Levels of interconnection between the endocrine and nervous systems. The relationship of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems of regulation Lower and higher nervous activity

Bilateral action of the nervous and endocrine systems

Each human tissue and organ functions under the double control of the autonomic nervous system and humoral factors, in particular hormones. This dual control is the basis of the "reliability" of regulatory influences, whose task is to maintain a certain level of certain physical and chemical parameters of the internal environment.

These systems excite or inhibit various physiological functions in order to minimize deviations of these parameters despite significant fluctuations in the external environment. This activity is consistent with the activity of systems that ensure the interaction of the body with environmental conditions, which is constantly changing.

Human organs have a large number of receptors, the irritation of which causes various physiological reactions. At the same time, many nerve endings from the central nervous system approach the organs. This means that there is a two-way connection between human organs and the nervous system: they receive signals from the central nervous system and, in turn, are a source of reflexes that change the state of themselves and the body as a whole.

The endocrine glands and the hormones they produce are in close relationship with the nervous system, forming a common integral regulatory mechanism.

The connection of the endocrine glands with the nervous system is bidirectional: the glands are densely innervated from the side of the autonomic nervous system, and the secret of the glands through the blood acts on the nerve centers.

Remark 1

To maintain homeostasis and carry out basic life functions, two main systems evolved: nervous and humoral, which work in concert.

Humoral regulation is carried out by the formation in the endocrine glands or groups of cells that perform an endocrine function (in the glands of mixed secretion), and the entry of biologically active substances - hormones into the circulating fluids. Hormones are characterized by a distant action and the ability to influence in very low concentrations.

The integration of nervous and humoral regulation in the body is especially pronounced during the action of stress factors.

The cells of the human body are combined into tissues, and those, in turn, into organ systems. In general, all this represents a single supersystem of the body. All the huge number of cellular elements in the absence of a complex regulatory mechanism in the body would not be able to function as a single whole.

The system of endocrine glands and the nervous system play a special role in regulation. It is the state of endocrine regulation that determines the nature of all processes occurring in the nervous system.

Example 1

Under the influence of androgens and estrogens, instinctive behavior, sexual instincts are formed. Obviously, the humoral system also controls neurons, as well as other cells in our body.

The evolutionary nervous system arose later than the endocrine system. These two regulatory systems complement each other, forming a single functional mechanism that provides highly effective neurohumoral regulation, putting it at the head of all systems that coordinate all the life processes of a multicellular organism.

This regulation of the constancy of the internal environment in the body, which occurs according to the feedback principle, cannot fulfill all the tasks of the body's adaptation, but is very effective in maintaining homeostasis.

Example 2

The adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones in response to emotional arousal, disease, hunger, etc.

A connection is needed between the nervous system and the endocrine glands so that the endocrine system can respond to emotions, light, smells, sounds, and so on.

Regulatory role of the hypothalamus

The regulatory influence of the central nervous system on the physiological activity of the glands is carried out through the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus is afferently connected with other parts of the central nervous system, primarily with the spinal cord, medulla oblongata and midbrain, thalamus, basal ganglia (subcortical formations located in the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres), the hypocampus (the central structure of the limbic system), individual fields of the cerebral cortex and etc. Thanks to this, information from the whole organism enters the hypothalamus; signals from extero- and interoreceptors that enter the central nervous system through the hypothalamus are transmitted by the endocrine glands.

Thus, neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus transform afferent nerve stimuli into humoral factors with physiological activity (in particular, releasing hormones).

The pituitary gland as a regulator of biological processes

The pituitary gland receives signals that inform about everything that happens in the body, but has no direct connection with the external environment. But in order for the vital activity of the organism not to be constantly disturbed by environmental factors, the organism must adapt to changing external conditions. The body learns about external influences by receiving information from the sense organs that transmit it to the central nervous system.

Acting as the supreme endocrine gland, the pituitary gland itself is controlled by the central nervous system and, in particular, the hypothalamus. This higher vegetative center is engaged in constant coordination and regulation of the activity of various parts of the brain and all internal organs.

Remark 2

The existence of the whole organism, the constancy of its internal environment is controlled precisely by the hypothalamus: the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, fats and mineral salts, the amount of water in tissues, vascular tone, heart rate, body temperature, etc.

