Types of social mobility: vertical, horizontal, individual. Great Oil and Gas Encyclopedia

Vertical social mobility is a change in a subject (personality, or group) of its social status, in which there is an increase in the level of income, education, prestige and power. More detailed about social mobility we talked to "Social Studies: EGE for 100 points" .

Examples of vertical social mobility

There were always people in society who were very quickly made a career, or became multimillioners. How did they manage it? Is it possible with an income of vertical social mobility?

Here you have a kind of hit-parade of such people.

Natalia Kasperskaya - 1966 birth, co-founder campaign Lab Kaspersky.

Natalia began his life path as all Soviet guys: with admission to the institute. She graduated from the Moscow Institute of Electronic Engineering in the specialty "Applied Mathematics". In 1993, became the seller of software. Then - the manager in the same company. Then he pressed on her husband - Evgenia Kaspersky - to open his company - Kaspersky Lab.

Became her co-founder. However, its share has not been prescribed in the authorized documents of the company. As a result, in 2011, she divorced her husband and left the post of Chairman of the Board of Directors of Kaspersky Lab. All his time Natalia devoted to his company InfoWatch. The company today is the leader in the corporate protection of information.

Well, for example, you do not like that your employees in working hours use their mail, and not corporate. Who knows, can they merge the information to the competitor? Here you will need InfoWatch services to ensure the information security of your company.

Thus, Natalia Kasperskayac.against vertical social mobility on all four parameters: income (state 230 million dollars), power (manages its company), prestige (recognized world-class expert in the field of information protection), education (senior specialist in mathematics, bachelor in business business ).

Pavel Durov - Founder of the Social Network "VKontakte"

Probably, each young programmer wants to change the world beyond recognition - to hack normal. Pavel Durov succeeded! By the way, read.

Paul was born on October 10, 1984 in Leningrad in the family of Dr. Philological Sciences. From 11 years he was fond of programming. That is, his father could afford to give his son a computer to use.

After school, Paul began to study at the philological faculty, at the same time studying at the Faculty of Faculty in the Faculty of Psychological War. At the same time he studied at the military department. During his studies, Paul several times became a scholarshot of the presidential and Potanan scholarships.

In the course of study, several projects created to facilitate the lives of students: a project on abstracts, etc. Once his friend came to internships in the United States and told Pasha about Facebook.

The idea was reworked for Russian realities and in 2006 in test mode was launched by the student.ru website, which was then renamed in VKontakte. In 2007, 2 million people went to a new social network. Immediately sprinkled proposals to buy Durov's project. But all the proposals were rejected. Only in 2008, Paul began to monetize the resource. Then there were already 20 million users.

Soon the personal condition of Pavel Durov was rated by Forbes magazine at 7.9 billion rubles (approx. $ 263 million). In 2012, pressure began with the authorities to the social network "VKontakte" because of the case of Navalny. As a result of its share of shares (12%), the founder of the social network sold to his friend, and Multimillioner himself Pavel Durov went to the United States. They say now returned and lives in Russia.

Although hardly. Now Paul is developing his new Telegram project, where you can communicate completely free messages, and files [Attention!], Up to 1 gigabyte. Moreover, messages are encrypted and, according to the statements of the Durov, no one can decipher them, even the developers themselves. By the way, in 2015 it became known that these services may enjoy the terrorists. For such attacks addressed to their project, Paul stated that terrorists so would find where to communicate.

Thus, Pavel Durov made stalking vertical social mobility immediately in all respects: income (increased billions of times), prestige (cult person in RuNet and not only), power (power on accounts 70 million users), education (SBSU finished with red Diploma, diploma from the university has not yet taken away).

Now there are many opinions on the network about whether Facebook has stolen the idea or not stolen. Personally, my position is such that, of course, similar elements in navigation are. But personally, I am mostly sitting in VKontakte. Facebook is complicated, incomprehensible, constant letters to my mailbox are killed me ("Hi, you have a new message", "Hi, we miss you without you," you have a new notice "). It infuriates me. And you?

Tatyana Bakalchuk - an example of vertical social mobility

Tatiana was a regular English teacher. In 2004, in connection with the birth of a child, she realized that there was simply not enough money for life. She came up with resell German clothing with extra charge. At first, they and her husband simply ordered clothes from German catalogs Otto and Quelle, and then resold with extra charge. At first it was familiar.

I am expressed by the Soviet language, Tatyana became a speculatte. But today, where not to blame - alone speculators. Therefore, we call Tatiana not speculatting, but quite the original Bisneswoomen. Then, obviously, she persuaded her husband to insert into the creation of his small online store of German clothing.

Today, its Wildberries store has a revenue of 7 billion rubles. The state of Tatiana is the Forbes magazine itself assesses about $ 330 million.

Thus, Tatyana Bakalchuk, in the nature and speed of social mobility, it was in short with Pavel Durov: it has a higher education (English teacher), it has extremely high capital of capital, has power over its own brand and online store of clothing, where millions are buying things Visitors, of course, has high prestige, as included in the logs of the magazineForbes..

Continuation should be ... ... so as not to miss the continuation!

Social inequality and social stratification due to them is not constant. As mentioned above, they fluctuate, the stratification profile is constantly changing. These processes are associated with the movements of individuals and groups in the social space - social mobilityunder which the transition of individuals or groups from one social position to another is understood.

