great psychological stress and experiencing a kind of crisis of self-consciousness, are called outcasts. Among marginals there can be ethnomarginals, biomarginals, economic marginals, religious marginals.

3.1 Introductory remarks

People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in their status is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time. The unexpected rise of a man or his sudden fall is a favorite plot of folk tales: a cunning beggar suddenly becomes rich, a poor prince becomes a king, and the industrious Cinderella marries a prince, thereby increasing her status and prestige.

However, the history of mankind is made up not so much of individual destinies as of the movement of large social groups. The landed aristocracy is being replaced by the financial bourgeoisie, low-skilled professions are being squeezed out of modern production by representatives of the so-called white-collar workers - engineers, programmers, operators of robotic complexes. Wars and revolutions reshaped the social structure of society, raising some to the top of the pyramid and lowering others. Similar changes took place in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917. They are still taking place today, when the business elite is replacing the party elite.

There is a certain asymmetry between ascent and descent, everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a voluntary phenomenon, while descent is forced.

Studies show that those with higher status prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but those with lower status want the same for themselves and their children. This is how it turns out in human society: everyone is striving upward and no one is downward.

In this chapter, we will consider the essence, causes, typology, mechanisms, channels of social mobility, as well as factors influencing it.

3.2 Mobility classification

There are two main types of social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and two main types - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes that are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility implies that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower rung than their parents. Example: A miner's son becomes an engineer.

Intragenerational mobility takes place where the same individual, beyond comparison with his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise, it is called a social career. Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a shop manager, plant director, minister of the engineering industry.

The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second - the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental labor.

Vertical mobility implies moving from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another.

Depending on the direction of movement, there is upward mobility (social ascent, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement).

Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demolition is an example of downward mobility.

Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level.

An example is the movement from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one's own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction.

Geographical mobility is a variation of horizontal mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status.

An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and found a job here, then this is migration. He changed his profession.

It is possible to classify social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish:

individual mobility, when moving down, up or horizontally occurs for each person independently of others, and

group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old class cedes its dominant positions to the new class.

Individual mobility and group mobility are connected in a certain way with assigned and achieved status. Do you think individual mobility is more in line with assigned or achieved status? (Try to figure this out on your own first, and then read the chapter to the end.)

These are the main types, types and forms (there are no significant differences between these terms) of social mobility. In addition to them, organized mobility is sometimes distinguished, when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state

a) with the consent of the people themselves, b) without their consent. Voluntary organized mobility should include the so-called socialist organizational recruitment, public calls for Komsomol construction projects, etc. Involuntary organized mobility can be attributed to the repatriation (resettlement) of small peoples and dispossession during the years of Stalinism.

Structural mobility must be distinguished from organized mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people. In the 1950s and 1970s, small villages were reduced and enlarged in the USSR.

The main and non-main types (types, forms) of mobility differ as follows.

The main views characterize all or most societies in any historical era. Of course, the intensity or volume of mobility is not the same everywhere.

Non-principal types of mobility are inherent in some types of society and are not inherent in others. (Look for specific examples to support this thesis.)

The main and non-main types (types, forms) of mobility exist in three main areas of society - economic, political, professional. Mobility practically does not occur (with rare exceptions) in the demographic sphere and is quite limited in the religious sphere. Indeed, it is impossible to migrate from a man to a woman, and the transition from childhood in youth does not apply to mobility. Voluntary and forced change of religion in human history occurred repeatedly. Suffice it to recall the baptism of Russia, the conversion of the Indians to the Christian faith after the discovery of America by Columbus. However, such events do not occur regularly. They are of interest to historians rather than sociologists.

Let us now turn to specific types and types of mobility.

3.3 Group mobility

It occurs there and then, where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category rises or falls. The October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who previously did not have a recognized high position. Brahmins became the highest caste as a result of a long and stubborn struggle, and earlier they were on an equal footing with the kshatriyas. In ancient Greece, after the adoption of the constitution, most people were freed from slavery and climbed the social ladder, and many of their former masters went down.

