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Topic 11 European countries and the USA in the second half of the twentieth century
11.1 World after World War II
At the international level, the ideals of the post-war world were declared in the documents of the Soviet Union, established in 1945. United Nations. Its founding conference was held in San Francisco from April 25 to June 26, 1945. October 24, 1945 is considered the official date of the UN's formation, when its Charter was ratified. The preamble (introductory part) of the UN Charter says: "We, the peoples of the United Nations, determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war"
From November 1945 to October 1946, the International Military Tribunal for German war criminals sat in the city of Nuremberg. The main defendants appeared before him, including G. Goering, I. Ribbentrop, V. Keitel and others. The memory of the deaths of millions of people during the war caused a desire to establish and protect human rights and freedoms as a special value. In December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
However, the implementation of the intended goals was not an easy task. The real events of the subsequent decades did not always develop in accordance with the predetermined ideals.
The liberation struggle of the peoples of Europe and Asia against the occupiers and their accomplices during the war years was not limited to the task of restoring the pre-war order. In the countries of Eastern Europe and a number of Asian countries, in the course of liberation, the governments of the National (Popular) Front came to power. At that time, they most often represented coalitions of anti-fascist, anti-militarist parties and organizations. Communists and social democrats already played an active role in them.
By the end of the 1940s, in most of these countries, the Communists were able to concentrate all power in their hands. In some cases, for example, in Yugoslavia, Romania, one-party systems were established, in others - in Poland, Czechoslovakia and other countries - the existence of other parties was allowed. Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, led by the Soviet Union, formed a special bloc. They were joined by several Asian states: Mongolia, North Vietnam, North Korea, China, and in the 1960s - Cuba. This community was first called "socialist camp", then - "socialist system" and, finally, "socialist commonwealth". The post-war world was divided into "Western" and "Eastern" blocs, or, as they were then called in Soviet socio-political literature, "capitalist" and "socialist" systems. It was bipolar(having two poles, personified by the USA and the USSR) peace. How did relations develop between the states of the West and the East?
11.2 Economic development
Before all the states participating in the war, the tasks of demobilizing multimillion-strong armies, employing the demobilized, transferring industry to peacetime production, and restoring military destruction were acutely faced. The economies of the defeated countries, especially Germany and Japan, suffered the most. In most European countries, the card distribution system was maintained, and there was an acute shortage of food, housing, and industrial goods. Only in 1949 did the industrial and agricultural production of capitalist Europe restore its pre-war level.
Gradually, two approaches emerged. In France, England, Austria, a model of state regulation has developed, which implies direct state intervention in the economy. A number of industries and banks were nationalized here. So, in 1945, the Laborites carried out the nationalization of the English bank, a little later - the coal mining industry. The gas and electric power industries, transport, railways, and part of the airlines were also transferred to state ownership. A large public sector was formed as a result of nationalization in France. It included coal industry enterprises, Renault plants, five major banks, and major insurance companies. In 1947 was adopted overall plan modernization and reconstruction of industry, which laid the foundation for state planning for the development of the main sectors of the economy.
The problem of reconversion in the USA was solved differently. There, private property relations were much stronger, and therefore the emphasis was only on indirect methods of regulation through taxes and credit. Priority attention in the United States and Western Europe began to be given to labor relations, the basis of the entire social life of society. However, this problem was viewed differently everywhere. In the United States, the Taft-Hartley Act was passed, which introduced strict state control over the activities of trade unions. In resolving other issues, the state followed the path of expanding and strengthening the social infrastructure. The key in this regard was the “fair course” program of G. Truman, put forward in 1948, which provided for an increase in the minimum wage, the introduction of health insurance, the construction of cheap housing for low-income families, etc. Similar measures were carried out by the Labor government of C. Attlee in England, where since 1948 a system of free medical care has been introduced. Progress in the social sphere was also evident in other Western European countries. In most of them, the trade unions, which were then on the rise, were actively involved in the struggle to solve basic social problems. The result was an unprecedented increase in government spending on social insurance, science, education and training.
The United States was far ahead of all other capitalist countries in terms of the rate of development and volume of industrial output. In 1948, the volume of American industrial production was 78% higher than the pre-war level. The United States then produced more than 55% of the industrial output of the entire capitalist world and concentrated almost 75% of the world's gold reserves in its hands. The products of American industry penetrated into markets where the goods of Germany, Japan or the US allies England and France had previously dominated.
The United States was secured by a new system of international monetary and financial relations. In 1944, at the UN Conference on Monetary and financial matters in the city of Bretton Woods (USA), it was decided to create the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which became intergovernmental institutions that regulate monetary and credit relations between their capitalist states. The participants of the conference agreed to establish a fixed gold content of the dollar, on which the rates of other currencies were guided. The US-dominated International Bank for Reconstruction and Development provided IMF members with loans and credits to develop the economy and maintain balance of payments equilibrium.
An important measure to stabilize the economic life of post-war Europe was the "Marshall Plan" (named after the US Secretary of State) - US assistance to Western countries for economic recovery. For 1948–1952 this aid amounted to $13 billion. By the beginning of the 1950s. country Western Europe and Japan largely overcame the effects of the war. Their economic development accelerated. A rapid economic recovery began. They restored their economy and began to overtake rivals Germany and Japan. The rapid pace of their development began to be called an economic miracle.
Central and South Eastern Europe(Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania), which in the post-war period became known simply as Eastern Europe, went through dramatic trials. The liberation of Europe from fascism opened the way to the establishment of a democratic system and anti-fascist reforms. A greater or lesser degree of copying the experience of the USSR was typical for all countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Although Yugoslavia chose a slightly different variant of socio-economic policy, in its main parameters it represented a variant of totalitarian socialism, but with a greater orientation towards the West.
11.3. The theory of the "welfare state": the essence, causes of the crisis
The concept of the "welfare state" flourished most in the late 1950s and early 1960s. According to this concept, in the Western countries such regulation of economic development was carried out, which led to the stabilization of social relations. As a result, a new society emerged in the Western countries, the features of which were the achievement of a high standard of living, determined by mass consumption and social security. In this society, much attention began to be paid to the development of education, health care, in general social sphere.
The theory of regulation of market relations was developed by the English economist D. M. Keynes back in the 1930s. (the theory of "effective demand"). But it wasn't until after World War II that Western and North American governments were able to apply Keynesian theory. The expansion of aggregate demand has created a mass consumer of durable goods. It was thanks to the structural changes in the “production-consumption” system that occurred in the 1950s-1960s that an opportunity was created for a relatively long period of economic recovery and high growth rates, reducing unemployment to the level of full employment in Western countries. The symbol of this economic recovery was the car, which became available for personal use of millions of Westerners. Refrigerators, televisions, radios, washing machines, and so on became widely available. From a long-term perspective, the market for durable goods was approaching the mid-1970s. to the edge of saturation.
Profound changes have taken place and in the agricultural sector countries of Western Europe. The powerful development of biotechnology and agricultural engineering made it possible to complete the mechanization and chemicalization of agriculture in the post-war decade. As a result, by the mid-1960s. Western Europe not only became fully self-sufficient in food, but also became a major food exporter. The intensification of agricultural production led to a reduction in employment. The service sector, which also includes education, health care and the social security system, has become an important area for absorbing the vacant labor force.