A single neuroendocrine regulatory system in the body is formed as a result of the combination at the level of the hypothalamus of most of the humoral and nervous pathways of regulation.

Axons from neurons located in the cerebral cortex and subcortical ganglia approach the cells of the hypothalamus. They secrete neurotransmitters that both activate and inhibit the secretory activity of the hypothalamus. Nerve impulses coming from the brain, under the influence of the hypothalamus, are converted into endocrine stimuli, which, depending on the humoral signals coming to the hypothalamus from the glands and tissues, increase or decrease

The control of the hypothalamus of the pituitary gland occurs using both nerve connections and the system of blood vessels. The blood entering the anterior pituitary gland necessarily passes through the median elevation of the hypothalamus, where it is enriched with hypothalamic neurohormones.

Remark 3

Neurohormones are peptide in nature and are parts of protein molecules.

In our time, seven neurohormones have been identified - liberins ("liberators") that stimulate the synthesis of tropic hormones in the pituitary gland. And three neurohormones, on the contrary, inhibit their production - melanostatin, prolactostatin and somatostatin.

Vasopressin and oxytocin are also neurohormones. Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus during childbirth, the production of milk by the mammary glands. With the active participation of vasopressin, the transport of water and salts through the cell membranes is regulated, the lumen of the vessels decreases (blood pressure rises). Because of its ability to retain water in the body, this hormone is often referred to as antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The main point of application of ADH is the renal tubules, where, under its influence, the reabsorption of water into the blood from the primary urine is stimulated.

The nerve cells of the nuclei of the hypothalamus produce neurohormones, and then transport them with their own axons to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and from here these hormones are able to enter the bloodstream, causing a complex effect on the body's systems.

However, the pituitary and hypothalamus not only send orders through hormones, but they themselves are able to accurately analyze the signals that come from the peripheral endocrine glands. The endocrine system operates on the principle of feedback. If the endocrine gland produces an excess of hormones, then the secretion of a specific hormone by the pituitary gland slows down, and if the hormone is not produced enough, then the production of the corresponding pituitary tropic hormone increases.

Remark 4

In the process of evolutionary development, the mechanism of interaction between the hormones of the hypothalamus, the hormones of the pituitary gland and the endocrine glands has been worked out quite reliably. But if at least one link of this complex chain fails, then there will immediately be a violation of the ratios (quantitative and qualitative) in the entire system, carrying various endocrine diseases.

Neurons are the building blocks for the human "message system", there are entire networks of neurons that transmit signals between the brain and the body. These organized networks, which include more than a trillion neurons, create the so-called nervous system. It consists of two parts: the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral (nerves and nerve networks throughout the body)

Endocrine system part of the body's information transmission system. Uses glands throughout the body that regulate many processes such as metabolism, digestion, blood pressure, and growth. Among the most important endocrine glands are the pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, ovaries and testicles.

central nervous system(CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system(PNS) consists of nerves that extend beyond the central nervous system. The PNS can be further divided into two different nervous systems: somatic And vegetative.

somatic nervous system: The somatic nervous system transmits physical sensations and commands to movements and actions.

autonomic nervous system: The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion and blood pressure. This system is also associated with emotional responses such as sweating and crying.

10. Lower and higher nervous activity.

Lower nervous activity (NND) - directed to the internal environment of the body. This is a set of neurophysiological processes that ensure the implementation of unconditioned reflexes and instincts. This is the activity of the Spinal Cord and the brain stem, which ensures the regulation of the activity of internal organs and their interconnection, thanks to which the body functions as a single whole.

Higher nervous activity (HNI) - directed towards the external environment. This is a set of neurophysiological processes that provide conscious and subconscious processing of information, assimilation of information, adaptive behavior to the environment and ontogeny training in all types of activities, including purposeful behavior in society.

11. Physiology of adaptation and stress.

Adaptation Syndrome:

The first is called the anxiety stage. This stage is associated with the mobilization of the body's defense mechanisms, an increase in the level of adrenaline in the blood.

The next stage is called the stage of resistance or resistance. This stage is distinguished by the highest level of body resistance to the action of harmful factors, which reflects the ability to maintain the state of homeostasis.

If the impact of the stressor continues, then as a result, the “energy of adaptation”, i.e. the adaptive mechanisms involved in maintaining the resistance stage will exhaust themselves. Then the organism enters the final stage - the stage of exhaustion, when the survival of the organism may be threatened.