The transition of power from a hereditary aristocracy to a plutocracy (an aristocracy based on the principles of wealth) had the same consequences. In 212 AD almost the entire population of the Roman Empire received the status of Roman citizenship. Thanks to this, huge masses of people who were previously considered to be deprived of their rights have increased their social status. The invasion of the barbarians (Huns and Goths) disrupted the social stratification of the Roman Empire: one by one, the old aristocratic families disappeared, and they were replaced by new ones. Foreigners founded new dynasties and new nobility.

As P. Sorokin showed on a huge historical material, the following factors served as the reasons for group mobility:

social revolutions;

foreign interventions, invasions;

interstate wars;

civil wars;

military coups;

change of political regimes;

replacing the old constitution with a new one;

peasant uprisings;

internecine struggle of aristocratic families;

creation of an empire.

Group mobility takes place where there is a change in the very system of stratification.

3.4 Individual mobility: comparative analysis

Social mobility in the US and former USSR has both similarities and differences. The similarity is explained by the fact that both countries are industrialized powers, and the differences are explained by the peculiarity political regime board. Thus, studies by American and Soviet sociologists, covering approximately the same period (70s), but carried out independently of each other, gave the same figures: up to 40% of employees in both the USA and Russia come from workers ; in both the US and Russia, more than two-thirds of the population is involved in social mobility.

Another regularity is also confirmed: social mobility in both countries is most influenced not by the profession and education of the father, but by the son's own achievements in education. The higher the education, the more chances to move up the social ladder.

In both the US and Russia, another curious fact has been discovered: a well-educated son of a worker has just as much chance of promotion as a poorly educated person from the middle classes, in particular employees. Although the second can help parents.

The peculiarity of the United States lies in the large flow of immigrants. Unskilled workers - immigrants who come to the country from all parts of the world, occupy the lower rungs of the social ladder, displacing or hastening the advancement of Native Americans. Rural migration has the same effect, not only in the US, but also in Russia.

In both countries, upward mobility has so far averaged 20% more than downward mobility. But both types of vertical mobility were inferior to horizontal mobility in their own way. This means the following: in two countries, the level of mobility is high (up to 70-80% of the population), but 70% of it is horizontal mobility - movement within the boundaries of the same class and even layer (stratum).

Even in the United States, where, according to popular belief, every sweeper can become a millionaire, the conclusion made by P. Sorokin back in 1927 remains valid: most people start their working careers on the same social level as their parents, and only a very few manage to make significant progress. In other words, the average citizen moves one rung up or down in his life, rarely anyone manages to step several steps at once.

Thus, 10% of Americans, 7% of Japanese and Dutch, 9% of British, 2% of French, Germans and Danes, 1% of Italians rise from workers to the upper middle class. To the factors of individual mobility, i.e. reasons that allow one person to achieve greater success than another, sociologists in both countries include:

the social status of the family;

level of education;

nationality;

physical and mental abilities, external data;

receiving education;

location;

profitable marriage.

In all industrialized countries, it is more difficult for women to move up than for men. Often they increase their social status only through an advantageous marriage. Therefore, getting a job, women of this orientation choose those professions where it is most likely to find a "suitable man." What do you think these professions or places of work are? Give examples from life or literature when marriage acted as a "social lift" for women of humble origin.

During Soviet period our society was the most mobile society in the world along with America. A free education available to all strata offered everyone the same opportunities for advancement that existed only in the United States. Nowhere in the world the elite of society beyond short term was not formed literally from all walks of life. At the end of this period, mobility slowed down, but increased again in the 1990s.

The most dynamic Soviet society was not only in terms of education and social mobility, but also in the field of industrial development. For many years, the USSR held the first place in terms of the pace of industrial progress. All these are signs of a modern industrial society that have made the USSR, as Western sociologists have written, one of the world's leading countries in terms of social mobility.