The peak of social reform in Western countries came in the 1960s. The major social transformations carried out at that time, although they significantly changed the face of Western society, at the same time marked the limits of the possibilities of liberal etatism. The rapid development of the scientific and technological revolution, which also occurred in the 1960s, inspired hope for a sustainable further economic growth. Scientific and technological revolution contributed to the growth of needs, led to a constant renewal of the range of products, which left an imprint on the entire sphere of production, dictated its own conditions. All these factors affected not only material production, but also the culture of society. 1960s were marked by a stormy surge of "mass culture", which influenced the whole style of life. Funds for ensuring stable economic growth were obtained mainly from taxes, government loans and money emission. This led to the formation of a budget deficit, but at that time they did not see any particular danger in it. Scarce public funding for numerous social programs was supposed to expand demand, which increased business activity and, as politicians and economists believed, guaranteed social stability. But there were flaws in these theoretical constructions. Deficit funding was inevitably accompanied by an increase in inflation. These negative moments began to affect later, in the 1970s, when a massive criticism of Keynesianism began. By the end of the 1960s. it became clear that economic growth in itself does not save society from shocks. By the turn of the 1960-1970s. it became obvious that the implementation of social reforms does not guarantee sustainable social progress. It turned out that they have a lot of vulnerabilities, and this in the 1970s. used by conservatives.
11.4. Economic crisis of 1974–1975 and its impact on development Western civilization
Among the post-war economic upheavals, a special place belongs to the crisis of 1974-75. It covered almost all developed countries of the West and Japan. The crisis led to the stagnation of the traditional sectors of the economy of these countries, to disruptions in the credit and financial sphere, and to a sharp drop in growth rates. The use of anti-crisis measures based on neo-Keynesian recipes, which included an increase in government spending, tax cuts, and cheaper loans, only increased inflation. The use of reverse measures (cutting government spending, tightening tax and credit policies) led to a deepening recession and rising unemployment. The peculiarity of the situation was that neither one nor the other system of anti-crisis measures led to overcoming the economic shock.
The new conditions required fresh conceptual solutions concerning the development of methods adequate to the needs of the day for regulating socio-economic processes. The former Keynesian method of solving these problems has ceased to suit the ruling elite of the leading Western countries. Criticism of Keynesianism in the mid-1970s became frontal. Gradually, a new conservative concept of economic regulation took shape, the most prominent representatives of which on political level became Margaret Thatcher, who headed the British government in 1979, and Ronald Reagan, who was elected in 1980 to the post of US president. In the field of economic policy, the neoconservatives were inspired by the ideologists of the free market (M. Friedman) and supporters of the "supply theory" (A. Laffer). The most important difference between the new political economy recipes and Keynesianism was a different direction of government spending. The bet was made on reducing government spending on social policy. Tax cuts were also carried out in order to intensify the inflow of investments into production. If neo-Keysianism proceeded from the stimulation of demand as a prerequisite for the growth of production, then the neoconservatives, on the contrary, headed for stimulating the factors that ensure the growth of the supply of goods. Hence their formula: it is not demand that determines supply, but supply that determines demand. In the field of monetary policy, the neo-conservative course relied on the monetarist recipes for a tough policy of controlling money circulation in order to limit, above all, inflation.
Proponents of neoconservatism also defined the relationship between state regulation and the market mechanism in a different way. They gave priority to competition, the market, and private monopoly methods of regulation. "The state for the market" - that was the most important principle of the new conservatism. According to the recommendations of the ideologues of neoconservatism in the states of Western Europe and the USA, Canada carried out the same type of measures: reducing taxes on corporations with an increase in indirect taxes, reducing the contributions of entrepreneurs to social insurance funds, curtailing a number of social policy programs, denationalizing or privatizing state property. Economic turmoil in the 1970s took place against the backdrop of a growing scientific and technological revolution. The main content of the new phase of its development was the massive introduction of computers in the spheres of production and management. This gave impetus to the beginning of the process of structural restructuring of the economy and the gradual transition of Western civilization into a new phase, which began to be called the post-industrial, or information, society. The introduction of the latest technologies has contributed to a significant leap in productivity. And this began to pay off and led to a way out of the crisis and another economic recovery.
True, the main costs of structural restructuring of the economy fell on the bulk of the population of Western countries, but this did not lead to social cataclysms. The ruling elites managed to maintain control over the situation and give a new impetus to economic processes. Gradually, the "conservative wave" began to decline. But this did not mean a change of milestones in the development of Western civilization.
11.5. Political development
In the political sphere, the second half of the 1940s became a time of sharp struggle, primarily on issues of state structure. The situations in individual countries differed significantly. Great Britain has fully preserved the pre-war political system. France and a number of other countries had to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And in Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism and the creation of new democratic states.
Despite the differences, there were also common features in the political life of Western European countries in the first postwar years. One of them was the coming to power of the left forces - the social democratic and socialist parties. In a number of cases, communists also participated in the first post-war governments. This was the case in France and Italy, where by the end of the war the communist parties had become mass, enjoyed considerable prestige due to their active participation in the resistance movement. Cooperation with the socialists contributed to the strengthening of their positions.
The initial impetus to the "conservative wave", according to most scientists, was given by the economic crisis of 1974-1975. It coincided with a surge in inflation, which led to the collapse of the domestic price structure, making it difficult to obtain loans. Added to this was the energy crisis, which contributed to the disruption of traditional ties in the world market, complicated the normal course of export-import operations, and destabilized the sphere of financial and credit relations. The rapid rise in oil prices caused structural changes in the economy. The main branches of European industry (ferrous metallurgy, shipbuilding, chemical production) fell into decay. In turn, there is a rapid development of new energy-saving technologies. As a result of the violation of international currency exchange, the foundations of the financial system, introduced back in Brettonwoods in 1944, were shaken. Distrust of the dollar as the main means of payment began to grow in the Western community. In 1971 and in 1973 it has been devalued twice. In March 1973, the leading Western countries and Japan signed an agreement on the introduction of "floating" exchange rates, and in 1976 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) abolished the official price of gold. Economic troubles of the 70s. took place against the backdrop of an ever-increasing scope of scientific and technological revolution. Its main manifestation was the mass computerization of production, which contributed to the gradual transition of the entire Western civilization to the “post-industrial” stage of development. The processes of internationalization of economic life have noticeably accelerated. TNCs began to define the face of the Western economy. By the mid 80s. accounted for 60% foreign trade and 80% of developments in the field of new technologies. The process of transformation of the economy, the impetus for which was the economic crisis, was accompanied by a number of social difficulties: an increase in unemployment, an increase in the cost of living. The traditional Keynesian recipes, which consisted in the need to increase government spending, cut taxes and reduce the cost of credit, gave rise to permanent inflation and budget deficits. Criticism of Keynesianism in the mid-1970s. became frontal. A new conservative concept of economic regulation is gradually taking shape, the most prominent representatives of which in the political arena are M. Thatcher, who headed the government of England in 1979, and R. Reagan, who was elected in 1980 to the post of US President. In the field of economic policy, neoconservatives were guided by the ideas of "free market" and "supply theory". In the social sphere, stakes were placed on cutting government spending. The state retained under its control only the system of support for the disabled population. All able-bodied citizens had to provide for themselves. This was associated with new policy in the field of taxation: a radical reduction in taxes on corporations was carried out, which was aimed at intensifying the inflow of investment into production. The second component of the economic course of the conservatives is the formula "the state for the market." This strategy is based on the concept of internal stability of capitalism, according to which this system is declared capable of self-regulation through competition with minimal state intervention in the reproduction process. Neoconservative recipes quickly gained wide popularity among the ruling elite of the leading countries of Western Europe and the United States. Hence the general set of measures in the sphere of economic policy: tax cuts on corporations along with an increase in indirect taxes, the curtailment of a number of social programs, a wide sale of state property (re-privatization) and the closure of unprofitable enterprises. Among those social strata that supported the neoconservatives, one can single out mainly entrepreneurs, highly skilled workers and young people. In the United States, a revision of socio-economic policy took place after Republican R. Reagan came to power. Already in the first year of his presidency, a law on economic recovery was adopted. Its central link was the tax reform. Instead of a progressive taxation system, a new scale was introduced, close to proportional taxation, which, of course, was beneficial to the wealthiest strata and the middle class. At the same time, the government has cut social spending. In 1982, Reagan came up with the concept of "new federalism", which included the redistribution of powers between the federal government and the state authorities in favor of the latter. In this regard, the republican administration proposed to cancel about 150 federal social programs, and transfer the rest to local authorities. Reagan managed in a short time to reduce the inflation rate: in 1981 it was 10.4%, and by the mid-1980s. dropped to 4%. For the first time since the 1960s. a rapid economic recovery began (in 1984, growth rates reached 6.4%), and spending on education increased.