One of the first social mobility researchers, which introduced this term to sociology was P. A. Sorokin. He devoted special work to social mobility: "Social stratification and mobility." It highlights two main types of social mobility - horizontal and vertical.

Under horizontal mobility It is understood by the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same social level (re-marriage, the change of place of work, etc.), while maintaining the former social status.

Vertical Social Mobility - This is the movement of an individual from one social level in another, with a change in social status. Vertical mobility can be both ascending, associated with an increase in status and descending, involving it down.

Vertical and horizontal mobility are interconnected: the more intense the movement "horizontal", even if there is an opportunity (ties, knowledge, experience, etc.) for the subsequent climb on the social staircase.

Mobility, both horizontal and vertical, maybe individual associated with a change in social status and position in the social space of a separate individual, and group, involving moving entire groups. All types of mobility can occur voluntarily, When an individual or purposefully changes its position in the social space, and forcibly When the movement and changes in status occur regardless of the will of people or even contrary to it. Usually, ascending individual voluntary mobility is associated with volitional efforts and active activities to improve social status. However, there is also a downward voluntary mobility, due to the personal decision of the individual to abandon the high status for the sake of those benefits that can give low status. An example of such mobility in modern society is downshifting - a conscious and voluntary decrease in professional and economic status to increase the amount of free time, which can be spent on hobbies, self-development, to raise children, etc.

According to the degree of availability of social mobility and the intensity of displacements of individuals vary open and closed societies. In open societies, mobility is available to most individuals and groups. By the intensity of vertical mobility, one can judge the democraticness of society - the intensity of vertical mobility is less in closed, non-democratic countries and vice versa. In real life, there are neither absolutely open nor absolutely closed societies - always and everywhere there are both a variety channels and lifts mobility and filters Restricting access to them. Social mobility channels usually coincide with the bases of stratification and are associated with a change in economic, political, professional status, prestige. Social elevators make it possible to quickly change social status - its increase or decrease. The main social elevators include such activities and related social institutions as entrepreneurial and political activities, education, church, military service. The level of social justice in modern societies is judged by the availability of mobility channels and social elevators.

Social filters (P. A. Sorokin used the concept of "social sieve") - these are institutions that restrict access to ascending vertical mobility in order for the highest levels of the social hierarchy to get the most worthy members of society. An example of a filter is an exam system designed to select to train the most prepared and professionally suitable individuals.

In addition, penetration into high-willed social groups is usually limited to various filters, and the higher the status of the group, the more difficult and more difficult to penetrate. It is not enough to comply with the level of the highest class of income and security to be its full-fledged member, it is necessary to conduct an appropriate lifestyle, to have an adequate cultural level, etc.

Ascending social mobility exists in any society. Even in societies with the predominance of the prescribed social status transmitted by inheritance and authorized by the tradition, for example, in the Indian Caste Society or the European Cosal, there were mobility channels, although access to them was very limited and difficult. In the Indian Custom System, which is rightly considered an example of the most closed society, researchers trace the channels of individual and collective vertical mobility. Individual vertical mobility was associated with the exit from the caste system at all, i.e. With the adoption of another religion, such as Sichism or Islam. And group vertical mobility was also possible within the framework of the caste system, and is associated with a very complex process of increasing the status of the entire caste through the theological substantiation of its higher religious charisma.

It should be remembered that in closed societies, restrictions on vertical mobility are manifested not only in difficulty raising the status, but also in the presence of institutions that reduce the risks of its decrease. These include community and clan solidarity and mutual assistance, as well as the relationship type of "cartridge - client", prescribing patronage by the subordination in exchange for their loyalty and support.

Social mobility tends to fluctuations. Its intensity varies from society to society, and in the framework of the same society, relatively dynamic and stable periods are noted. So, in the history of Russia, the periods of relief movements were the periods of the government of Ivan the Terrible, the reign of Peter I, the October Revolution. In these periods throughout the country, the old government tip is almost destroyed, and people from the lower social layers occupied the highest managerial positions.

The significant characteristics of the closedness (openness) of society are intracole mobility and inter-flow mobility. Intra-oxide mobility shows changes in social status (both raising and decrease), which occur within one generation. Inter-flow mobility demonstrates changes in the status of the subsequent generation relative to the previous ("children" regarding "fathers"). The view is common that in closed societies with strong traditions and the predominance of the prescribed status "Children" rather reproduce social positions, professions, lifestyle "fathers", and in open societies - choose their own life path, often conjugate with a change in social status. In some social systems, following the path of parents, the creation of a professional dynasty is considered as a morally approved image of action. So, in the Soviet society in the presence of real opportunities for social mobility, openness of access to such elevators, like education, political (party) career for immigrants from lower social groups, the creation of "workers' dynasties", which reproduced from generation to generation professional affiliation and providing Transfer of special skills of professional skills. However, it should be noted that in open society belonging to a high-quality family already creates prerequisites for reproducing this status in the following generations, and the low status of parents imposes certain restrictions on the possibilities of vertical mobility of children.

Social mobility is manifested in different forms and, as a rule, conjugate economic mobility those. fluctuations of the economic situation of the individual or group. Vertical socio-economic mobility is associated with increasing or falling welfare, and the main Channel is economic and entrepreneurial, professional activities. In addition, other forms of mobility can affect economic mobility, for example, the growth of power in the context of political mobility entails, as a rule, improving the economic situation.