3.5 Structural mobility

Industrialization opens new vacancies in vertical mobility. The development of industry three centuries ago required the transformation of the peasantry into a proletariat. In the late stage of industrialization, the working class became the largest part of the employed population. The main factor of vertical mobility was the education system.

Industrialization is associated not only with interclass but also with intraclass changes. At the stage of conveyor or mass production at the beginning of the 20th century, unskilled and unskilled workers remained the predominant group. Mechanization and then automation required an expansion of the ranks of skilled and highly skilled workers. In the 1950s, 40% of workers in developed countries were poorly or unskilled. In 1966, 20% of such people remained.

As unskilled labor was reduced, the need for employees, managers, and businessmen grew. The sphere of industrial and agricultural labor narrowed, while the sphere of service and management expanded.

In an industrial society, the structure of the national economy determines mobility. In other words, professional mobility in the USA, England, Russia or Japan does not depend on the individual characteristics of people, but on structural features economy, the relationship of industries and the shifts taking place here.

Changing the structure of the activity of the US population

Number of people employed in agriculture The USA decreased from 1900 to 1980 by 10 times. The small farmers became the respectable petty bourgeois class, and the agricultural laborers were added to the ranks of the working class. The stratum of professionals and managers doubled over that period. The number of trade workers and clerks increased by 4 times.

Such transformations are characteristic of modern societies: from farm to factory in the early stages of industrialization and from factory to office in the later stages. Today, in developed countries, over 50% of the workforce is engaged in knowledge work, compared with 10-15% at the beginning of the century.

During this century, vacancies in industrialized countries declined in the working professions and expanded in the field of management. But managerial vacancies were filled not by representatives of the workers, but by the middle class. Nevertheless, the number of managerial occupations grew faster than the number of children in the middle class able to fill them. The vacuum formed in the 50s was partly filled by working youth.

This was made possible by the availability of higher education for ordinary Americans.

In the developed capitalist countries, industrialization was completed earlier than in the former socialist countries (USSR, East Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, etc.). The lag could not but affect the nature of social mobility: in the capitalist countries, the share of leaders and intelligentsia, who come from workers and peasants, is one-third, and in the former socialist countries, three-quarters. In countries like England, which have long passed the stage of industrialization, the proportion of workers of peasant origin is very low, there are more so-called hereditary workers. On the contrary, in Eastern European countries this share is very high and sometimes reaches 50%.

It is due to structural mobility that the two opposite poles of the professional pyramid turned out to be the least mobile. In the former socialist countries, the two layers were the most closed - the layer of top managers and the layer of auxiliary workers located at the bottom of the pyramid - layers that fill the most prestigious and the most unprestigious spheres of activity. (Try to answer the question "why?")

3.6 Volume and distance of mobility

Social mobility is measured using two main indicators.

Mobility distance is the number of steps that individuals managed to climb or had to descend.

The normal distance is considered to be moving one or two steps up or down. Most social transitions happen this way. Abnormal distance - an unexpected rise to the top of the social ladder or fall to its bottom.

The volume of mobility is understood as the number of individuals who have moved up the social ladder in a vertical direction over a certain period of time.

If the volume is calculated by the number of displaced individuals, then it is called absolute, and if the ratio of this number to the entire population, then it is relative and is indicated as a percentage.

The total volume or scale of mobility determines the number of movements across all strata together, and the differentiated one determines the number of movements across individual strata, layers, and classes. The fact that in an industrial society two-thirds of the population is mobile refers to the total volume, and 37% of the children of workers who have become employees refers to the differentiated volume.

The scale of social mobility is defined as the percentage of those who have changed, in comparison with their fathers, their social status. When Hungary was capitalist, i.e. in the 1930s, the scale of mobility was 50%. In socialist Hungary (60s) it rose to 64%, and in 1983 to 72%. As a result of socialist transformations, Hungarian society became as open as the developed capitalist countries.

