Solid stock. Chemistry land

Solid Stock - This is the amount of suspended finely fine-grained inlets (rolled) on the bottom of the nanos, transferred by the river through any target for the specified time interval.

In this case, the flow rate is called the number of applications, transferred through a living cross section of the river per unit of time. Depending on the method of transportation, the injunction is divided into weighted, carried by aqueous streams in suspension, and injecting flow moving in the bottom layer by rolling, sliding and siling. The conditions of movement of the nanos change when the speed changes, depth and other hydraulic elements. The particles that were carrying in suspension can become inhaled injector, and inherently - stop moving or move to a weighted state. Still particles can move into motion.

The main hydraulic parameters of the nanos are:

• hydraulic particle size, determined as the rate of its uniform fall in calm water;
• the initial velocity (shift) particles on the bottom of the flow;
• the average velocity of the particles along the bottom.

In the river stream, there is a mutual interchange of the flow and the channel with the precipitation of the particles of the nanos on the bottom and soaping them from its surface. The mutual relationship is due to the flow turbulence (ascending and downward ripples) and depends on the hydraulic size of the nanos and the initial velocity of the particles. Areas of such currents are randomly randomly over the surface of the bed, as a result of which the bottom of the flow is the field of alternating zuming and deposit areas. During the ridge form of the row of the area of \u200b\u200bthe prevalence of ascending and downstream, the vortices are delimited, respectively, the zones of the erosion and transition of the nanos are delimited. Upper layer The nanos involved in the process of the interchange of the flow of the flow is called the active layer of the bed. The names themselves are called bottom sediments.

The initial material of the formation of the nanos on river Waterforestry are weathering products mountain breeds, soil particles, residues of vegetation and animals. External and internal power supply sources are allocated. External power sources are slopes, as well as the shutters located off the coast. The external admission of nanos characterizes the intensity of water erosion on the slopes. Internal sources of nutrition of rivers and streams are applied by allyuvial sediments of the bed and floodplain. The total removal of the nanos is determined by the amount (slope and robling) erosion.

General pattern of solid drain formation:

• rights and the entire primary hydrographic network supply solid material into river systems;
• middle I. large rivers transport products of erosion, accumulating part of the nanos when they are excess and eroding them with a deficit solid material.

In the mouths of the rivers there are accumulation of nanos.

The characteristic of mapping deposits, is a medium-haired turbidity (the number of applications contained in a unit of flow volume) of rivers. Within the European territory of Russia, the smallest turbidity of the water of rivers (less than 10 g / m 3) is observed in the Tundra and Forestry zone. For lowland wetlands of the forest zone, turbidity is 10-25 g / m 3; In the southern part of the forest zone, the turbidity of rivers reaches 100-250 g / m 3; In the forest-steppe blade, the turbidity can reach 1000-2500 g / m 3, which is obvious on small rivers up to 5000 g / m 3.

Shooting - chief factor The reservoir reservoir is due to the deposits in their bowls of the nanos coming with liquid drain, as well as a solid material demolished in the reservoir during the processing of shores. Particularly danger is cases of transport transport, accompanied by intense erosion of the slopes, as well as the formation of a lie as a result of the interaction of the flow of the deposit. In some cases, washing soil cover accompanied by the transfer of pollutants. Pesticides, radionuclides and some other hazardous substances as a result of sorption are fixed on the mineral particles of the nanos and are transferred to water flows during the flooding flow.

Sources: Theory and methods for calculating river nansions. Karausishev A.V. - L., hydrometeoisdate, 1977; Stoke of the nanos, its study and geographical distribution. Edited by Karaushev A.V. - L., 1977.

Solid stock - transfer surface runoff solid particles p. Measured in t / G. or kg / ha.

Dictionary By soil science. - M.: Science. Edited by A.A. Rode. 1975 .

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Ruffle breeds are demolished in the river - weathered products. At the same time it is formed solid Stock - Mass of suspended, inhaled along the bottom and solutes. Their amount depends on the energy of moving water and from the resistance of the breeds of the breed. Solid stock is divided into suspended and bottom. When changing the flow rate, these types of solid flow can move one to another. From solid flow may depend on turbidity of the river. In large systems, solid flow rivers is measured with tens of millions of tons per year. For example, the ammonia solid stock - 94 million tons; Volga - 25 million tons; Ob - 15 million tons; Don - 6 million tons; Huanghe - 1500 million tons; Indus - 450 million tons; Nile - 62 million tons.