In general terms, the results of "Reaganomics" can be reflected in the following formulation: "The rich have become richer, the poor have become poorer." But here it is necessary to make a number of reservations. The rise in living standards affected not only a group of rich and super-rich citizens, but also a fairly wide and constantly growing middle strata. Although Reaganomics did tangible damage to poor Americans, it created a conjuncture that offered job opportunities, while previous social policies contributed only to a general reduction in the number of poor people in the country. Therefore, despite rather tough measures in the social sphere, the US government did not have to face any serious public protest. In England, the decisive offensive of the neoconservatives is associated with the name of M. Thatcher. It declared its main goal to fight inflation. For three years, its level has decreased from 18% to 5%. Thatcher abolished price controls and lifted restrictions on the movement of capital. Subsidies to the public sector were sharply reduced, and since 1980 their sale began: enterprises in the oil and aerospace industries, air transport, as well as bus companies, a number of communications enterprises, and part of the property of the British Railways Authority were privatized. Privatization also affected the municipal housing stock. By 1990, 21 state-owned companies were privatized, 9 million British became shareholders, 2/3 of families - owners of houses or apartments. In the social sphere, Thatcher led a severe attack on the trade unions. In 1980 and 1982 she managed to pass through parliament two laws restricting their rights: solidarity strikes were banned, the rule on preferential hiring of trade union members was abolished. Representatives of trade unions were excluded from participation in the activities of advisory government commissions on problems of socio-economic policy. But Thatcher dealt the main blow to the unions during the famous miners' strike in 1984-85. The reason for its beginning was the plan developed by the government to close 40 unprofitable mines with the simultaneous dismissal of 20 thousand people. In March 1984, the miners' union went on strike. An open war broke out between the strikers' pickets and the police. The court at the end of 1984 declared the strike illegal and fined the union £200,000 and later stripped it of its right to manage its funds. No less difficult for the Thatcher government was the problem of Northern Ireland. The "Iron Lady", as M. Thatcher was called, was a supporter of the forceful version of her decision. The combination of these factors somewhat shook the position of the ruling party, and in the summer of 1987 the government called early elections. The Conservatives have won again. The success allowed Thatcher to carry out the program installations of the conservatives even more vigorously. Second half of the 80s. became one of the most favorable eras in English history of the 20th century: the economy was constantly on the rise, the standard of living was rising. Thatcher's departure from the political arena was predictable. She did not wait for the moment when the favorable trends for the country would subside and the Conservative Party would bear all the responsibility for the deterioration of the situation. Therefore, in the fall of 1990, Thatcher announced her retirement from big politics. Similar processes took place in the 1980s in most of the leading Western countries. Some exception to the general rule was France, where in the 80s. key positions belonged to the socialists led by F. Mitterrand. But they also had to reckon with the dominant tendencies of social development. The "conservative wave" had very specific tasks - to provide optimal conditions, from the point of view of the ruling elite, for the implementation of the overdue structural restructuring of the economy. Therefore, it is no coincidence that by the beginning of the 1990s, when the most difficult part of this restructuring had been completed, the "conservative wave" gradually began to decline. It happened in a very mild way. R. Reagan was replaced in 1989 by the moderate conservative George W. Bush, in 1992 B. Clinton occupied the White House, and in 2001 George W. Bush Jr. came to power. In England, Thatcher was replaced by the moderate conservative J. Major, who, in turn, - in 1997 - the leader of the Labor Party, E. Blair. However, the change of ruling parties did not imply a change in the internal political course of England. Approximately the same events developed in other Western European countries. The last representative of the "neo-conservative wave", German Chancellor G. Kohl in September 1998 was forced to give up his post to the leader of the Social Democrats G. Schroeder. In general, the 90s. became a time of relative calm in the socio-political development of the leading Western countries in the 20th century. True, most experts believe that it will be short-lived. The entry of Western civilization into the stage of "post-industrial" development poses many new, previously unknown tasks for politicians.
Bashkirtseva Tatiana
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Eastern Europe in the second half of the 20th century Completed by: Tatiana Bashkirtseva, group 24 N
The formation of totalitarian socialism in these countries proceeded in different ways. In the countries of Eastern Europe, the defeat of fascism led to the restoration of independence where it had been lost, or a change in the political regime where it had been preserved. A democratic system, universal suffrage and a multi-party system were established everywhere, agrarian reforms were carried out that destroyed large land ownership, the property of traitors and active supporters of fascism was confiscated. Eastern Europe after World War II.
The development of events in the West and in the East of Europe was very similar in the first post-war years. The difference was that Eastern Europe was liberated Soviet army, and there the role of the communist parties was much more significant. Firstly, because in some of them (Yugoslavia, Albania) the communist parties led the partisan movement and, relying on it, became the most influential political force; secondly, because they enjoyed the support of the USSR, under its pressure, the communists became part of all the post-war governments of these countries, occupying, as a rule, “power” ministerial posts. When the Cold War began, relying on the positions already won and direct pressure from Moscow, the communists relatively easily and bloodlessly established their undivided power in 1947-1948.