With good reason this conclusion is applicable to the USSR. Western European and American scholars who conducted comparative studies found that mobility in Eastern European countries is higher than in developed capitalist countries.

The change in mobility for individual layers is described by two indicators. The first is the coefficient of mobility of leaving the social stratum. It shows, for example, how many sons of skilled workers became intellectuals or peasants. The second is the coefficient of mobility of entry into the social stratum. It indicates from which strata, for example, the stratum of intellectuals is replenished. It reveals the social origin of people.

3.7 Demographic drivers of mobility

Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Professional mobility is typical for the young, economic mobility for adults, and political mobility for the elderly.

The birth rate is unevenly distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, while the upper classes tend to have fewer. There is a pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he has.

Even if every son of a rich man follows in the footsteps of his father, voids are still formed on the upper steps of the social pyramid, which are filled by people from the lower classes. In no class do people plan for the exact number of children needed to replace parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for the occupation of certain social positions in different classes is different.

3.8 Mobility in the USSR

Soviet sociologists in the 1960s and 1980s quite actively studied inter- and intra-generational, as well as inter- and intra-class mobility. The main classes were considered to be workers and peasants, and the intelligentsia was considered a class-like stratum.

The transition between these three groups is called interclass transfers, and the transition within a group is called intraclass. If a worker, peasant or intellectual raised the level of education and moved from a low-skilled position to a medium or highly qualified position, while remaining a worker, peasant or intellectual, then he made an intra-class movement.

When the workers, the peasantry and the intelligentsia are replenished mainly by those who come from their own class, one speaks of the self-reproduction of the class or its reproduction on its own basis. According to large-scale studies (they cover the country, entire regions or cities) conducted in different years by F.R. Filippov, M.Kh. Titmoy, L.A. Gordon, V.N. Shubkin, 2/3 of the intelligentsia is replenished by people from this group. This proportion is even higher among the workers and peasants. The children of workers and peasants pass into the category of intellectuals more often than the children of intellectuals become peasants and workers.

The transition from peasants and workers to the intelligentsia is called vertical interclass mobility. She was especially active in the 1930s and 1950s. The old intelligentsia was destroyed, its place was taken by immigrants from the workers and peasants. A new social community- "people's intelligentsia". The Bolshevik Party nominated ordinary people to leading positions in industry, agriculture, and the state apparatus. They were called "red directors", "promoted". But in the 1960s and 1980s, interclass mobility slowed down. A period of stabilization has begun.

Intra-class mobility came to the fore; in the 1970s and 1980s, it accounted for up to 80% of all movements. Intra-class mobility is also called the transition from simple to complex labor. The worker remains a worker, but his qualifications are constantly growing.

Interesting data on the demographic composition of the migrants. In general, women are more mobile than men, the young are more mobile than the elderly. But men are more likely than women to jump several steps in their careers. The latter prefer to move gradually. From low-skilled workers to highly skilled and specialists, men advance several times more often than women, for whom the transition from highly skilled workers to specialists is a common thing.

A survey of people and an analysis of work books convinces that 90% of all movements occur in the first decade of employment, 9% in the second, 1%

For the third. The initial period accounts for up to 95% of the so-called return movements, when people return to the position they left. Such data only confirm what everyone knows at the level of common sense: young people are looking for themselves, trying different professions, leaving and returning.

3.9 Upward mobility channels

Most Full description vertical mobility channels given by P. Sorokin. Only he calls them "vertical circulation channels". He believes that since vertical mobility exists to some extent in any society, even in primitive ones, there are no impassable boundaries between strata. Between them there are various "holes", "elevators", "membranes" through which individuals move up and down.

Of particular interest are social institutions

Army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social circulation. P. Sorokin gives the following data.

The army functions most intensively as such a channel not in peacetime, but in wartime. Large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies from lower ranks. In wartime, soldiers advance through talent and bravery. Having risen in rank, they use the received power as a channel for further advancement and accumulation of wealth. They have the opportunity to rob, loot, seize trophies, take indemnities, take away slaves, surround themselves with pompous ceremonies, titles, and transfer their power by inheritance.