Historical periods accompanied by an increase in socio-economic mobility in society coincide with intensive socio-economic changes, reforms, revolutions. Thus, in Russia began the XVIII century, during Peter I reforms, social mobility increased as a whole, the elite rotation occurred. For the Russian trade and economic class of reforms, reforms were associated with fundamental changes in the composition and structure that entailed the loss of economic status (downward mobility) of a significant part of the previous major entrepreneurs, and the rapid enrichment (vertical mobility) of others, which often came to major entrepreneurship from small crafts ( For example, Demidov) or from other areas of activity. In the era of revolutionary changes at the beginning of the XX century. There was a sharp downward mobility of almost the entire economic top of the Russian society, caused by violent actions of the revolutionary authorities - expropriations, the nationalization of industry and banks, mass confiscations of the property, land alienation, etc. At the same time they lost their economic positions and non-realistic, but related to professional elites and therefore possessing a relatively high material status, groups of the population - general, professors, technical and creative intelligentsia, etc.

From the above examples, it is obvious that economic mobility can be carried out as follows:

• individually When individual individuals change their economic situation regardless of the situation of a group or society as a whole. Here are the most important social "elevators" as the creation of economic organizations, i.e. Entrepreneurial activities, professional level increase and social mobility associated with the transition to a group with a higher material status. For example, in the period of post-Soviet reforms in the economy in Russia, the 90s. XX century The transition of officers or scientists in management meant improving welfare;
• in group form In connection with the growth of the material welfare of the Group as a whole. In Russia, the 1990s Many social groups, in the Soviet period, considered economically consistent - officers, scientific and technical intelligentsia, etc. lost their previous high salary and made sharp downward economic mobility without changes in social, professional, political status. A number of other groups, on the contrary, raised their material well-being without actual changes in other aspects of their status. This is, first of all, civil servants, lawyers, some categories of creative intelligentsia, managers, accountants, etc.

Both forms of economic mobility are intensified during periods of reforms and transformations, but are also possible in calm periods.

As we have noted, there are no absolutely closed societies, and the possibilities of vertical economic mobility are even in totalitarian societies, but they may be associated with the restrictions on economic stratification as a whole: it is possible to grow well-being in connection, for example, with obtaining a highly paid profession, but this growth is possible It will be small relative to other professional groups. The ban on entrepreneurial activity, of course, significantly limits both absolute, and the relative possibilities of vertical economic mobility in Soviet type societies. However, and downward mobility in the form of loss of sources of means of existence, housing, etc. It is limited here in connection with the availability of social guarantees and the general equalization policy. Democratic societies with advanced economic freedoms are the possibilities of enrichment through entrepreneurial activities, but they have a burden of risk and responsibility for the decisions made on the individual. Therefore, there is also a danger of downliving mobility associated with risks of economic fluctuations. It can be both individual losses and group downward mobility. For example, Defalt 1998 in Russia (as well as in the UK and a number of countries of Southeast Asia) has led not only to the ruin of individual entrepreneurs, but also a temporary decrease in the material level (descending mobility) of whole professional groups.

The overall concept of social mobility is associated with a change in the status of an individual or a certain social group, after which it changes the situation and place in the social structure, it appears other roles, the characteristics in stratification are changed. Social system is complex to its multi-levelness. Stratification describes a rank structure, patterns and features of existence in development, from here and the separation of this movement for social mobility.

Status

A person once received one or another status, he does not remain his carrier until the end of his life. A child, for example, grows to replace another set of statuses related to maturity. So society is constantly in motion, developing, changing the social structure, losing some people and acquiring others, but certain social roles are still played, because status positions remain filled. Any transition of an individual or an object created or modified by the human activity to another position to which social mobility channels led to this definition.

The main elements of the social structure - individuals are also in constant motion. To describe the displacement of the individual in the public structure, such a concept is used as the "Social Mobility of Society". This theory appeared in sociological science in 1927, the author became Pitirim Sorokin, who described the factors of social mobility. The process under consideration determines the constant redistribution within the borders of the social structure of individual individuals, respectively, the existing principles of social differentiation.

Social system

In a single social system, there are many subsystems that have a clearly fixed or traditionally fixed set of requirements imposed on all individuals seeking to gain one or another status. Experts always one who matches all these requirements to the greatest extent. Examples of social mobility can be found literally at every step. So, the university is a powerful social subsystem.

Students who are learning there must learn the curriculum, and during the session will be inspected, as far as the development has passed effectively. Naturally, those individuals who will not satisfy examiners at the minimum level of knowledge cannot continue their training. But those who are better than others have learned the material, they receive additional channels of social mobility, that is, the chances to effectively use education - in graduate school, in science, in employment. And the rule is always valid and everywhere: the fulfillment of the social role changes the situation in society for the better.

Types of social mobility. Modern state of affairs

Modern sociology subdivides types and types of social mobility, designed to mostly describe the entire range of social movements. First of all, you need to say about two types - vertical and horizontal mobility. If the transition from one social situation to another took place, but the level did not change - this is horizontal social mobility. This may be a change of confession or residence. Examples of social mobility horizontally the most numerous.