Having come to power, the communist parties set about "building socialism." The experience of the USSR was taken as a role model. Has been converted political system. The multi-party system was either eliminated, or the parties lost their political independence, becoming part of coalitions and fronts led by the communists. All power was concentrated in the hands of the Communist parties. Judicial and representative power lost their independence. Following the example of the USSR, mass repressions were carried out. All rights and freedoms of citizens were actually abolished. Democracy was done away with, although constitutions, universal suffrage were formally preserved, "elections" were held regularly, and the leaders of these countries proudly called them countries of "people's democracy." Changes in the political system.
In the field of economics, “building socialism” meant completing the nationalization of industry and finance, carrying out industrialization, and cooperating agriculture. The market economy gave way to the planned one. There was a large-scale breakdown of economic and social structures. Entrepreneurs and independent peasants disappeared. Most of the adult population was employed in the public sector of the economy. Planned economy and foreign policy foreign policy all these countries to a greater or lesser extent followed the course of the USSR. Any disobedience to Moscow caused at first a very harsh reaction. As evidenced by the conflict between Tito and Stalin.
As a result, the social and political system in these countries was radically transformed. And just as we call similar processes in Russia after October 1917 a revolution, we have the right to call these transformations revolutionary as well. These revolutions were socialist, in the sense that they approved state property instead of private property. They led to the formation of a totalitarian political system in these countries. All this allows us to call these countries countries of totalitarian socialism. Results of socialist transformations and political crises Stalin's death in 1953 brought about major changes. Liberation from the oppressive fear of it exposed the deep contradictions of totalitarian socialism and mass dissatisfaction with it. Political crises arose in the GDR, and then in Poland and Hungary, which proved impossible to overcome without the use of force.
In a number of countries in Eastern Europe, the Communist parties found themselves forced to change their policies in order to remove the main causes of discontent. The mass repressions were stopped and the partial rehabilitation of their victims was carried out, changes were made to the envisaged rates of industrialization, the forms of co-operation were softened, and in Poland it was stopped. Restrictions for small business were partially lifted. Later, economic reforms were carried out that weakened the rigid, administrative control over the economy. In many countries, all this was accompanied by a “thaw” in the sphere of ideology and culture. Changes in politics.
In other countries, criticism of the most unattractive aspects of the Stalinist regime in the USSR caused alarm. The ruling leaders were concerned about the possibility of the criticism being directed at them. Not only did they not support the changes in Moscow and some Eastern European countries, but they also tried to take their own position. The first signs of Soviet-Chinese contradictions appear. In the early 1960s, Romania and North Korea were increasingly declaring their independence. Albania breaks ties with the USSR. But. The changes in the USSR and some countries of Eastern Europe that took place after Stalin's death turned out to be shallow. Totalitarian socialism was not eliminated there, but only softened to make it more acceptable to the masses. But even this easing of the regimes after some time began to be seen by the Communist parties as a dangerous concession. The events in Czechoslovakia became clear evidence of such a danger to them.
After the intervention in Czechoslovakia, in all the countries of Eastern Europe that survived attempts to renew socialism, the totalitarian features of their system began to become tougher. Economic reforms were halted. A backward movement began. The elements of market relations that had arisen here and there were liquidated or limited. All the dissatisfied began to be persecuted. In many countries, in connection with this, a movement of human rights activists, “dissidents”, arose. The strengthening of totalitarianism began in countries where there were no attempts at reform and renewal. There, totalitarianism took especially extreme forms. In Albania, for example, all religions were banned in the 1960s. In China, they tried to “build communism”: the cooperatives were turned into communes, the peasants were deprived of household plots and personal property. In these countries, cults of personalities of leaders have developed: Kim Il Sung in North Korea, Mao Zedong in China, Enver Hoxha in Albania, Nicolae Ceausescu in Romania. All citizens were required to unquestioningly comply with their instructions. The rise of totalitarianism.
However, the economic situation of the countries of totalitarian socialism, starting from the 70s, began to steadily worsen. Many Eastern European countries began to take loans from Western countries, trying to renew their industry and accelerate development with these funds. But in the end, the problem of external debt arose. I had to pay debts. This made their situation even worse. Renewed after the death of Mao Zedong, the Chinese leadership was forced to make a decision in 1978 to start market reforms in order to overcome difficulties. In the countries of Eastern Europe, reforms were not even thought of. The economic situation there became more and more difficult. Here the conditions for revolution gradually began to take shape. Worse economic situation.
Thank you for your attention!
International social movements
After the Second World War, to a new stage of development
mass social movements arose. Particularly wide
cue scale they received in the 70-80s. Some of them originated outside
framework of political parties, reflecting the crisis of political
parties as an institution of a democratic society.
Leading social movements spoke out in defense of peace,
democracy and social progress, against all manifestations
reaction and neo-fascism. Social movements of modern
you make a big contribution to the protection environment, back-
civil rights and freedoms, fight for the participation of workers
in the management of enterprises and the state. wide
social movements support fair
requirements of women, youth, national minorities.
The leading role in many movements belonged to the workers.
chim. However, in recent decades, the social composition of many
gih social movements has expanded significantly. In some
some of them include representatives of all social strata
contemporary Western societies.
Communists. An important role in the victory over fascism was played by
whether the communists. Heroic struggle on the fronts and behind enemy lines,
active participation in the resistance movement in the enslaved
political parties in the world. Their influence and numbers are
increased. If in 1939 there were 61 communist
party numbering about 4 million, then by the end of 1945 the communi-
political parties existed in 76 countries, which unite
hired 20 million people. In the early postwar years, the number
communists grew even more. In 1950, 81
party, and the number of communists grew to 75 million people.
In 1945-1947, the communists were part of the coalition
the governments of France, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
Iceland, Norway and Finland. Their representatives were
elected to the parliaments of most states of Western Europe
ropy. In the period from 1944 to 1949, the Communist parties became the ruling
countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe and in a number of countries
Asia, later - in Cuba.
During the war years (1943) the Comintern was dissolved. but
the dependence of the communist parties on the CPSU remained. New challenges
demanded the strengthening of international ties of the communist
tov of the planet. In September 1947, a meeting was held in Poland
representatives of the Communist Parties of the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary,
Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, France and
Italy. Informational reports were heard at the meeting
communication about the activities of the parties represented at the meeting.
The question of the international situation was also discussed. V
of the adopted Declaration, the Communist Parties were given fundamental
tasks of the struggle for peace, democracy, national sovereignty
Tet, for the rallying of all anti-imperialist forces. For coor-
dynamism of the activities of the communist parties, the exchange of experience was
a decision was made to establish an Information Bureau and establish
publishing house. At meetings held in June
1948 in Romania and in November 1949 in Hungary, were adopted
documents on the defense of peace, the need to strengthen unity
working class and communists.
Serious disagreements between the CPSU and the Communist Party of the South
Slavia, Stalin's pressure on other communist parties led to the
exclusion from the Information Bureau of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. After 1949
The information bureau did not meet. Subsequently, the connection between com-
parties began to be carried out in the form of bilateral and multi-
foreign meetings and international meetings on voluntary
basis.
In 1957 and 1966, international conferences were held in Moscow.
scheniya representatives of the communist parties. Most
actual problems communist movement, demo-
ratiy, peace and social progress are reflected in
documents adopted at the meetings. However, in subsequent
years, dangerous tendencies and discrepancies began to appear,
associated with the departure of the leadership of the Communist Party of China from the
sism-leninism and proletarian internationalism.