Of the 92 Roman emperors, 36 are known to have achieved this, starting from the lowest ranks. Of the 65 Byzantine emperors, 12 advanced through military careers. Napoleon and his entourage - marshals, generals and the kings of Europe appointed by him - came from commoners. Cromwell, Grant, Washington and thousands of other commanders have risen to the highest positions thanks to the army.

The Church as a channel of social circulation has moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society. Gebbon, archbishop of Reims, was a slave in the past, Pope Gregory VII is the son of a carpenter. P. Sorokin studied the history of 144 Roman Catholic popes and found that 28 came from the lower classes, and 27 from the middle strata. The institution of celibacy (celibacy), introduced in the 11th century by Pope Gregory VII, obliged the Catholic clergy not to have children. Thanks to this, after the death of officials, the vacant positions were filled with new people.

In addition to the upward movement, the church was a channel for the downward movement. Thousands of heretics, pagans, enemies of the church were brought to justice, ruined and destroyed. Among them were many kings, dukes, princes, lords, aristocrats and nobles of high ranks.

School. The institutions of education and upbringing, no matter what concrete form they take, have served in all ages as a powerful channel of social circulation. The USA and the USSR belong to societies where schools are available to all members. In such a society, the "social elevator" moves from the very bottom, passes through all the floors and reaches the very top.

The USA and the USSR are the most striking example of how one can achieve impressive success, become the great industrial powers of the world, adhering to opposite political and ideological values, but equally providing their citizens with equal opportunities for education.

Britain represents the other pole, where the privileged schools are accessible only to the upper classes. The "social elevator" is short: it moves only along the upper floors of the social building.

An example of a "long elevator" is ancient China. During the era of Confucius, schools were open to all classes. Examinations were held every three years. The best students, regardless of their family status, were selected and transferred to higher schools, and then to universities, from where they got to high government posts. Under the influence of Confucius, the government of the mandarins was reputed to be the government of Chinese intellectuals exalted through the school "mechanism". The educational test performed, as it were, the role of universal suffrage.

Thus, the Chinese school constantly elevated the common people and prevented the automatic advancement of the representatives of the upper strata if they did not meet professional requirements. As a result, official duties in the government were carried out quite skillfully, and positions were filled based on personal talents.

Large competitions for colleges and universities in many countries are explained by the fact that education is the fastest and most accessible channel of vertical mobility.

Property most clearly manifests itself in the form of accumulated wealth and money. They are one of the simplest and most effective ways of social advancement. In the XV-XVIII centuries, money began to rule European society. Achieved a high position only those who had money, and humble origin. Such were the last periods of the history of Ancient Greece and Rome.

P. Sorokin found that not all, but only some occupations and professions contribute to the accumulation of wealth. According to his calculations, in 29% of cases this allows the occupation of a manufacturer, in 21% - a banker and a stockbroker, in 12% - a trader. Professions of artists, artists, inventors, statesmen, miners and some others do not provide such opportunities.

Family and marriage become channels of vertical circulation in the event that representatives of different social statuses enter the union. In European society, the marriage of a poor, but titled partner with a rich, but ignoble one, was common. As a result, both moved up the social ladder, each getting what he wanted.

We find an example of downward mobility in antiquity. According to Roman law, a free woman who married a slave became a slave herself and lost the status of a free citizen.

Even primitive societies were interested in being ruled by the most gifted. But how to discover innate talents if there are no special methods and techniques? The ancients found a very simple way. Through empirical observation, they found that smart parents are more likely to have smart children, and vice versa. The thesis about the inheritance of the qualities of parents was firmly established in the minds of our ancestors. It is he who underlies the prohibition of inter-caste marriages. The lower the social position, the fewer virtues parents have and their children inherit, and vice versa. Thus, the institution of inheritance of the social status of parents by children gradually arose: a person born in a family with a high social rank also deserves a high rank.