If, with the transition to another social position, the level of social stratification is changing, that is, social status becomes better or worse, then this movement refers to the second type. Vertical social mobility, in turn, is divided into two subtypes: ascending and descending. The stratification staircase of the social system, like any other staircase, implies movement both up and down.

Examples of social vertical mobility: up - improvement of status (next military title, receipt of the diploma, etc.), down - deterioration (loss of work, deduction from the university, etc.), that is, what implies an increase or decrease opportunities for further movement and social growth.

Individual and group

In addition, vertical social mobility can be group and individual. The latter occurs with the change of a separate member of the society of its social status, when the old status niche (stratum) is abandoned and a new state has been found. Here the level of education, social origin, mental and physical abilities play, place of residence, external data, specific deeds - a profitable marriage, for example, a criminal offense or a manifestation of heroism.

Group mobility most often happens when changing the stratification system of this society, when the social significance of even the largest social groups is changed. Such types of social mobility are authorized by the state or are a consequence of targeted policies. Here you can allocate mobility organized (and the consent of people does not matter - a set of construction units or volunteer, economic crisis, reducing the rights and freedoms in certain layers of society, resettlement of peoples or ethnic groups, etc.)

Structure

Structural mobility is also of great importance in determining the concept. The social system is subjected to structural changes, which is not so rare. Industrialization, for example, which is usually required to be cheap working force, which rebuilds the entire social structure to recruit this workforce.

Horizontal and vertical social activity can occur in group manner simultaneously when changing the political regime or state system, an economic collapse or takeoff, with any social revolution, with foreign occupation, invasion, with any military conflicts - and civil, and interstate.

Inside generation

Science Sociology allocates intracoltaic social mobility and inter-floor. It is best to consider on the examples. Intreneering, that is, intra-oxole social mobility involves moving the status distribution in a certain age group, in generation, tracks the overall dynamics of the distribution of this group inside the social system.

For example, monitoring about the possibilities of obtaining higher education, free medical care and many other topical social processes. Learning the most common features of the social movement in this generation, you can already with the share of objectivity to assess the social development of the individual from this age group. The whole way of a person in social development can be called a social career.

Inter-flow mobility

An analysis of the changes of social status and in weaving groups, which makes it possible to see the patterns of long-term processes in society, establish the characteristic factors of social mobility in the implementation of social careers, considering various social groups and community.

For example, which layers of the population are subject to more upward social mobility, and some descending, you can learn through broad monitoring, which will answer such questions and thus will reveal ways to stimulate specific social groups. Many other factors are also defined: the features of this social environment, there is or not the desire for social growth, etc.

Game according to the rules

In a stable social structure, the movement of individuals is planned and according to the rules. In unstable, when the social system is loosened, is unorganized, spontaneously, chaotic. In any case, to change the status, the individual must enlist the support of the social environment.

If the applicant wants to enter MSU, MGIMO or MEPI, to acquire student status, in addition to the desire to have a whole complex of certain personal qualities and comply with the requirements for all students of educational institutions. That is, the applicant must confirm its compliance, such as introductory tests or financial independence. In case of conformity, it will receive the desired status.

Social institutions

Modern society - the structure is complex and very institutionalized. Most of social movements are associated with certain social institutions, many statuses outside the framework of specific institutions do not matter at all. For example, in separation from education, there are no statuses of the teacher and student, and outside the Institute of Health does not happen to the patient and physicians. So, it is social institutions that create a social space, where the most part of the change of statuses occurs. These spaces (social mobility channels) are structures, methods, mechanisms used for status movement.

The main driving force is state authorities, political parties, economic structures, public organizations, church, army, professional and labor unions and organizations, family and clan connections, education system. In turn, for this period of time, the social structure feels a significant impact on the part of the limited crime, which has its own mobile system affecting the official institutions with, for example, corruption.

Aggregate of influence

Channels of social mobility - a holistic system that complements that stabilizing all components of the social structure, in which institutional and legal procedures for the movement of each individual are an elementary social selection, where not only a long and dense acquaintance with certain rules and traditions is occurring, but also a confirmation of the individual its loyalty, receiving the approval of the dominant persons.

Here you can talk a lot about the formal need for conformity and subjectivity of the evaluation of all the efforts of the individual by those from whom the social movement of the status of the individual directly depends.

Start developing problems social mobility P. A. Sorokin was found in the book "Social stratification and mobility" (1927). The term received recognition first in American, and then in world sociology.

Under social mobility, understand the transition of an individual (group) from one social position to another. Allocate two main types of social mobility.

• 1. Horizontal mobility It is related to the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level. At the same time, the minor and remain in the same form of the main indicators of the status position of the individual (prestige, income, education, power). This is the nature of moving to a residence permit from one settlement on another of the same rank, the change of religion or citizenship, the transition from one family to another (with a divorce or repeated marriage), from one enterprise to another, etc. In all these cases, there are no noticeable changes in the social position of the individual in the vertical direction.
• 2. Vertical mobility It assumes such a situation that develops as a result of the displacement of the individual (group) from one level of the social hierarchy to another. Vertical mobility can be ascending and descending.

Depending on the factors that caused social movements of citizens, allocate organized and structural mobility.