In the 1960s, there was a significant deterioration in relations
between the CPSU and the Communist Party of China, between the CCP and other
munist parties. The gap between the CPC and the CPSU is hard
affected the unity of the MKD. Some communist parties switched to
Maoist positions, in others Maoist groups emerged. Os-
The third crisis in the MKD arose in connection with the introduction of troops from states
members of the Warsaw Pact to Czechoslovakia. 24 compar-
tia, including Italian and French, condemned the military
intervention. After that, with difficulty, it was possible to convene a meeting
Communist and Workers' Parties in July 1969 Differences
continued to intensify. Five communist parties refused to sign
final document of the Meeting, four parties, including the Italian
Liana and Australian, agreed to sign only one
section, some signed the document with reservations.
In 1977, the General Secretaries of the influential Communist Parties
Western Europe - Italian (E. Berlinguer), French
(J. Marchais) and Spanish (S. Carrillo) adopted a declaration
against the orientation of the MKD towards the Soviet model of socialism. New
The trend was called "Eurocommunism". "Eurocommunis-
you" stood for the peaceful path of development of countries to socialism.
The USSR was criticized for the lack of democracy and violations
solution of human rights. The countries of "real socialism" are condemned
fought for the subordination of the state to the party. "Eurocommunists"
expressed the opinion that the Soviet Union had lost its revolutionary
luscious role.
The new trend was supported by many communist parties, including
le Great Britain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Japan. Not-
which parties - Australia, Greece, Spain, Finland,
Sweden - split. As a result, in these countries education
elk for two, and even three communist parties.
In recent decades, the divergence of ideas has increased
political orientation of communist parties with re-
al social development. This led to a crisis of
dov, politicians and organizations of communist parties. More
all he struck were those parties that were in power and
responsible for the development of their countries. Crash "re-
socialism” in the countries of Eastern Europe, leaving the stage
we of the CPSU have made obvious the need for a serious re-
review of traditional views, politics and organizations
communist parties, their development of a new ideological
political orientation corresponding to what is happening in
world of profound change.
Socialists and Social Democrats. Socialist in-
ternational. In 1951 at a congress in Frankfurt am Main
The Socialist International (SI) was founded, which
ry proclaimed himself the successor of the RSI, which had existed since
1923 to 1940 The leading role in the creation of the SI was played by the British
Labor Party, SPD, socialist parties of Belgium,
Italy, France. At first, it included 34 members
socialist and social democratic parties, numbering
about 10 million people.
In the program declaration “Goals and objectives of democratic
socialism” the goal was put forward: gradually, without class
struggle, revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat to achieve
transformation of capitalism into socialism. Peaceful evolution
ion process was opposed to the Marxist-Leninist
doctrine of class struggle. The declaration stated that
The main threat to peace is the policy of the USSR. Creation of SI
and his strategy in the first post-war decades strengthened
confrontation between two branches of the international labor movement
nia - social democratic and communist.
In the late 50s and especially in the 60s - early 70s, social
democracy has significantly expanded popular support for its
politicians. This was facilitated by objective circumstances,
which favored the implementation of the policy of social
foot maneuvering. The expansion of co-
becoming the Socialist International. Joining its socialist ranks
parties in Asia, Africa and Latin America led to
lara- tion “The World Today – a Socialist Perspective”
knew the need for peaceful coexistence of states
with different social order, contained a call for inter-
international detente and disarmament. Subsequently, SI all ak-
more actively advocated the strengthening of peace and universal security.
In the 70s, the SI continued to adhere to the ideology and
principles of "democratic socialism". More attention
began to be given to the problems of the socio-economic situation
zheniya workers. SI is more active and more constructive
stood up for peace and disarmament, supported the new "Eastern
policy” by W. Brandt, Soviet-American agreements on
issues of arms limitation and reduction, for strengthening
discharge, against " cold war».
In the 1980s, the Social Democrats faced certain
our difficulties. The number of some parties has been reduced. V
leading Western countries (England, Germany), they were amazed
in the elections and ceded power to the neoconservatives. Difficulties
The 80s were generated by a number of factors. More sharply manifest
There were conflicting consequences of scientific and technological revolution and economic growth.
Economic and other global problems have become aggravated. Not
managed to stop unemployment, and in a number of countries it took
menacing proportions. An active offensive was carried out by the neo-conservative
active forces. On many exciting issues, the SI has developed
new strategy and tactics, which are reflected in
program documents of the social democratic parties and in
Declaration of principles of the Socialist International, adopted in 1989.
The ultimate goal proclaimed by the Social Democrats is
consists in achieving social democracy, i.e. in providing
all social rights of workers (the right to work, education
care, recreation, treatment, housing, social security), in
elimination of all forms of oppression, discrimination, exploitation
man by man, in the guarantee of all conditions for free
development of each personality as a condition for free development
the whole society.
The goals of democratic socialism must be achieved,
emphasize the social democratic parties, peaceful, de-
by democratic means, by gradual evolution
society, through reforms, class cooperation. V
post-war years, the Social Democrats were in power in
a number of countries (Austria, England, Germany, France, Spain, Sweden)
tion, Norway, Finland).
Despite the fact that they often made concessions to the bourgeois
zia and big capital, an objective assessment of activities
testifies that, first of all, they reflected and
protect the interests of workers. Significant contribution to the protection
democracy, formation and development of the state, welfare
yaniya, in improving the material situation of workers, in
promotion of their countries on the path of social progress, in
the creation of universal peace and international security, in improving
the solution of relations between the West and the East, in solving the complex
ny problems of the "third world".
In 1992, the 19th SI Congress took place. It took place in Berlin.
The French socialist Pierre Maurois was elected chairman. V
in a number of countries, new socialist and social democratic
political parties, including those in the independent states of the CIS.
The parties of the Socialist International are represented by large
factions in the parliaments of many Western countries.
leafy international. The congress was attended by 1200
delegates representing 143 parties from 100 countries. O
the importance of the congress being held is also evidenced by the fact that among the delegates
the President of Argentina and eleven pre-
prime ministers. In a unanimously adopted declaration among
many important provisions reflecting modern problems
we of the world, special attention was paid to the need to “apply
give social change to the processes of globalization”, “improve
build representative democracy”, defend “the balance
between rights and obligations.
Despite the fact that in recent decades the leading
Western countries, the "neo-conservative wave" has intensified, the social
democracy has had and is having a significant impact on the political
civil and social life in Western world. Private pre-
entrepreneurship remains regulated, democracy universal.
The social rights of workers are guaranteed by the state.
Trade unions. In the postwar years, the role
trade unions - the largest organization of employees of hired
leg labor. By the beginning of the 90s, only those united in international
The people's trade union organizations numbered over 315 million.
Human. Already in the 1950s and 1960s, millions of members of the WFTU, created
at the 1st World Trade Union Congress in Paris in September
1945, actively advocated the improvement of the material situation
zheniya workers. Much attention was paid to the fight against
Botica, the development of the social insurance system,
the rights of trade unions. Important place in activity
trade unions were occupied with issues related to the struggle of the people
masses for the prohibition of atomic weapons, the cessation of wars and the
regional conflicts, strengthening global security.