The human body deals with stress in the following ways:

1. Stressors are analyzed in the higher parts of the cerebral cortex, after which certain signals are sent to the muscles responsible for movement, preparing the body to respond to the stressor.

2. The stressor also affects the autonomic nervous system. The pulse quickens, blood pressure rises, the level of erythrocytes and blood sugar rises, breathing becomes frequent and intermittent. This increases the amount of oxygen supplied to the tissues. The person is ready to fight or flee.

3. From the analyzer sections of the cortex, signals enter the hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The adrenal glands regulate the release of adrenaline into the blood, which is a common fast-acting stimulant.

The coherence of the work of the whole organism depends on how the endocrine and nervous systems interact. Having a complex structure, the human body achieves such harmony due to the inextricable relationship between the nervous and endocrine systems. The unifying links in this tandem are the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

General characteristics of the nervous and endocrine systems

The inextricable relationship between the endocrine and nervous systems (NS) provides such vital processes:

• ability to reproduce;
• human growth and development;
• ability to adapt to changing external conditions;
• constancy and stability of the internal environment of the human body.

The structure of the nervous system includes the spinal cord and brain, as well as peripheral sections, including autonomic, sensory and motor neurons. They have special processes that act on target cells. Signals in the form of electrical impulses are transmitted through nerve tissues.

The main element of the endocrine system was the pituitary gland, and it also includes:

• pineal;
• thyroid;
• thymus and pancreas;
• adrenal glands;
• kidneys;
• ovaries and testicles.

The organs of the endocrine system produce special chemical compounds - hormones. These are substances that regulate many vital functions in the body. It is with the help of them that the effect on the body occurs. Hormones, released into the bloodstream, attach to target cells. The interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems ensures the normal activity of the body and form a single neuroendocrine regulation.

Hormones are regulators of the activity of body cells. Under their influence are physical mobility and thinking, growth and physique, tone of voice, behavior, sexual desire and much more. The endocrine system ensures that a person adapts to various changes in the external environment.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in neuroregulation? associated with different parts of the nervous system and refers to the elements of the diencephalon. Such communication is carried out through afferent pathways.

The hypothalamus receives signals from the spinal and mid-brain, basal ganglia and thalamus, and some parts of the cerebral hemispheres. The hypothalamus receives information from all parts of the body through internal and external receptors. These signals and impulses act on the endocrine system through the pituitary gland.

Functions of the nervous system

The nervous system, being a complex anatomical formation, ensures the adaptation of a person to the constantly changing conditions of the external world. The structure of the National Assembly includes:

• nerves;
• spinal cord and brain;
• nerve plexuses and nodes.

The National Assembly promptly responds to all kinds of changes by sending electronic signals. This is how the work of various organs is corrected. By regulating the work of the endocrine system, it helps to maintain homeostasis.

The main functions of the NS are as follows:

• transferring all information about the functioning of the body to the brain;
• coordination and regulation of conscious body movements;
• perception of information about the state of the body in the environment;
• coordinates heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature and respiration.

The main purpose of the NS is to perform vegetative and somatic functions. The autonomic component has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Sympathetic is responsible for the response to stress and prepares the body for a dangerous situation. During the work of this department, breathing and heartbeat become more frequent, digestion stops or slows down, sweating increases and pupils dilate.

The parasympathetic division of the NS, on the contrary, is designed to calm the body. When activated, breathing and heart rate slow down, digestion resumes, sweating stops and pupils return to normal.

The autonomic nervous system is designed to regulate the work of blood and lymphatic vessels. It provides:

• expansion and narrowing of the lumen of capillaries and arteries;
• normal pulse;
• contraction of the smooth muscles of the internal organs.

In addition, its tasks include the production of special hormones by the endocrine and exocrine glands. It also regulates metabolic processes in the body. The vegetative system is autonomous and does not depend on the somatic system, which, in turn, is responsible for the perception of various stimuli and the reaction to them.

The functioning of the sense organs and skeletal muscles is under the control of the somatic department of the NS. The control center is located in the brain, where information comes from various senses. Changing behavior and adapting to the social environment is also under the control of the somatic part of the NS.