The value of the drain depends on the range of factors:

from climate . The more precipitation and less evaporation, the more stock, and the opposite. The magnitude of the drain depends not only on the amount of precipitation, but also on their shape and the time of falling out. For example: the rains of hot summer will give less stock than the cool autumn; The snow does not give surface runoff during the cold months, it focuses in a short period of spring flood. The uniformity of precipitation is also affected by the drains: sharp changes in the amount of precipitation and the size of the evaporation cause an uneven stock, and when the rains, the sedimentation of precipitation into the ground is greater than during the rainstone rains;

from terrain . With minor elevations Stocks More than with the plains adjacent to them: on the Valdai hill, the flow module is 12 l / s / km 2, and on the adjacent plains - 6. An even greater stock (from 25 to 75) in the mountains, since in addition to influence The relief here affects the magnitude of the drain and increase the amount of precipitation, as well as a decrease in evaporation in the mountains due to a decrease in temperature. With the elevated and mountainous areas, water flows quickly, but from the plains slowly. For these reasons, the plain rivers are more uniform mode, while the mining is sensitive and rapidly react to the weather;

from soil cover . In the zones of excess soil moisturizing most Years are saturated with water and give it to rivers. In the zones of insufficient moisture during the melting of the soil of the soil can absorb all melting water, so the stock in these areas is weak;

from vegetable cover . Research recent yearsconducted due to the plantation of forest stripes in the steppes indicate the positive effect of them for stock, as it is more significant in forest zones than in the steppe;

from the influence of the swamp . It is different in the zones of redundant and insufficient moisture: in the forest zone of the swamp - flow regulators, and in the forest-steppe they suck superficial and groundwater and evaporate them into the atmosphere, thereby disturbing stock;

from large flow lakes . They are powerful drain regulators.

Analyzing the foregoing, it should be concluded that the magnitude of the flow rate. The area of \u200b\u200bthe most abundant flow is equatorial latitude (module of the order -1500 mm per year). The biggest annual stock in the rivers South America. Subolar latitude of the northern hemisphere - the zone of minimal flow (flow module - 200 mm per year). Maximum amount The runoff in these latitudes falls on the spring and summer.

On each mainland there are territories from which the runoff is carried out not in the ocean, but in the inner reservoirs - lakes that are not communicating with the oceans. Such territories are called regions of inner drain , or heartless. The formation of the flow of these areas is associated with the loss of atmospheric precipitation, as well as with the remoteness of intramatic territories from the ocean. The largest sophisticated squares fall on Africa (40% of the entire territory) and Eurasia (29% of the entire territory).

So, the most important link in the cycle of water in nature and the most important characteristic of the river is the stock.

It is characterized by a number of indicators (water consumption, flow module, flow coefficient). The flow rate depends on a number of factors (from climate, from the terrain, from soil cover, from vegetable cover, from the influence of swamps and lakes). The widespread characteristic of the river is the magnitude of its annual flow. Gallest annual stock Amazon has, which is associated with a huge area of \u200b\u200bits river basin, located mainly in the zone of wet equatorial forests.

Stock -this movement of water by earth Kore, which is the most important link of the overall of water in nature. Distinguish surface, or river, stock and underground. Surfactant, depending on the place of the flow, is divided into the sloping, when the runoff goes through the slopes, and the channel (see rivers).

The stock of a specific land plot is measured by the indicators:

Water consumption - water volume flowing per unit of time through a living cross-section of the river. It is usually expressed in m3 / with average daily water costs allow to determine the maximum and minimum costs, as well as the water drain volume for the year from the pool area. Annual amazon -3787 km, and Volga -270 km3;

The flow module. They are called the amount of water in liters, flowing per second from 1 km2 square. It is calculated by dividing the magnitude of the flow on the river basin area. The largest module has the rivers of the Tundrov and Forest Zone Europe;

The flow factor. It shows what the proportion of precipitation (in percent) flows into the river. The highest coefficient has rivers of the tundra and forest zones (60-80%), in the rivers of desert areas it is very low (Nile - 4%).