Organized mobility It is related to the fact that changes in the social position of man and whole groups of people are sent by the state and various public institutions (parties, church, trade unions, etc.). Such activities may be:

voluntary In the case when it is carried out with the consent of citizens (for example, the practice of referral to the highest and secondary special educational institutions);

forced If under the influence of any circumstances independent of us (moving from places where there is no work, where it is in stock; movement from the places where a natural disaster occurred, a technogenic catastrophe);

forced If this is due to the direction of citizens by the court decision in place of imprisonment.

Structural mobility It is determined by the changes caused by social transformations (nationalization, industrialization, privatization, etc.) and even the change of the types of social organization (revolution). The result of this kind of change turns out:

• a) mass movement of people and entire social groups;
• b) a change in the principles of social stratification;
• c) reorientation of the directions for which the social movement of people takes place for a long historical period.

Bright examples illustrating the nature of this kind of processes are the French revolution of 1789 and October 1917 in Russia. Their result was not only the seizure of power with certain political forces, but also a change in the type of social device, the entire social structure of society.

The ratio of horizontal and vertical mobility can be quite complicated. For example, when moving to a residence permit from the village to the city, from a small town in a large, from the province to the capital, an individual raises its social status, but at the same time for some other parameters it can lower it: a smaller level of income, unpleasution with housing , unclaimed former profession and qualifications, etc.

In the event that territorial movements are combined with the change of status, we are talking about migration (from lat. Migratio - movement). Migration can be exterior (between different countries) and internal (between the regions of one country). There are also distinguished emigration. Departure of citizens beyond the country and immigration. The entry of foreigners into the country. Both species suggest the movement of citizens for a long time or even tremble. There are different migration forms: Economic, political, migration of war victims and natural disasters, etc.

Mass migrations also took place in the past (the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia, the crusades, the colonization of the new light, etc.). However, only at the end of the XIX century, when migration flows have become sustained, the main directions of movements were revealed. In addition, the following was established:

• 1. Migration is carried out from the south to the north and from east to west.
• 2. Millions of migrants seek to leave the countries and territories entered the sphere of hostilities, ethnic and religious conflicts, natural disasters (droughts, floods, earthquakes, etc.).
• 3. Western countries with sustainable economies and developed democracy (North America, Western Europe, Australia) are finite destinations of migration.

Russia in the XX century survived three emigration waves.

At the same time, Russia itself became a place where, according to various sources, they live from 5 to 15 million illegal immigrants, of which more than one and a half million are citizens of the PRC.

Social mobility processes (mobility) are present in any society. Another thing is that its scales and distance may be different. Both ascending and descending mobility is equally close and long.

The more openly a specific society, the greater the number of people gaining the opportunity to move along the social staircase, which, in particular, the upward movement up to the highest positions. One of the important moments of American social mythology is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe so-called societies of equal opportunities Where everyone can become a millionaire or US president. An example of Bill Gates, the Creator and the head of the company "Microsoft", indicates that this myth has a real soil.

The closeness of the traditional society (caste, class) limits the prospects of people, bringing long mobility to almost zero. Social mobility serves here the reproduction objectives of the dominant stratification model. Thus, in India, the movement is traditionally limited to the limits of the caste, to which the individual belongs, and the mobility has rigidly specified parameters (an ideological moment is added in the totalitarian society).

Most of the models of the public device of the past and the present equally demonstrate the characteristics of openness and closedness. For example, the textual division of Russian society in the XVIII - early 20th century was combined with the signed Peter I law on the procedure for the public service (1722), more known as the "Tabel about ranks". They were legalized by the opportunity to gain a person with a higher status according to personal merit. Thanks to this law, the Russian state received hundreds and thousands of gifted administrators, government leaders, commander, etc.

In addition to the ascending and downward mobility, inter-floor and intra-oxide mobility is distinguished.

Inter-flow mobility Indicates the ratio of the positions achieved by children, with the positions occupied by their parents. Comparing the indicators that characterize the social position of different generations (fathers and sons, mothers and daughters), sociology gets an idea of \u200b\u200bthe nature and orientation of changes in society.

Intracole mobility It characterizes the ratio of positions occupied by the same individual at various moments of his life, during which it can repeatedly acquire either lose certain statuses, occupying in some more privileged position, in others - losing it, make rise or descents.

Social mobility factors. Vertical mobility in society is possible due to the presence of special social mobility channels. P. A. Sorokin, who first described their action, speaks about them, like "some" membranes "," holes "," stairs "," elevators "or" paths ", according to which individuals moved up or down from one layer in other". All of these formulations were rooted in sociological literature and are used in explaining that thanks to which factors some individuals and whole groups rise up, and others at the same time are lowered down.

Mobility channels traditionally include the institutions of education, property, marriage, army, etc. So, education gives an individual knowledge and qualifications, allowing you to qualify for professional activities or to occupy the relevant position. A profitable investment in the purchase of a land plot may eventually lead to a significant increase in its value or the discovery of any valuable natural resource (oil, gas, etc.), which will give its owner's status.