The national
but-liberation movement. Development of strategy and tactics
international trade union movement, restoration
unity of trade unions, the struggle for the vital rights of workers,
for peace and national independence of the working people were
sacred World Trade Union Congresses: in Vienna (1953),
in Leipzig (1957), in Moscow (1961), in Warsaw (1965), in
Budapest (1969). They played an important role in raising the
prestige and growing influence of the WFTU in the international trade union
nom movement.
At the World Congress in Budapest (1969) was approved
ren “Orientation document for trade union action”. This
document oriented workers to seek the elimination
economic and political domination of monopolies,
buildings of democratic institutions of power, ensuring ac-
active participation of the working class in the management of the economy. V
the focus was also on the unity of the international
new trade union movement. In the 1970s and 1980s, the WFTU was
zhnemu gave priority to the problems of reduction
armaments and strengthening peace, ending the race
weapons, supported the peoples of Indochina, Af-
rica, Latin America, which in different years in separate
countries fought to strengthen their independence,
for democratic freedoms. Questions played an important role
unity of action. The WFTU called on other international
trade union centers to joint action in defense of
the interests of the working people, the fight against unemployment, to repulse
monopoly capital. All past during this period
peace congresses and trade union conferences showed all
the variety of forms of struggle of the WFTU in upholding indigenous in-
the interests of the workers.
An important role in the international trade union movement
played by the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
(ICSP). It includes trade unions of industrial and some
developing countries. For better coordination of activities
of the trade unions of the ICFTU has created regional organizations
nization: Asia-Pacific, Inter-American, African
Kanskaya. As part of the ICFTU, in 1973 the European
trade union confederation (ETUC). ICSP has become more energetic
but to come out in support of the socio-economic demands
of working people, for the strengthening of peace and disarmament, against
specific acts of aggression. She welcomed the democratic
sky revolutions in the countries of Eastern Europe, perestroika in
USSR, supported the efforts of the international community to
assistance to them, more actively began to advocate for
reduction of regional military conflicts.
In the postwar years, Western countries intensified their
activities of trade unions under the influence of the church. V
1968 International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions
(MKHP) changed its name. XII Congress of the ICCP post-
decided to call the organization the World Confederation of Workers
yes (VKT). The CGT protects human rights and trade union freedoms.
dy, is fighting for the improvement of the situation of the population in " third world»,
calls for the activation of women in public life; at-
calls for a fight against all forms of exploitation and discrimination
tions. An important place is given to the global problems of modern
ness, especially environmental. CGT supported change
occurred in Eastern Europe, welcomes the positive
changes in international relations.
Trade unions, being the most massive organizations
labor movement, contributed to its significant success
boor, social progress in general.
In the early 1990s, the world trade union movement
counted, according to various estimates, 500 - 600 million people, which
accounted for 40 - 50% of the army of hired labor. They don't cover
the entire mass of employees in the developed countries of the West,
including those predominantly employed in traditional industries
material production.
The crisis state of trade unions in modern conditions
due to the inadequacy of their activities, the profound changes
changes that have occurred in the nature of labor and the structure of work
employment in the leading Western countries, under the influence of engineering. Prof.
unions are trying to change their strategy and tactics, in a more
broadly to protect the interests of workers, more
the mania to pay attention to global problems, to strengthen cooperation
ties with other mass democratic movements.
Other mass social movements. In post-war
years, in almost all countries there has been an outflow from traditional political
political parties and trade unions. Disillusioned members of these
organizations sought to gain more freedom, did not want
put up with rigid ideological attitudes. Especially
it was typical for student youth. Appeared
many different groups that, on a voluntary basis,
united in movements not associated with any strict discipline
noah, nor a common ideology.
In the context of crisis phenomena in the socio-economic
and political spheres emerged in the 1970s new movements,
covering people of different social strata, different ages
Comrade and political views.
Mass social movements in the 70s - 80s had
or different directions. The most common and
which had a significant impact on the socio-political
life of the Western world were environmental and anti-war
nye movements.
Representatives of the environmental movement in many countries
nah actively oppose super-industrialization, not-
rational exploitation of natural resources. Special attention
mania is given to problems associated with danger
the development of an ecological crisis into an ecological catastrophe
stanza, which can lead to the death of human qi-
vilization. In this regard, the environmental movement
et for a ban on nuclear weapons tests, limiting
and the cessation of military activities, disarmament. Eco-
logical movement considers disarmament and related
with him, the conversion of military production as the most important
potential source of additional resources, material
al and intelligent, to solve environmental pro-
blem. Among mass social movements, environmental
currents are the most organized and developed in
theoretical and practical plans. They created many
some countries have their political parties "green" and international
native organizations (Greenpeace), a single faction in the Euro-
parliament. The Greens movement supports active
cooperation within the framework of the UN, many non-
organizations.
Among the mass movements in Western countries, an important
one hundred takes the anti-war movement. Back in the years of the Second World
howling war, it consolidated on the democratic anti-
fascist basis, which in the post-war period became the base
mass peace movement. At the II World Con-
Congress in Warsaw (1950) the World Peace Council is established
(SCM), which organizes the campaign for the signing of the Stock-
Holm Appeal, which qualified the atomic war as
crime against humanity. In the mid-1950s, in the country
nah West widely developed anti-nuclear pacifism.
In the second half of the 1950s, many Western countries created
there are mass anti-nuclear organizations or their coalitions. V
In the early 1970s, the anti-war movement gained momentum.
in Vietnam. In the second half of the 70s - early 80s,
supporters of the anti-war movement actively opposed it.
throne bomb, deployment of American and Soviet missiles
medium range in Europe.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the women's movement intensified. In line with the youth
reliable rebellion, a neo-fiminist movement arose,
fallen from the positions of the latest concepts of "mixed", and not
"sexually divided" society, and "social consciousness"
gender”, overcoming “violence against women”. Represented
leaders of the women's movement in Western countries are actively
yut against the monopoly of men on power in society, for equal
representation of women in all spheres of activity and all
social institutions.
Civil activism has increased in recent decades
women. They are increasingly influencing politics
are elected to the parliaments of many countries, hold high
government posts. Women's interest in the global
ny problems of our time. Women actively participate
in the anti-war movement. All this speaks of the emerging
the trend of increasing the role of women in the life of their countries and
rotation of the women's movement into an influential force of modern
noah democracy.
At the turn of the 60s in the USA and other Western countries
a youth protest movement (hippies) emerged. This is a move-
ing arose as a reaction to the specific features of society
temporary bureaucracy and totalitarianism, the desire
put all spheres of an individual's life under bureaucratic
control, the contradiction between the democratic ideo-
logic and totalitarian practice, everything growing is depersonalized
bureaucratic structure. Hippie style and slogans
became quite popular in the 70's and 80's.
years, having had a strong influence on the value world of Western
Yes. Many counterculture ideals have become integral part
mass consciousness. Generation of hipsters put into circulation
passion for rock music, which has now become an essential element
element of traditional culture.
