Physicist and astronomer Stefan Feeney of University College London, one of the...
The most popular philosophical and socio-political currents in modern science. During the 20th century, anarchism and Marxism were also very popular, but now they are finding fewer supporters.
At the same time, it is necessary to know and be able to distinguish all these socio-political currents in order to understand philosophy, sociology, social science and jurisprudence.
liberal teachings
Socialism, liberalism, conservatism are socio-political trends, the representatives of which are most of all in the parliaments of countries around the world today. Let's consider them in more detail.
The liberal current gained great popularity in the 20th century. Liberalism unequivocally stands for the rights and freedoms of any person, regardless of his nationality, religion, beliefs and social status. At the same time, he puts these rights and freedoms above all else, proclaiming them the main value. Moreover, under liberalism they represent the basis of economic and social life.
The influence of church and state on public institutions is strictly controlled and limited in accordance with the constitution. The main thing that liberals want is permission to speak freely, to choose a religion or to abandon it, to vote freely in fair and independent elections for any candidate.
In economic life, socialism, liberalism, conservatism stake on different priorities. Liberals advocate complete free trade and business.
In the field of jurisprudence, the main thing is the rule of law over all branches of government. Everyone is equal before the letter of the law, regardless of social and financial status. Comparison of liberalism, conservatism, socialism helps to better remember and realize how each of these currents differs from each other.
Socialism
Socialism puts the principle of social justice at the forefront. As well as equality and freedom. In the broad sense of the word, socialism is a social stand that lives according to the above principles.
The global goal of socialism is the overthrow of capitalism and the construction of a perfect society in the future - communism. This social system should finish the prehistory of mankind and become the beginning of its new, true history, the founders and ideologists of this movement say. To achieve this goal, all resources are mobilized and applied.
Socialism, liberalism, conservatism differ in their main principles. For socialists, this is the rejection of private property in favor of public property, as well as the introduction of public control over the use of natural resources. Everything in the state is perceived as common - this is one of the fundamental principles of the doctrine.
Conservatism
The main thing in conservatism is adherence to traditional, established values and orders, as well as religious doctrines. The preservation of traditions and existing public institutions is the main thing that the conservatives stand for.
In domestic politics for them, the main value is the existing state and social order. Conservatives are categorically against radical reforms, comparing them with extremism.
In foreign policy, the adherents of this ideology pay the main attention to the strengthening of security under influence from the outside, they allow the use of force to resolve political conflicts. At the same time, friendly relations are maintained with traditional allies, with distrust of new partners.
Anarchism
Speaking about liberalism, conservatism, socialism, anarchism, one cannot fail to mention. It is which is based on absolute freedom. Its main goal is the destruction of any possible way of exploitation of one person by another.
Instead of power, anarchists propose to introduce mutually beneficial cooperation of individuals. Power, in their opinion, should be abolished, since it is based on the suppression of everyone else by rich and status people.
All relations in society should be based on the personal interest of each person, as well as on his voluntary consent, maximum mutual assistance and personal responsibility. At the same time, the main thing is the elimination of any manifestations of power.
Marxism
In order to thoroughly study conservatism, liberalism, socialism, Marxism, it is also necessary to know and understand. This teaching left a serious imprint on most of the public institutions of the 20th century.
This philosophical doctrine was founded in the 19th century by Karl Marx and at the same time subsequently different parties and political movements often interpreted this doctrine in their own way.
In fact, Marxism is one of the varieties of socialism, they have much in common in all areas. Three components are of key importance in this theory. Historical materialism, when the history of human society is understood as a special case of natural. Also, the doctrine of when the final price of a product is not determined by the rules of the market, but depends only on the efforts expended for its production. In addition, the basis of Marxism is the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Comparison of scientific theories
In order to thoroughly understand what each of the theories means, it is best to use comparison questions. Liberalism, conservatism, socialism in this case will appear as clear and precise concepts.
The main thing to be sorted out is the role of the state in economic life in each of these teachings, the position on solving social social problems, and also what each system sees as the limits of a citizen's personal freedom.
Liberalism, conservatism and socialism are considered to be the most influential ideologies of our time.
Historically, the first political ideology was the ideology of liberalism, the founders of which were J. Locke, T. Hobbes and A. Smith. Liberalism substantiated the process of isolation and formation of an independent individual - a representative of the emerging bourgeoisie.
Modern liberalism(neoliberalism) proceeds from the fact that the mechanism of the free market creates the most favorable conditions for effective economic activity, regulation of social and economic processes. The role of the state within the framework of liberalism is limited to ensuring normal conditions for the functioning of the market and competition, maintaining law and order, protecting the life and dignity of the individual.
Liberal - capitalist ideology dominates in most developed European countries. Its name is due to the fact that it begins with the slogan of freedom, still filled with the humanistic content of the Renaissance, then proceeds to understand freedom as freedom of enterprise and formal rights of the individual and property, and ends with the preaching of consumerism. Liberalism is based on the economic vision of human behavior, when the economy is understood as a priority area compared to politics.