Ruffle breeds are demolished in the river - weathered products. In addition, erosion (destructive) work of rivers also makes them supplier of loose breeds. At the same time, a solid flow is formed - the mass of weighted, inlets along the bottom and solutes. Their amount depends on the energy of moving water and from the resistance of the breeds of the breed. The solid flow is divided into weighted and bottom, but this concept is conditional, since when changing the flow rate, one category can quickly move to another. For high speed The bottom solid flow can move the layer with a capacity of up to several tens of centimeters. Their movement occurs very unevenly, since the speed at the bottom changes sharply. Therefore, sandy waves can be formed at the bottom of the river and the dumps that impede shipping. The turbidity of the river depends on the magnitude of the solid drain, which, in turn, characterizes the intensity of erosion activity in the river basin. In large systems, solid flow rivers is measured with tens of millions of tons per year. For example, the flow of the sublime apposities of Amudarya - 94 million tons per year, the Volga River - 25 million tons per year, Ob - 15 million tons per year, don - 6 million tons per year, Juanhe - 1500 million tons per year , Indea - 450 million tons per year, Nila - 62 million tons per year.

The value of the drain depends on the range of factors:

First of all, from climate. The more precipitation and less evaporation, the more stock, and the opposite. The magnitude of the flow depends on the shape of precipitation and the distribution of them in time.

From terrain. When lifting air masses on the slopes of the mountains, they are cooled, as they meet with colder layers of the atmosphere, and water steam is condensed, so here the amount of precipitation increases. With the elevated and mountainous areas, water flows quickly, but from the plains slowly. For these reasons, the plain rivers are more uniform mode, while the mining is sensitive and rapidly react to the weather;

From soil cover. In the zones of excessive moisturizing soil, most of the year are saturated with water and give it rivers. In the zones of insufficient moisture during the melting season of the soil, soil can absorb all melting water, so the stock in these zones is weak;

From vegetable cover. Studies of recent years, conducted in connection with the plantation of forest strips in the steppes, indicate the positive effect of them for stock, as it is in forest zones more than in steppe;

From the influence of swamps. It is different in the zones of redundant and insufficient moisture. In the forest zone of the swamps are flow regulators, and in the forest-steppe zone their effect is negative: they absorb surface and groundwater and evaporate them into the atmosphere, thereby disturbing both superficial and underground flow;

From large running lakes. They are a powerful regulator of the runoff, however, the action is locally.

From the above summary The factors affecting the drain should be that the value is historically changeable.

The zone of the most abundant flow is equatorial latitudes, the maximum value of its module is 1500 mm per year, and the minimum is about 500 mm per year. Here the drain is distributed evenly in time. The biggest annual stock in South America.

The zone of minimal flow is the subogenous latitudes of the northern hemisphere covering the tundra. The maximum value of the flow module is here 200 mm per year or less, and the greatest number It comes from spring and summer.

In the polar areas, the drain is carried out by glaciers, the thickness of the layer in the water is approximately 80 mm in Antarctica and 180 mm in Greenland.

On each mainland there are areas from which the runoff is carried out not in the ocean, but in the inner reservoirs - lakes. Such territories are called in the fields of internal flow or selfless. The formation of these areas is associated with the impact of atmospheric precipitation, as well as with the remoteness of intramatic territories from the ocean. Self large squares Sleeve regions come to Africa (40% of the general territory of the mainland) and Eurasia (29% of the total territory).

Salt stock rivers

IN natural conditions Water is not chemically clean, but always contains some amount of dissolved substances with which it comes into contact during the process.

Know wastewater, as a rule, have relatively small mineralization - PPPA.ru. This is a consequence of the following circumstances:

1) water coming into the river with washing Square, comes into contact with well-washed soils;

2) The rivers occurs a relatively fast change of water.

Chemical composition River waters are qualitatively more or less monotonous and is represented mainly by the following ions: HCO3 (hydrocarbonate ion), SO (sulfate ion), CL (chloride ion), CO (carbonate ion), Ca (calcium ion), MG (magnesium ion), Na (sodium ion), K (ion of potassium).

In the hydrochemical mode of sushi water, a certain pattern is observed, which is expressed in the fact that in the direction from the tundra zone to the desert zone is observed:

1) an increase in the degree of mineralization of river water;

2) Changing the class of water from hydrocarbonate to sulfany and further to chloride.

In the direction of the north to south, the rigidity of water increases and the content decreases organic substances in water.

According to the degree of mineralization of water, O. Alhein allocates four groups of rivers:

1) low mineralization (up to 200 mg / l);

2) medium mineralization (200-500 mg / l);

3) increased mineralization (500-1000mg / l);

4) severe mineralization (more than 1000 mg / l).

Energy and work of rivers

Water flowing under the action of gravity on the slopes and river beds, constantly makes a job. The potential energy of rivers on the length of the length L km in the fall of NM and with an average water flow on this section q m3 / s per unit of time is 9.81 103 NJ. Energy in this section in kilowatts is called cadastral power.