In a number of Western countries in the 60s - 80s, it was developed
extremism, which is traditionally divided into "left" and "right"
out." Left extremists usually appeal to the ideas of Mark-
sism-leninism and other left-wing views (anarchism, left
radicalism), declaring themselves the most consistent fighters
tsami "for the cause of the proletariat", "the working masses". They criticize
forged capitalism for social inequality, suppression
personality, exploitation. Socialism is for bureaucratization,
oblivion of the principles of the "class struggle" ("The Fraction of the Red
Army" in Germany, "Red Brigades" in Italy). Rights
extremists denounce the vices of bourgeois society with extreme
conservative positions for the decline of morals, drug addiction, ego-
ism, consumerism and "mass culture", the absence of
row", the domination of the plutocracy. For both right and left
extremism is characterized by anti-communism (“Italian social
movement” in Italy, the Republican and National
but-democratic parties in Germany, various right-wing
wild and overtly fascist groups and parties in the US).
Part of the "left" extremist organizations are on the wrong
gallant position, conducts a guerrilla war, commits ter-
roristic acts.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the Western world developed and
movements such as the New Left and the New Right. Represented
members of the New Left (mainly student youth
dezh and some part of the intelligentsia) differed in different
criticism of all contemporary forms of socio-political
arrangement and organization of economic life from the positions
extreme radicalism (including terrorism) and anarchism. "But-
right” (mainly intelligentsia, technocrats and some
other privileged strata of the developed Western
countries) relied on the ideology of neoconservatism.
Modern mass social movements are
an essential part of the democratic process. Priority-
for them are the ideas of peace, democracy, social
progress, the salvation of human civilization. Public
movements are overwhelmingly supporter-
of non-violent action, believing that humane goals are not
can be achieved by inhumane means.
In the 90s of the XX century in the minds of the broad masses
developed a critical attitude towards modern
globalization processes. Later it developed into a powerful
resistance especially to economic globalization,
benefits from which the most developed countries receive
pada. Occupying a leading position in the global economy and
latest technologies, they protect their interests,
pursuing a policy of double standards. At the same time, save
economic, social and other costs of globalization are heavy
a heavy burden on the weak economies of developing
countries and the poorest social strata of the population, even in
developed countries.
Under these conditions, a new social movement directed
opposed to the politics of globalization, began to be called "anti-globalization
ballistic." Transnational in scope and character
theru, it includes representatives of various movements
protest, which are united by the rejection of the deepest social
economic inequality of the modern world.
CHAPTER 8. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND CULTURE
After the end of World War II and until the beginning of the 21st century, socio-political processes in the countries of the Western world took place in a rather contradictory environment. On the one hand, in the 1960s and 1970s among the population of Europe (especially young people) there were pro-socialist and anti-capitalist sentiments. On the other hand, in the 1980s, Western society abruptly switched to anti-socialism and warmly welcomed the collapse of the world socialist system. At the same time, Western society has positioned itself as a developed democracy, where human rights are sacred and above all, which was far from always the case. This lesson is devoted to the processes that took place in Western society in the second half of the twentieth century.
Socio-political processes in Western countries in the second half of the twentieth century
Prerequisites
After the end of World War II, the countries of Western Europe, freed from the Nazi occupation, returned to the traditions of parliamentarism and political competition. The United States and Great Britain, which were not subjected to occupation, did not retreat from these traditions.
The post-war socio-political development of the Western countries was decisively influenced by the Cold War, in which the Western capitalist world was confronted by the socialist camp led by the USSR. The lessons learned from the Second World War and previous events also mattered: the West received a certain “inoculation” from dictatorship and fascist ideology.
Main development trends
communist threat
If in the interwar period the struggle against communist ideology was primarily characteristic of fascist organizations and governments, then the beginning of the Cold War meant opposition to communism of the Western world as a whole (primarily the United States). The first half of the 1950s in the United States was marked by the policy of McCarthyism (after the name of its inspirer, Senator McCarthy), called the "witch hunt". The essence of McCarthyism was the persecution of communists and their sympathizers. In particular, the US Communist Party was banned from participating in elections; the rights of millions of Americans who supported the communists in one way or another were limited.
1968 protests
By the end of the 1960s, a generation of young people had grown up in Europe and the United States, who, unlike their parents, did not experience either the global economic crisis of the 1930s or the war and grew up in conditions of economic prosperity. At the same time, this generation was characterized by disappointment in the consumer society (see Consumer Society), a heightened sense of justice, freedom of morals, and an interest in the ideas of communism, Trotskyism, and anarchism. In 1967-1969, it was this generation that initiated a wave of protests: in the USA - against the Vietnam War, in France - against de Gaulle's authoritarian policy and for improving the situation of workers ("Red May" in France), etc. At the same time, the struggle for the rights of blacks and sexual minorities has intensified in the United States, which has borne fruit.
Political Spectrum
On the whole, the political life of the post-war West is characterized by a certain narrowness of the political spectrum. If in continental Europe in the interwar period a fierce political struggle was largely waged between radicals of the right and left, who were irreconcilable opponents with opposing views, then in the post-war period the most radical elements were marginalized. After the war, of course, contradictions still existed between the main political forces, but certain foundations of interaction (change of power through elections, the principles of parliamentarism, the value of civil rights and freedoms, etc.) were recognized by all parties. Compared with the interwar period, the postwar period is a time of certain political stability. Toward the end of the 20th century, extreme right-wing forces became more active in the political arena, but they did not receive significant support in Western countries. On the whole, the political life of the Western countries consists in open political competition of rather moderate political forces.
Globalization
At the same time, anti-globalization criticism is constantly heard in the Western world; opponents of the processes of consolidation in European countries are in favor of the primacy of national sovereignty, opposing, among other things, the excessive influence of the United States on the policies of European states. Such sentiments have become especially noticeable in the 21st century.
Economic changes have led to political and social shifts, consumer standards, lifestyles and thinking of Italians have changed. At the same time, the cost of the “economic miracle” meant uneven and cyclical economic development, dependence on foreign investment and imported technologies, lagging behind agriculture, migration of the rural population to cities and, consequently, an increase in unemployment, aggravation of housing and transport problems, and slow wage growth. remained especially serious South problem.
The regional backwardness of the South (six southern regions and the islands of Sicily and Sardinia) has historically been a sore point in Italy, was the result of a disproportion in the distribution of productive forces. In the early 50s. the share of the southern regions in the country's agriculture was 33.2%, industry - 15.1%. Labor productivity was significantly lower than in the North. At the same time, the depth of the problem lay not only in economic backwardness, but also in its significant impact on the social and political spheres. In the region of the South, which occupies 43% of the country's territory, more than 1/3 of the population of Italy lived, and the per capita income was in the 50s. about half the level of the rest of the country. The unemployment rate in the southern regions was twice as high as in the northern ones. Representing an area of huge agrarian overpopulation, unemployment and poverty, from where hundreds of thousands of people (80% of the total number of Italian emigrants) emigrated to work in the northern regions of the country and abroad, the South received twice as much from the state budget as it gave. The historical underdevelopment of the South, the social and cultural backwardness of the population, the criminal influence of the mafia on all aspects of life prevented the general economic growth country.