The family has become the main mechanism of social selection, determination and inheritance of social status.

The origin of a noble family does not automatically guarantee a good heredity and a decent education. Parents cared about the best possible upbringing of children; this became a mandatory norm for the aristocracy. In poor families, parents could not give proper education and upbringing. Therefore, it was from noble families that the administrative elite was recruited. The family has become one of the institutions for the distribution of members of society by strata.

Ancient societies were more concerned about the stability of the family, because for them it was both a school and a center vocational training, and production association, and many others. When the family began to lose its significance, the aura of holiness, marriages began to break up easily, and divorces became an everyday event, society had to take on all these functions. Schools emerged outside the family, production outside the family, service outside the family.

Now the children remain in the family, only while they are minors. In fact, they grow up outside the family. The meaning of purity of blood, inherited qualities has been lost. People are increasingly beginning to be judged not by their family origin, but by personal qualities.

3.10 Group closure

The erection of social barriers and partitions, the restriction of access to another group or the closure of the group in itself is called a social clause (social closure). M. Weber wrote about this phenomenon. This problem is actively discussed in modern sociology. A clause designates a process and a result at the same time.

In a young, rapidly developing society, vertical mobility is very intensive. Russia of the era of Peter I and Soviet Russia in the 20-30s, Russia of the era of perestroika (90s of the XX century) are examples of such a society. People from the lower classes, thanks to fortunate circumstances, hard work or resourcefulness, quickly moved up. There were many vacancies for them here.

But now all the places are filled, the upward movement is slowing down. New class the rich is blocked from society by many social barriers. Getting into it is now incredibly difficult. The social group is closed.

In the USA and Japan only 7-10% of workers rise to the upper class. The children of businessmen, politicians, lawyers have 5-8 times more opportunities to follow their fathers than it could be if society were completely open. The higher social class the harder it is to penetrate. The rich send their children to privileged schools and universities that are expensive but provide excellent education.

A good education is a necessary condition for obtaining a highly prestigious profession or position: diplomat, minister, banker, professor. It is the upper class that makes laws that are beneficial to itself and disadvantageous to others.

Modern society is becoming more immobile and closed to movement. Senior positions, which at an early stage were elective, at later stages become hereditary. In ancient Egypt, only in the later stages did a strict custom of succession to official posts appear. In Sparta, at the earliest stages, foreigners were allowed to the rank of full-fledged citizens, later this became an exception. In 451 BC Pericles introduced a law according to which the privilege of free citizenship was granted only to those whose both parents were natives of Attica and free (full) citizens. In the Roman Empire, by the end of its existence, all social strata and the groups became completely closed.

In Venice in 1296 the layer of the aristocracy was open, and from 1775, when the aristocracy lost its former importance, the ranks become closed. Rank royal nobility in early feudal Europe was accessible to anyone, but subsequently becomes impenetrable to new people.

In England after the 16th century, and in France after the 17th century, the desire for caste isolation began to manifest itself among the bourgeoisie as well.

Thus, the tendency towards social closeness is inherent in all societies. It characterizes the stabilization of social life, the transition from an early to a mature stage of development, as well as an increase in the role of attributed status and a decrease in the role of achieved.

The social closure of the upper class in Russia began to be observed already in 1993. Before that, i.e. between 1989 and 1992, opportunities to enrich themselves and move up were open to all Russians, albeit unequally. It is known that the capacity of the upper class is objectively limited and amounts to no more than 3-5% of the population. The ease with which large capitals were made in 1989-1992 has disappeared. Today, access to the elite requires capital and capabilities that most people do not have. There is a kind of closure of the upper class, it passes laws that restrict access to its ranks, creates private schools. The entertainment sphere of the elite is no longer available to other categories. It includes not only expensive salons, boarding houses, bars, clubs, but also holidays in world resorts.