According to P. A. Sorokin, mobility channels also appear as "sieve", "filters", through which society "tests and sieves, selects and distributes its individuals on various social strata and positions." With their help ensures the process social selection (selection), in different ways restricting access to the top floors of hierarchy. The latter is associated with the interests of those who have already achieved a privileged position, i.e. top class. Western sociologists argue that "the existing classification systems do not determine this group at all." Meanwhile, it exists and has its own features:

• 1) Inheritance wealth, transmitted and multiplicated from generation to generation. This sign unites the owners of the "old" money, whose legitimacy does not cause any doubts. The basis of capital, as a rule, is a family business;
• 2) Similar educational experience and level of culture. Thus, in the UK, 73% of the directors of large companies, 83% of the heads of financial institutions and 80% of judges visited privileged schools, although only 8.2% of British schoolchildren learn in them;
• 3) maintaining personal contacts established since the time of study, which apply to the scope of business relations, business and policies, civil service;
• 4) high percentage of marriages inside the class what is called homogamia (from Greek. Homos is equal and Gamos - marriage), as a result of which the internal cohesion of the group is enhanced.

These features characterize the constant component of this group, called eastball (English, Establishment is the ruling elite). At the same time, there is a layer of people who penetrated the highest class, making their own careers. Of course, the highest class needs feeding with fresh forces, those who are able to rise by social staircase due to their own efforts. The idea of \u200b\u200bupdating and replenishing the highest class most capable of confirmed by their merit people found a justification in the writings of the Italian sociologist Wilfredo Pareto (1848-1923). His approach called meritocratic (From Lat. Meritus - worthy and Greek. Kratos - power) is that if the elite of society does not cooperate in its composition of the most worthy representatives of the lowest classes, it will inevitably fail. In modern interpretations, such as the American scientist, Daniel Bella, to the highest class also include groups of professionals with higher education using their special knowledge as a means of approving their own authority.

In sociology, when describing the forms of the social hierarchy, it is often resorted to geometrical images. So, P. A. Sorokin The model of stratification of the Company, created by economic parameters, presented in the form of a cone, each of the levels of which records a certain position of wealth and income. In his opinion, in different periods, the form of the cone can change, then overly sharpening when social bundles and inequality in society increases, then, on the contrary, becoming more squat, up to the conversion of a flat trapetion under equalizing and communist experiments. And the first, and the second is dangerous, threatening the social explosion and collapse in one case and the full stagnation of society in the other.

The representative of American functionalism B. Barber believes that depending on a greater or lesser extent of the hierarchy in society, i.e. More or less cool pointedness to the top, the stratification of society can be depicted as a pyramid and rhombus. These figures show that there is always a minority in society, i.e. The highest class, with ranks closer to the top. In the pyramid structure, the middle class layer is very small, and most are the lowest class. In the diamond structure, the predominance of the middle class, which gives the balance of the entire system, while the minority is presented in the upper and lower acute corners of the rhombus.

TO middle classusually belong to those who have economic independence, i.e. has its own business (small enterprise, workshop, gas station, etc.); they are most often characterized as old middle class. The top layer of the middle class is distinguished, which make up managers and professionals (doctors, college teachers, highly qualified lawyers, etc.), as well as the bottom layer (office and trading employees, nurses and many others). In terms of its position, the middle class is extremely heterogeneous. Located in the hierarchy system between the "tops" and social "nizami", it turns out to be the most mobile. In modern society, the middle class, on the one hand, feeds the talented and enterprising people of the elite, and on the other, it ensures the stability of basic social structures.

Low class, on Marxist terminology, - working class, consisting of people engaged in physical labor. It is as deeply structured, as well as all other components of the social hierarchy.

The difference between highly qualified workers and representatives of the so-called andersklassa (English Underclass - the lowest class) is very large in all major indicators (income, vocational training, education, etc.). Representatives of the latter have bad working conditions, their living standards are significantly lower than most people. Many of them remain without work for a long time, either periodically lose it. The formation of andersclass is carried out mainly due to ethnic minorities and various types of marginal elements. For example, in the UK, among them the black and color population from the former British colonies prevailing, in France - immigrants from North Africa, and in Germany - Turks and Kurds.

In recent years, Western governments have been striving to more actively filter migration flows, fixing in these countries and potentially multiplying the number of Andersclass. So, in Canada, legislative requirements for immigrants suggest their vocational education, qualifications and experience in the specialty. Satisfaction with the specified requirements in practice means that immigrants will be able to more successfully fit into the existing system of stratification of society.

Introductory comments

People are in constant movement, and society - in development. A combination of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes of their status called social mobility.This topic was interested in humanity for a long time. The unexpected elevation of a person or his sudden fall is a favorite plot of folk fairy tales: a cunning beggar is suddenly becoming a rich, the poor prince is king, and the hardworking Cinderella is married to the Prince, thereby increasing his status and prestige.

However, the history of mankind is not so much of individual destinies, how many of the movement of large social groups. A financial bourgeoisie comes to replace the land aristocracy, the unqualified professions are displaced from the modern production by representatives of the so-called white timber-engineers, programmers, operators of robotic complexes. Wars and revolutions rebailed the social structure of society, raising the pyramid on the top of some and lowering others. Similar changes occurred in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917, they occur today, when a business elite comes to replace the party elite.

There is a well-known asymmetry,everyone wants to rise and no one wants to descend on the social staircase. Usually, climbing -phenomenon voluntarybut descent is forced.

Studies show that higher status holders prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but the owners of low want the same for themselves and their children. So it turns out in human society: everyone strives to top and nobody - down.

In this chapter we will look at essence, causes, typology, mechanisms, social mobility channels,as well as factorsaffecting it.

Classification of mobility.

Exist two main typessocial mobility - inter-floorand intracoleneand two mainstype - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, disintegrate on subspeciesand subtypes "whichclosely connected with each other.