With the creation in 1950 of the Southern Treasury, a state fund for special long-term financing of backward areas, a broad and permanent state policy for the development of the South began. An additional source was the financing of the economy of the southern regions through mixed enterprises.
Government policy has developed two main approaches to solving this problem. First, the practical course was based on the concept of forming the prerequisites for the independent development of the economy of the South. Therefore, significant investments were directed here for the development of agriculture, infrastructure, and then industry. A few years later it emerged weaknesses concept of "autonomy", it was revised, and in 1956. the idea expressed in the “Vanoni plan” (one of the functionaries of the CDA) is accepted. Its meaning was to accelerate the development of the economy of the South through its inclusion in the general economic system of Italy. The practical implementation of this idea in life in the 60-70s. carried out the "center left".
The financial flow, which amounted to in the 70s. about 50% of all state investments made it possible to create in the southern regions such branches of heavy industry as metallurgy and engineering. The South has turned from agrarian to industrial-agrarian. At the same time, decline zones continued to coexist with developed regions.
Since the development of the South was carried out at the expense of funds coming from the North, the stronger partner dictated its own terms of the game, and the model of dependent development of the southern regions was preserved. The South developed in the interests of the North. Contemporaries stated that southern Italians "have the feeling that everything is always decided outside the South, behind the backs of its population and local state institutions."
Huge financial expenses on the "southern policy" for 40 years have brought rather modest results. The gap in the standard of living of the population was reduced by only 10%, many families continue to exist due to remittances from emigrated relatives. High population growth rates do not allow to solve the problem of employment. Difficulties in overcoming the historically established territorial dualism are also associated with the fact that the redistribution of capital investments from the North to the South cannot increase indefinitely, the North itself needs funds. Due to this circumstance, narrowing the gap between the North and the South in the foreseeable historical period is problematic.
Another problem was connected with the South - the agrarian one. Therefore, the most important measure of the CDA government was the agrarian reform, which was preceded by an unprecedented movement of peasants and tenants to seize the empty lands of large landowners. Under pressure from the mass movement, the government of the Christian Democrats, in accordance with Article 44 of the constitution, in 1950 adopted a law on agrarian reform, which was based on the draft of the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry A. Segni. According to the law, about 8,000 large landowners had to sell the surplus of their land to the state. The fund created in this way also received land plots of some large companies and state lands. Subsequently, the land from this fund was sold by lottery to needy peasants in installments for 30 years. And although the agrarian reform could not satisfy all the landless and land-poor peasants, nevertheless, a considerable part of them (about 200,000) improved their situation.
The foreign policy course of the Christian Democrats was built on the priority of the values of Western civilization and was focused on the United States. Italy participated in the creation of NATO, military formations and NATO headquarters were deployed on its territory. The Italian government signed an agreement with the United States "on mutual assistance for defense purposes", under which the American side supplied weapons to Italy, and the Italian side transferred the use of the US Navy and Air Force bases. The pro-American foreign policy course of the CDA was criticized by the left opposition, mainly socialists and communists.
The CDA, which occupied a centrist position in the Italian political establishment, combined in its government course both elements of social conservatism and measures of social maneuvering. Under the pressure of mass demonstrations, the Christian Democratic Party sometimes made concessions to the workers in matters relating to the social sphere. At the same time, in a number of cases, the government's response to these speeches was reprisals against demonstrators and repressions, in which detachments of motorized police (chelere) were especially zealous. This contributed to the accumulation of opposition potential. At the next parliamentary elections in 1953. The Christian Democratic Party failed to overcome the 50% threshold. De Gasperi retired and died a year later. The departure of De Gasperi could not but affect the political line of this party. Other people rushed to power. In the CDA, the influence of the right wing (Gasperists) weakened and the left current strengthened, proposing a coalition with the socialists. However, on the whole, the centrist faction prevailed, headed by the political secretary of the CDA Amintore Fanfani, who repeatedly formed governments in the 50s, 60s and 80s.
Chapter 2. 1963-1976.
2 .one. "Left center".
Significant successes in the development of the national economy during the period of the “economic miracle” of the 1950s and early 1960s, as well as the predominant influence of the CDA in political life, led to a revision of the political course of other parties in Italy, primarily its leftist parties - the ISP and the ICR. The leadership of the ISP, headed by Pietro Nenni, evolved to the right: renouncing the status of an opposition party, it headed for coming to power and stopped cooperating with the communists. The Communist Party adopted the strategy of the "Italian road to socialism", which meant an active mass struggle against the monopolies, enlisting all anti-monopoly forces on its side, and a gradual, peaceful transition to socialism. The CDA took into account the great weight of the left parties in society and the growth of their electorate. Intending to "tame" the ISP, which aspired to power, and use the support of the Social Democrats (ISDP), the CDA outlined a rapprochement with them - a "left center" strategy in order to strengthen its position in society. Left-centrism assumed not only the cooperation of the Christian Democratic Party with the left parties in parliament and government, but also the acceptance by the Christian Democrats of some demands of the left parties (except the Communist Party). The strategy of the left center as an alliance with "secular" parties was calculated by the Christian Democrats for the long term. Moreover, Pope John XXIII, who succeeded the deceased reactionary Pius XII (1958), did not actually hinder the approval of the new strategy of the Christian Democrats. John XXIII's encyclical "Pacem in terris" ("Peace on earth") contained calls for peace and cooperation among various political currents. In the intensified struggle between the Renovationists and the Conservatives over the problem of adapting the Church to the mood of the masses, the Renovationists gained the upper hand. This was demonstrated by the decisions of the Ecumenical Council (the “brainchild” of John XXIII), the first session took place in the autumn of 1962, the second one a year later.
In turn, frequent government crises meant that the CDA's "era" of monopoly rule was coming to an end. In 1962, the CDR congress approved the strategy of the left center, and the Christian Democrat A. Fanfani made the first attempt to implement it, forming a government of representatives of the CDA, Social Democrats and Republicans. Since 1963, the Italian Socialist Party began to participate in the center-left governments. At the head of these governments in 1963-1968 and 1974-1976. stood the famous Italian political figure Aldo Moro, Christian Democrat, supporter of cooperation with the left parties, a man of strong moral principles, not involved in any dirty scandal. A. Moro (1916-1978) graduated from the university with a degree in jurisprudence, became a doctor in the philosophy of law, participated in the war. A deeply religious man Moro worked in the youth federation of university Catholics, then in the CDA. Early in his political career, largely due to his high intellectual potential and such qualities as perseverance, patience, flexibility and correctness, he became a politician large scale, a party leader at the level of De Gasperi. The merit of Moro should be recognized as the change in the strategy of the CDA: from centrism under De Gasperi to left-centrism under Moreau. Realizing that, due to the considerable authority of the left parties, including the communists, among the Italians, without their participation it is impossible to solve any more or less major national tasks, Aldo Moro, despite the open resistance of the conservative part of the CDA, became a supporter of cooperation not only with the socialists, but and with the communists. While remaining a patriot of Christian Democracy, he was convinced that the CDA must under no circumstances lose its political hegemony.