Nervous system and adrenal glands

How the nervous system regulates the work of the endocrine can be seen in the functioning of the adrenal glands. They are an important part of the endocrine system of the body and in their structure have a cortical and medulla layer.

The adrenal cortex performs the functions of the pancreas, and the medulla is a kind of transitional element between the endocrine and nervous systems. It is in it that the so-called catecholamines are produced, which include adrenaline. They ensure the survival of the organism in difficult conditions.

In addition, these hormones perform a number of other important functions, in particular, thanks to them, the following occurs:

• increased heart rate;
• pupil dilation;
• increased sweating;
• increased vascular tone;
• expansion of the lumen of the bronchi;

• increase in blood pressure;
• suppression of gastrointestinal motility;
• increased myocardial contractility;
• decrease in the secretion of the digestive glands.

The direct connection between the adrenal glands and the nervous system can be traced in the following: irritation of the NS causes stimulation of the production of adrenaline and norepinephrine. In addition, the tissues of the adrenal medulla are formed from the rudiments, which also underlie the sympathetic NS. Therefore, their further functioning resembles the work of this part of the central nervous system.

The adrenal medulla responds to such factors:

• pain sensations;
• skin irritation;
• muscle work;
• hypothermia;

• powerful emotions;
• mental strain;
• decrease in blood sugar.

How does the interaction take place?

The pituitary gland, having no direct connection with the outside world of the body, receives information that signals what changes are taking place in the body. The body receives this information through the sense organs and the central nervous system.

The pituitary gland is a key element of the endocrine system. It obeys the hypothalamus, which coordinates the entire autonomic system. Under his control is the activity of some parts of the brain, as well as internal organs. The hypothalamus regulates:

• heart rate;
• Body temperature;
• protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism;

• the amount of mineral salts;
• volume of water in tissues and blood.

The activity of the hypothalamus is carried out on the basis of nerve connections and blood vessels. It is through them that the pituitary gland is guided. Nerve impulses coming from the brain are converted by the hypothalamus into endocrine stimuli. They are amplified or weakened under the influence of humoral signals, which, in turn, enter the hypothalamus from the glands under its control.

Through the pituitary gland, blood enters the hypothalamus and is saturated there with special neurohormones. These are substances that have a peptide nature of origin, are part of protein molecules. There are 7 such neurohormones, otherwise they are called liberins. Their main purpose is to synthesize tropic hormones that affect many vital functions of the body. These tropes perform certain functions. These include, among others, the following:

• stimulation of immune activity;
• regulation of lipid metabolism;
• increased sensitivity of the sex glands;

• stimulation of parental instinct;
• cell suspension and differentiation;
• converting short-term memory into long-term memory.

Along with leberins, hormones are released - suppressive statins. Their function is to suppress the production of tropic hormones. These include somatostatin, prolactostatin, and melanostatin. The endocrine system operates on the principle of feedback.

If some endocrine gland produces hormones in excess, then the synthesis of its own slows down, which regulate the work of this gland.

Conversely, a lack of appropriate hormones causes increased production. This complex process of interaction is processed throughout evolution, so it is very reliable. But if a failure occurs in it, the entire chain of connections reacts, which is expressed in the development of endocrine pathologies.

Last update: 30/09/2013

Description of the structure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems, the principle of operation, their significance and role in the body.

While these are the building blocks for the human "message system", there are entire networks of neurons that relay signals between the brain and body. These organized networks, which include more than a trillion neurons, create the so-called nervous system. It consists of two parts: the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral (nerves and nerve networks throughout the body)

The endocrine system is also an integral part of the body's information transmission system. This system uses glands throughout the body that regulate many processes such as metabolism, digestion, blood pressure, and growth. Although the endocrine system is not directly related to the nervous system, they often work together.

central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The primary form of communication in the CNS is the neuron. The brain and spinal cord are vital for the functioning of the body, so there are a number of protective barriers around them: bones (skull and spine), and membrane tissues (meninges). In addition, both structures are located in the cerebrospinal fluid that protects them.

Why are the brain and spinal cord so important? It is worth thinking that these structures are the actual center of our "message system". The CNS is able to process all of your sensations and process the experience of those sensations. Information about pain, touch, cold, etc. is collected by receptors throughout the body and then transmitted to the nervous system. The CNS also sends signals to the body in order to control movements, actions, and reactions to the outside world.

Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of nerves that extend beyond the central nervous system. The nerves and nerve networks of the PNS are really just bundles of axons that emerge from nerve cells. Nerves range in size from relatively small to large enough to be easily seen even without a magnifying glass.

The PNS can be further divided into two different nervous systems: somatic and vegetative.

Somatic nervous system: conveys physical sensations and commands to movements and actions. This system consists of afferent (sensory) neurons that deliver information from the nerves to the brain and spinal cord, and efferent (sometimes some of them are called motor) neurons that transmit information from the central nervous system to muscle tissues.

Autonomic nervous system: controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion and blood pressure. This system is also associated with emotional responses such as sweating and crying. The autonomic nervous system can be further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Sympathetic nervous system: The sympathetic nervous system controls the body's response to stress. When this system is working, breathing and heart rate increase, digestion slows or stops, pupils dilate, and sweating increases. This system is responsible for preparing the body for a dangerous situation.

parasympathetic nervous system: The parasympathetic nervous system acts in opposition to the sympathetic system. The e system helps to “calm down” the body after a critical situation. Heartbeat and breathing slow down, digestion resumes, pupils constrict and sweating stops.

Endocrine system

As noted earlier, the endocrine system is not part of the nervous system, but is still necessary for the transmission of information through the body. This system consists of glands that secrete chemical transmitters - hormones. They travel through the blood to specific areas of the body, including organs and tissues of the body. Among the most important endocrine glands are the pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, ovaries and testicles. Each of these glands perform specific functions in different areas of the body.

CHAPTER 1. INTERACTION OF THE NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The human body consists of cells that combine into tissues and systems - all this as a whole is a single supersystem of the body. Myriads of cellular elements would not be able to work as a whole, if the body did not have a complex mechanism of regulation. A special role in the regulation is played by the nervous system and the system of endocrine glands. The nature of the processes occurring in the central nervous system is largely determined by the state of endocrine regulation. So androgens and estrogens form the sexual instinct, many behavioral reactions. Obviously, neurons, just like other cells in our body, are under the control of the humoral regulatory system. The nervous system, evolutionarily later, has both control and subordinate connections with the endocrine system. These two regulatory systems complement each other, form a functionally unified mechanism, which ensures the high efficiency of neurohumoral regulation, puts it at the head of systems that coordinate all life processes in a multicellular organism. The regulation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body, which occurs according to the feedback principle, is very effective for maintaining homeostasis, but cannot fulfill all the tasks of adapting the body. For example, the adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones in response to hunger, illness, emotional arousal, and so on. So that the endocrine system can "respond" to light, sounds, smells, emotions, etc. there must be a connection between the endocrine glands and the nervous system.

1.1 Brief description of the system

The autonomic nervous system permeates our entire body like the thinnest web. It has two branches: excitation and inhibition. The sympathetic nervous system is the excitatory part, it puts us in a state of readiness to face challenge or danger. Nerve endings secrete neurotransmitters that stimulate the adrenal glands to release strong hormones - adrenaline and norepinephrine. They in turn increase the heart rate and respiratory rate, and act on the digestion process through the release of acid in the stomach. This creates a sucking sensation in the stomach. Parasympathetic nerve endings secrete other mediators that reduce the pulse and respiratory rate. Parasympathetic responses are relaxation and balance.

The endocrine system of the human body combines small in size and different in structure and functions of the endocrine glands that are part of the endocrine system. These are the pituitary gland with its independently functioning anterior and posterior lobes, the gonads, the thyroid and parathyroid glands, the adrenal cortex and medulla, the pancreatic islet cells, and the secretory cells that line the intestinal tract. Taken together, they weigh no more than 100 grams, and the amount of hormones they produce can be calculated in billionths of a gram. And, nevertheless, the sphere of influence of hormones is exceptionally large. They have a direct impact on the growth and development of the body, on all types of metabolism, on puberty. There are no direct anatomical connections between the endocrine glands, but there is an interdependence of the functions of one gland from others. The endocrine system of a healthy person can be compared to a well-played orchestra, in which each gland confidently and subtly leads its part. And the main supreme endocrine gland, the pituitary gland, acts as a conductor. The anterior pituitary gland secretes six tropic hormones into the blood: somatotropic, adrenocorticotropic, thyrotropic, prolactin, follicle-stimulating and luteinizing - they direct and regulate the activity of other endocrine glands.