Inter-flow mobilityit assumes that children achieve a higher social position or fall at a lower step than their parents. Example: Shakhtar's Son becomes an engineer.

Internal mobilitythere is a place where the same individual, out of comparison with his father, throughout life changes social positions several times. Otherwise, it is called social career.Example: Turner becomes an engineer, and then the head of the workshop, director of the plant, Minister of Engineering Branch.

The first type of mobility refers to long-termand second - for short-termprocesses. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second - moving from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental.

Vertical mobilityit implies moving from one stratch (class, class, caste) to another.

Depending on the direction of movement exist ascending mobility(social rise, movement up) and downward mobility(Social descent, movement down).

Increased in position - an example of ascending mobility, dismissal, degradation - an example of descending.

Horizontal mobilityit implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level.

An example is the movement from the Orthodox to the Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (its own, newly educated), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in the social position in the vertical direction.

A variety of horizontal mobility serves geographic mobility.It implies not a change in status or group, but moving from one place to another while maintaining the previous status.

An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from the city to the village and back, transition from one enterprise to another.

If the change of status is added to the place of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

If a rustic resident came to the city to visit relatives, then these are geographical mobility. If he moved to the city at a permanent place of residence and found a job here, then this is already migration. He changed his profession.

You can pave the classification of social mobility for other criteria. So, for example, distinguish:

Individual mobility,when moving down, up or horizontally occurs in each person, regardless of others, and

Group mobility,when the movement occurs collectively, for example, after the social revolution, the old class is inferior to the dominant positions with a new class.

Individual mobility and group mobility are certainly associated with attributed and achievable statuses. What do you think individual mobility is more consistent with the attributed or achieved status? (Try to first figure it out on your own, and then read the chapter until the end.)

These are the main types, types and forms (between these terms there are no significant differences) social mobility. Besides them sometimes allocate organized mobility,when moving a person or whole groups up, down or horizontally controlled by the state but) With the consent of the people themselves, b) without their consent. To voluntaryorganized mobility should be attributed to the so-called socialist Oriforbor,public appeals for Komsomol construction sites, etc. TO invalidorganized mobility can be attributed repatriation(relocation) of small nations and spickingin the years of Stalinism.

From organized mobility it is necessary to distinguish structural mobility.It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs in addition to the will and consciousness of individual individuals. Say, disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads tomovements of large masses of people. In the 50s - 70s in the USSRsmall villages have been cut and their consolidation.

The main and unwitting types (types, forms) mobility differ so.

Main typescharacterize all or most societies in any historical era. Of course, the intensity or volume of mobility is not the same everywhere.

Uncooked speciesmobility is inherent in one types of society and not inherent in others. (Look for specific examples in the proof of this thesis.)

The main and non-unmarked types (types, forms) of mobility exist in the three main spheres of society - economic, political, professional. Mobility practically does not occur (with rare exceptions) in the demographic sphere and is quite limited in the religious sphere. Indeed, it is impossible to migrate from a man in a woman, and the transition from children's age to youth does not apply to mobility. Voluntary and violent change in religion in human history repeatedly happened. It is enough to remember the baptism of Russia, the appeal to the Christian faith of the Indians after the opening of the Columbus of America. However, such events occur irregularly. They are of interest rather for historians than for sociologists.

We now turn to specific species and types of mobility.

Group Mobility

It happens there and then, where and when the social significance of the whole class, class, caste, rank, categories increase or decreases. The October Revolution led to the elevation of Bolsheviks, before those who did not have a recognized high position. The brahmanas became the highest caste as a result of a long and stubborn struggle, and before they were on a par with kshatriyami. In ancient Greece, after the adoption of the Constitution, most people were liberated from slavery and rose on the social staircase, and many of their former owners sank.

Transfer of power from hereditary aristocracy to plutocracy (aristocracy on the principles of wealth) had the same consequences. In 212 G.N.E. Almost all the population of the Roman Empire received the status of Roman citizenship. Due to this, the huge masses of people previously considered unsolved, raised social status. The invasion of the barbarians (Gunnov and is ready) violated the social stratification of the Roman Empire: one after the other disappeared the old aristocratic childbirth, and they came to replace new ones. Strangers founded new dynasties and know a new one.

As shown in a huge historical material P.Sorokin, the following factors served as the causes of group mobility:

Social revolutions;

Foreign intervention, invasion;

Interstate Wars;

Civil wars;

Military coup;

Change of political regimes;

Replacing the old constitution of the new;

Peasant uprisings;

Internecine struggle of aristocratic labor;

Creating an empire.

Group mobility takes place where there is a change in the stratification system itself.

3.4. Individual mobility:

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

Social mobility in the United States and the former USSR has both similar and distinctive features. The similarity is explained by the fact that both countries are industrially developed powers, and differences are explained by the originality of the political regime of the Board. Thus, the studies of the American and Soviet sociologists, covering about the same period (70s), but carried out independently of each other, gave the same figures: up to 40% of employees and in the United States, and in Russia occur from workers ; both in the United States, and in Russia, more than two thirds of the population are involved in social mobility.

Another pattern is confirmed: on social mobility in both countries, the profession and education of the father has the greatest influence, and their own achievements of the Son in training. The higher education, the greater the chance to advance up the social staircase.