At the same time, access is open to the rural and urban middle class. The stratum of farmers is extremely small and does not exceed 1%. The middle urban strata have not yet formed. But their replenishment depends on how soon the "new Russians" and the country's leadership will pay for skilled mental labor not at the subsistence level, but at its market price.

In stable societies - the USA, England, France, Germany and some others - the upper class has long since become hereditary. The accumulation of wealth began within kindred clans, created by mutual marriages several centuries ago. In the United States, the upper class has maintained family continuity through time since the 18th century and dates back to the settlers from Northern Ireland. The socialization of children in boarding schools and then practice in parenting fields, corporations and companies isolates the upper class from the rest of society. He forms his own system of values, social norms, etiquette, rules of conduct and lifestyle. T. Veblen called it demonstratively wasteful. In modern Russian society, the upper class has a second feature - demonstrative luxury, but not the first - heredity. But it also begins to actively form due to the closure of the highest stratum.

3.11 Migration

Migration is the movement of people from country to country, from district to district, from city to village (and vice versa), from city to city, from village to village. In other words, migration is territorial movements. They are seasonal, i.e. depending on the season (tourism, treatment, study, agricultural work), and pendulum - regular movement from a given point and return to it. Such types of migration are temporary and returnable.

There are also immigration and emigration.

Migration is the movement of people within one country.

Emigration - leaving the country for permanent residence or long-term residence.

Immigration - entry into a given country for permanent residence or long-term residence.

So, immigrants are moving in, and emigrants are moving out (voluntarily or involuntarily).

Emigration reduces the population. If the most talented and qualified residents leave, then not only the number, but also the qualitative composition of the population decreases. Immigration increases the population.

The arrival of a highly skilled labor force in the country increases the qualitative composition of the population, while the arrival of a low-skilled labor force has the opposite effect.

Thanks to emigration and migration, new cities, countries arose, entire continents were settled. It is known that in cities the birth rate is low and constantly decreasing. Consequently, all large cities, especially millionaire cities, have come into existence through migration.

After the discovery of America by Columbus, thousands and millions of immigrants moved here from Europe. North America, Latin America and Australia have become states thanks to large migration processes. Siberia was mastered by migration.

In total in the XVIII century. two powerful streams of migration emanated from Europe - to America and to Russia. In Russia, the Volga region was especially actively populated. In 1762, the famous decree of Catherine II was published on the invitation of foreigners to civil service and settlement. Mostly Germans from Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, and Germany responded. The first stream of visitors were artisans, the second - peasants. They formed agricultural colonies in the steppe zone of Russia.

Emigration occurs where living conditions worsen and opportunities for upward mobility narrow. The peasants fled to Siberia and the Don, where the Cossacks had developed, because of the strengthening of serfdom. It was not aristocrats who left Europe, but social outsiders: ruined peasants, fugitives, unemployed, adventurers. In America, they built a new society and quickly moved up the social ladder.

Horizontal mobility in such cases acts as a means to solve the problems that arise in the field of vertical mobility. The fugitive serfs who founded the Don Cossacks became free and prosperous, i.e. raised their political and economic status at the same time. Although the professional status could remain unchanged: the peasants continued to engage in arable farming on the new lands.

Migration does not always take massive forms. In calm times, it affects small groups or individuals. Their movement occurs, as a rule, spontaneously. Demographers identify two main flows of migration within one country: city-rural and city-city. It has been established that until the industrialization is completed in the country, people move mainly from the village to the city. After its completion, and this is typical for the United States and Western Europe, people move from the city to suburban areas and rural areas.

A strange regularity is revealed: the flows of migrants are directed to those places where social mobility is the highest. And one more thing: those who move from city to city arrange their lives easier and achieve greater success than those who move from village to city, and vice versa. (Try to explain the reasons for this phenomenon yourself.)

Major migration phenomena include the so-called migrations of peoples.

It is both ethnic and economic processes. The Great Invasion is called the invasion of barbarian tribes in the 5th century. different countries Europe.

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