1.2 Interaction of the endocrine and nervous system

The pituitary gland can receive signals about what is happening in the body, but it has no direct connection with the external environment. Meanwhile, in order for environmental factors not to constantly disrupt the vital activity of the organism, the body must be adapted to changing external conditions. The body learns about external influences through the sense organs, which transmit the received information to the central nervous system. Being the supreme gland of the endocrine system, the pituitary gland itself obeys the central nervous system and in particular the hypothalamus. This higher vegetative center constantly coordinates and regulates the activity of various parts of the brain and all internal organs. Heart rate, blood vessel tone, body temperature, the amount of water in the blood and tissues, the accumulation or consumption of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts - in a word, the existence of our body, the constancy of its internal environment is under the control of the hypothalamus. Most of the nervous and humoral pathways of regulation converge at the level of the hypothalamus, and due to this, a single neuroendocrine regulatory system is formed in the body. Axons of neurons located in the cerebral cortex and subcortical formations approach the cells of the hypothalamus. These axons secrete various neurotransmitters that have both an activating and inhibitory effect on the secretory activity of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus "turns" the nerve impulses coming from the brain into endocrine stimuli, which can be strengthened or weakened depending on the humoral signals coming to the hypothalamus from the glands and tissues subordinate to it.

The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland using both nerve connections and the blood vessel system. The blood that enters the anterior pituitary gland necessarily passes through the median eminence of the hypothalamus and is enriched there with hypothalamic neurohormones. Neurohormones are substances of a peptide nature, which are parts of protein molecules. To date, seven neurohormones, the so-called liberins (that is, liberators), have been discovered that stimulate the synthesis of tropic hormones in the pituitary gland. And three neurohormones - prolactostatin, melanostatin and somatostatin - on the contrary, inhibit their production. Other neurohormones include vasopressin and oxytocin. Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus during childbirth, the production of milk by the mammary glands. Vasopressin is actively involved in the regulation of the transport of water and salts through cell membranes; under its influence, the lumen of blood vessels decreases and, consequently, blood pressure rises. Due to the fact that this hormone has the ability to retain water in the body, it is often called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The main point of application of ADH is the renal tubules, where it stimulates the reabsorption of water from the primary urine into the blood. Neurohormones are produced by the nerve cells of the nuclei of the hypothalamus, and then transported along their own axons (nerve processes) to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and from here these hormones enter the bloodstream, having a complex effect on the body systems.

Tropins formed in the pituitary gland not only regulate the activity of subordinate glands, but also perform independent endocrine functions. For example, prolactin has a lactogenic effect, and also inhibits the processes of cell differentiation, increases the sensitivity of the sex glands to gonadotropins, and stimulates parental instinct. Corticotropin is not only a stimulator of sterdogenesis, but also an activator of lipolysis in adipose tissue, as well as an important participant in the process of converting short-term memory into long-term memory in the brain. Growth hormone can stimulate the activity of the immune system, the metabolism of lipids, sugars, etc. Also, some hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland can be formed not only in these tissues. For example, somatostatin (a hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the formation and secretion of growth hormone) is also found in the pancreas, where it inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Some substances act in both systems; they can be both hormones (i.e. products of the endocrine glands) and mediators (products of certain neurons). This dual role is played by norepinephrine, somatostatin, vasopressin, and oxytocin, as well as diffuse intestinal nervous system transmitters such as cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide.

However, one should not think that the hypothalamus and pituitary gland only give orders, lowering the "guiding" hormones along the chain. They themselves sensitively analyze the signals coming from the periphery, from the endocrine glands. The activity of the endocrine system is carried out on the basis of the universal principle of feedback. An excess of hormones of one or another endocrine gland inhibits the release of a specific pituitary hormone responsible for the work of this gland, and a deficiency induces the pituitary gland to increase the production of the corresponding triple hormone. The mechanism of interaction between the neurohormones of the hypothalamus, the triple hormones of the pituitary gland and the hormones of the peripheral endocrine glands in a healthy body has been worked out by a long evolutionary development and is very reliable. However, a failure in one link of this complex chain is enough for a violation of quantitative, and sometimes even qualitative, relationships in the whole system, resulting in various endocrine diseases.

CHAPTER 2. BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE THALAMUS

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