Both in the United States, and in Russia another curious fact was found: a well-educated son of the worker has the same chance to advance how much poorly educated out suits from middle classes, in particular employees. Although parents can help.

The nature of the United States lies in a large stream of immigrants. Unqualified workers - immigrants arriving in the country from all parts of the world, occupy the lower steps of the social staircase, ousting or stating with the promotion of the native Americans. The same effect has migration from the village, not only in the United States, but also in Russia.

In both countries, ascending mobility is still on average by 20% higher than the descending order. But both types of vertical mobility in their own way inferior horizontal mobility. This means the following: in two countries there is a high level of mobility (up to 70 - 80% of the population), but by 70% this is horizontal mobility - moving within the boundaries of the same class and even the layer (strata).

Even in the United States, where, according to the reference, each tanger can become a millionaire, retains the power made back in 1927. P.Sorokin conclusion: Most people start their work career on the same with their parents social level and only very few people succeed. In other words, the average citizen for life moves to one step up or down, rarely who can step up at once into several steps.

So, rose from workers to the upper - middle class 10% of Americans, 7% of the Japanese and Dutch, 9% of the British, 2% of the French, Germans and Danes, 1% of Italians. Individual mobility factors, i.e. The reasons allowing one person to achieve great success than another, sociologists in both countries include:

social status of the family;

level of education;

nationality;

physical and mental abilities, external data;

obtaining education;

place of residence;

favorable marriage.

Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class, and finish in the other. They literally burst between unrestricted cultures and lifestyles. They do not know how to behave, dress, talk from the point of view of the standards of another class. Often, adaptation to new conditions remains very superficial. A typical example is the Moliere Tradman in the nobility. (Remember other literary characters that would illustrate the surface assimilation of the behavior manner when moving from one class, a layer in another.)

In all industrialized countries, women advance up more difficult than men. Often they increase their social status only thanks to the extensive marriage. Therefore, having arranged to work, the women of this orientation choose those professions where most likely to find a "suitable man." What do you think it is for professions or jobs? Give examples from life or literature when marriage performed in the role of "social elevator" for women of non-annual origin.

During the Soviet period, our society was the most mobile society in the world along with America. Free education available to all layers discovered before each opportunity to promote the same opportunities that existed only in the United States. Nowhere in the world of Elite of the Company in a short time has not been formed literally from all sectors of society. At the end of this period, mobility slowed down, but in the 90s he increased again.

The most dynamic Soviet society was not only in terms of education and social mobility, but also in the field of industrial development. For many years, the USSR held the first places in terms of industrial progress. All these are signs of modern industrial society, which put forward the USSR, as Western sociologists wrote about, among the leading countries of the world in terms of social mobility.

Structural mobility

New vacancies in vertical mobility opens industrialization. The development of industry three centuries ago demanded the transformation of the peasantry in the proletariat. At the late stage of industrialization, the working class became the most numerous part of the employed population. The main factor in vertical mobility was the education system.

Industrialization is associated not only with interclasses, but also with intracelates. At the stage of conveyor or mass production at the beginning of the twentieth century, low and unqualified workers remained the predominant group. Mechanization, and then automation required the expansion of rows of qualified and highly skilled workers. In the 50s in developed countries, 40% of workers were small or unqualified. In 1966, there were 20% of such.

As the unqualified work was reduced, the needs of employees, managers, businessmen grew up. The sphere of industrial and agricultural labor was narrowed, and the service of service and management expanded.

In the industrial society, the structure of the national economy determines mobility. In other words, professional

mobility in the United States, England, Russia or Japan does not depend on the individual characteristics of people, but from the structural features of the economy, the relations of industries and the shifts occurring here. The number of US agreed in agriculture decreased from 1900 to 1980 10 times. Small farmers turned into a respectable class of small bourgeois, and agricultural workers replenished the ranks of the working class. The stratum of professionals and managers for that period doubled. The number of trade workers and clerks increased 4 times.

Similar transformations are characteristic of modern societies: from the farm to the factory in the early stages of industrialization and from the factory to the office - in the later. Today in developed countries, over 50% of the workforce is occupied by mental labor in comparison with 10 - 15% at the beginning of the century.

During this century, vacancies of work specialties decreased in industrial countries and expanded in the field of management. But managerial vacancies were filled with representatives of non-workers, but the middle class. Nevertheless, the number of managerial professions increased faster than the number of children in the middle class, capable of filling them. The vacuum formed in the 50s partially filled out working young people. This was made possible by accessibility for ordinary Americans of higher education.

In developed capitalist countries, industrialization ended earlier than in former socialist (USSR, GDR,Hungary, Bulgaria, etc.). The backlog could not but affect the nature of social mobility: in capitalist countries, the share of managers and intelligentsia - immigrants from workers and peasants - is one third, and in the former socialist countries - three quarters. In countries such as England, the long-lasting stage of industrialization, the share of workers of peasant origin is very low, here are more than so-called hereditary workers. On the contrary, in Eastern European countries, this share is very high and reaches sometimes 50%.

It is thanks to structural mobility that two opposite poles of the professional pyramid turned out to be the least movable. In the former socialist countries, two layers were the same closed - a layer of senior managers and a layer of utility workers located at the bottom of the pyramid - layers filling the most prestigious and most prestigious sphere of activity. (Try to answer the question "Why?")