N \u003d 9,81Q N kW.

If n is divided into the length of the L section L, then the specific power of the river Nude \u003d N / L kW / km. The sum of the capacity of the river plots throughout the entire power of the river:

The potential power of the USSR rivers is about 500 million kW.

IN natural conditions Water energy is spent on overcoming the internal resistance to the movement due to stirring of water particles, for friction about the earth's surface and the bed of the river. This part of the energy is dissipated in the stream in the form of heat. Another, smaller part of the energy is consumed on the erosion of the soil, weighing and transferring solid and dissolved material into more reduced places.

On the slopes of the catchment, the operation of fluid water is manifested in the destruction of the connectedness of soil particles and rocks and in the washout of them in lowering: hollows, hollows, sudokas and rivers. This process is called slope erosion. The channel flow in the course of the river erosion produces work on the transformation of the direction itself, the type of which is blurring the lodge as a result of friction of solid particles, injected by the stream. Products of destruction together with the material received from the slopes of the catchment, move downstream at a certain distance.

Solid particles formed as a result of the erosion of hydrochildren and the beds carrying by watercourses and forming their beds are called river nans.

River seizures are divided into weighted and inlets or bottom. The division is conditional, since, when changing the flow rate, one category of nanos quickly goes to another. The larger the flow rate, the larger there may be suspended particles. When the speed decreases, larger particles are lowered to the bottom, becoming inaccumbers (moving jumps).

The amount of suspended nanos, rusted by the flow through a living cross-section of the river per unit of time (second), is the flow rate of suspended nans (R kg / s).

The number of suspended nanos, rushing through the living cross section of the river great gap time (day, month, season, year, etc.), - stock of weighted applications.

Measuring the flow of suspended nansions is based on the determination of the turbidity of water, i.e. the weight content of the nanos in a unit of volume. Turbidity is expressed by addiction:

where pH is the weight of the disorder in the sample in grams; V - water sample volume | in milliliters; - turbidity in g / m3.

With an average turbidity in the river less than 50 g / m3, and most of the USSR rivers have exactly such turbidity, the flow rate of weighted applications is calculated by the formula:

where-it is a stream of stream in g / m3;. Q - water consumption in m3 / s.

With a greater average turbidity, separate turbidity is taken into account! On each vertical, and the above formula modifies-1 XI.

Counting stock of weighted nanos is based on the use! The dependences between the expenditures of the nanos and water flow rate R \u003d F (Q).

The amount of suspended nanos in the river depends on the flow rate, and mainly from the receipt of nanos from the catchment basin.

Distribution of suspended nanos in the living section of the flow uneven. The lower layers are more saturated, where larger particles prevail.

Weighted seizures constitute the main part of the flow rate of rivers. On the plain rivers, suspended applications can be up to 90-95% of the total number of applications. The total stock of weighted nans of rivers in the ocean from the entire land area, with the exception of the fields of internal flow, is 15.7 billion tons per year.

At mining rivers, 20-30% of the supply consumption falls on consumption of inlets. The value of the flow rate of intertwine depends on the rate of flow, the shape and surface of the particles themselves and the nature of the bottom of the river. According to the ERI's law, the mass of particles moving by water along the bottom (M) is proportional to the speed (V) in the sixth, M \u003d A V6, (A - coefficient). This formula shows that with an increase in the flow rate of 3 times the mass of the particles that the river can be transferred at this speed will increase in 729 times. That is why in the plain rivers, inlets are predominantly from the sand of various overallities, the mountain rivers suffer gravel, pebbles, large boulders.

At high speed, inlets can move in a layer with a capacity of up to several tens of centimeters. The movement occurs very unevenly, since the speed of the bottom changes sharply. Therefore, sand waves are formed at the bottom of the river.

The total number of nanos (weighted and milking), carried through a living cross-section of the river over a large period of time (day, month, season, year, etc.), is called the flow of the nanos.

It should be noted that the rivers are put in the sea only a part of those products of the water erosion, which are formed on their waterboards. When moving the nansions in the river rods and especially in their lower reaches, where the stream energy weakens and transporting the ability is reduced, the deposition of the nanos is observed, as a result of which delta is formed on the mouths. Due to the deposits of nanos, the Great Chinese Plain, Amazonian and Missisy Delta Plains was formed. Dellets of many rivers stretch into the sea for tens of kilometers. So, the delta of the River Delta Juanhe, Huihehe and Yangtzi stretch 1100 km.

The intensity of erosion and the magnitude of the design of the nanos are determined by both the climatic components of the geographic landscape and other factors of the underlying surface, in particular, the nature of the relief, vegetation cover and soil. Due to the change in these factors from the north to the south, there is a change in the drainage of the nanos, that is, its geographical zonality is detected, which allows you to match the characteristics of the drainage of the nanos.

Solid stock solid particles carrying by the waters of the river. Formation factors; climatic (moisture. Surroundifications, soil composition, vegetation ..), abonal (relief, local soil differences, slopes ..), anthropogenic (agro-celloretory measures, cutting down of forests, fires). The erosion intensity varies on the climates zones (in the zones of empty and sufficient soil moisturizing is fastened with herbal and forest cover, the slope erosion is difficult, the nanos are formed when the river bed is blurred; in the zone, it is lack of an increase in soil dryness in the zone). Applications are divided into suspended (most transit, size 1-3 mm), empty (Move along the bottom by rolling, jumping or in the form of bottom is a variety, are framed in re-formation of the bed. The law ERI P \u003d KU6 (the weight of inlets particles is proportional to 6 degrees of flow rate \u003d\u003e Mountain rivers can move large stones, plain - small fractions). For example, Washing the soil from the slopes of the forest and steppe zone of Europe of Russia, respectively, 60 and 1000 tons / km2, in North Africa 5000 t / km2. In South Asia 20 000 t / km2. ρ-density of nanos in water. Turbidity - the amount of the deposits, the content in the unit of the volume of the mixture of water and TV particle. For excess and cost zone. Moisturizing, from small led to 50 g / m³, in the forest-steppe zone, it is up to 100 g / m³, in the steppe-500 g / m³, in the dry desert zone, turbidity increases, in the mountainous areas of the arid climate may exceed 10,000 g / m³. Menuity-weighted nanos in the practice of hydrological analysis. The flow rate (R) is directly measured - the number of nanos in the weight units whipped by the river through the cross section per unit of time R \u003d P / T kg / s.

9. Thermal river mode. Thermal balance of water bodies.

The thermal regime of rivers, the streams are formed under the action of numerous heat sources, weching in the heat exchange of the ancient mass with the atmosphere and the channel of watercourse.

10. Server process. Elements of the bed, understand, etc.

The channel processes are a set of phenomena and processes occurring under the influence of a complex of various natural and anthropogenic factors, and express in changes in the form and parameters of river beds. The distribution of the depths in the river river rods depends on the distribution of erosion-accumulative formations in them - the channel forms. Mass propagation is distinguished by small ridges, the dimensions of which are incommensurable with the size of the channel .. Small forms of the channel formations determine the degree of roughness of the bottom. On many plain rivers, the ridges are observed, the dimensions of which are commensurate with the size of the flow channel. Some of them are located at some angle to the stream axis, others represent single formations that occupy almost the entire width of the bed. These are the so-called ribbon ridges. Another variety of sand varnishes are rapid. They are powerful accumulations of the nanos in the middle part of the bed in the form of sandy shames or moving islands. Rapidaries are usually elongated along the river and separated from the shores by drives. In the interlea, the rapids are sick. More complex forms of channel formations are rigs and floodplains. Docks are formed where there are favorable conditions for the accumulation of nanos. Such conditions are created by reducing the transporting ability of the flow under the influence of either a decrease in flow rates, or a sharp local increase in solid. A decrease in flow rates is observed in places of outlet of the mountain rivers on the plain, in the places of a sharp expansion of the flow of the flow, as a result of the subjunction under the influence of the narrowing of the valley, the flow of large tributaries. The increase in solid flow is most clearly manifested when the tributaries carrying a large amount of nanos are pushed (in this case, in this case there are below the influx of tributaries), as well as in the case of the deposit of nanos of ravines. Periodic oscillations of the marks of the bottom on the carot reaches large values. The erosion of ridges of the ridges occurs not only in the period of summer interventions, but also in winter during the decoration, especially if the latter was formed at low levels.

\\\\\\ River valley - morphological education, element of the river basin; relatively narrow and elongated, winding, relief shape having a slope. Waterproof space - the distance from the watershed to the brow of the valley. The width of the valley is the distance between the brows. The terrays of the site located by the ledges within the slopes of the valley. The bottom of the valley - relates, but the smooth horizon part, on the line and understand. Gorge - Almost sheer slopes, the bottom is robbed. Plows - part of the bottom of the valley, raised over the interstitive water level in the river, covered with rasch and flooded during the salons and floods.