Conservatism. This direction of ideological thought is most often characterized as a system of views focused on the preservation and support of the existing social order and the rejection of abstract radical projects of social restructuring. This "protective" tendency of socio-political thinking is rooted in the so-called traditionalism - the usual psychological tendency of people to cling to the past, reliable, proven.
For conservatism, the concept of natural human rights and freedoms, which implies at least the formal equality of all individuals, is fundamentally unacceptable in the liberal ideology. Conservatives argue the opposite: people are fundamentally unequal in their talents, abilities, zeal, and God's mark.
Conservatism, forced to insist on maintaining the status quo, still cannot reject any change at all. They are not rejected, but even welcomed - but only those that are consistent with the existing order and develop under control. Changes of a radical, revolutionary nature cannot benefit society.
Socialism. The ideas of socialism received the most impressive and consistent development in the teachings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. K. Marx and F. Engels were able to create a very coherent, meaningful, logically coherent concept community development. The key tenets of Marxism are well known. Central among them are three radical goals-demands: the socialist revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat, the establishment of public ownership of the means of production.
Marxist ideology was the first in the history of theoretical concepts to openly declare that it was protecting the interests of a particular class.
The Socialist International, re-established after World War II in 1951, proclaimed its official doctrine in the Frankfurt Declaration, known as "Democratic Socialism". This doctrine proceeds from the basic idea for socialists that socialism can only be reached by democratic means. Each party may have its own ideas about democratic socialism, but the essence is the same for all: democracy is a method of solving problems that corresponds to the essence of socialism and ensures progress towards it. The more democracy, the more socialism.
An important milestone in the development of the social democratic movement was the XVIII Congress of the Socialist International, held in 1989 in Stockholm. Congress adopted a “Declaration of Principles”—essentially new program Socialist International. In this document, democratic socialism was characterized as a movement for freedom, justice and solidarity. The Social Democrats advocated political, social and economic democracy in global scale. The economic concept of social democracy emphasizes the pluralism of ownership. Private property should be allowed and may well coexist with public property. The form of ownership must correspond to the nature of production. Indicative planning in production is necessary. Recently, the Social Democrats have put forward the concept of "Ecological Socialism". According to this concept, only that has the right to exist that does not harm man and nature. Economic growth for the sake of economic growth alone is useless.
Europe
1) Liberalism. The creators of liberalism: D. Locke, F. Smith, I. Bentham, Turgot.
The basic principles are set out in the French? Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen? 1789: the right to liberty, property, security? civil liberties. Main situation in the economy: freedom to dispose of property at its discretion, the state should not participate in economic life, its function? maintaining order and protecting property, economics? self-regulating mechanism, developing according to its own laws, the basis of economic prosperity is a free contract, free. competition, free trade.
Theorists of liberalism believed that the state should strive to embody the principles of constitutionalism, representative democracy, and the inviolability of democratic freedoms. Recognizing the state as the bearer of supreme power, they demanded respect for the autonomy of the individual and the protection of her own rights, believing that the state should not subjugate the individual, but must provide the necessary. conditions for their development.
2) Conservatism (the main ideology of the aristocracy? originally, by the end of the century - the bourgeoisie).
Representatives of conservatism: O.Comte, Alexis de Tocqueville, Joseph de Maistre.
Key points: the main goal? protection of society from the destructive influence of revolutionary and rationalist ideas, great attention to the social structure of society, attention to the problems of small social groups. Conservatives emphasized the importance and immutability of traditional values (family, religion, order), the neglect of which threatens with tragic and destructive consequences.
3) Socialism The creators of utopian socialism: Saint-Simon, Fourier, Owen.
In 30-40, new theories of socialism appeared: cooperative and Christian.
At the end of 1840, Marxism finally took shape. In the historical process, Marx and Engels distinguish one dominant? socio-economic development process. The change in the methods of production will take place as a result of the class struggle. The conflict between the productive forces and production relations can be resolved by transferring the means of production into the hands of society with the elimination of private property. Marx and Engels considered capitalism unjust and unviable, they believed that with the overcoming of private property, the time will come for the endless development of production for the benefit of society. Marx connected the triumph of social justice with the class struggle of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, which reaches its peak in the socialist revolution (Marx underestimated the ability of capitalism to self-development and self-renewal).
Russia. Russian social thought was closely connected with Western European thought and at the same time differed from it. In Zap. In Europe, theories were created that, from economic and moral and ethical positions, proved the historical inevitability and progressiveness of the capitalist system, searches were made for ways to improve it, and doctrines leading to its destruction were developed. In Russia, autocracy and serfdom were preserved. Their fate was the essence of all socio-political disagreements. The conservatives advocated the preservation and strengthening of the existing order, the liberals proposed their gradual reform (the evolutionary path of the country's development), the radicals insisted on a radical break in the socio-political system (the revolutionary path). In Zap. Europe there were more favorable conditions for the development of social movement, in contrast to Russia. In the first half of the XIX century. in Russia there are still no clear ideologically and organizationally formalized socio-political directions Supporters of different political. concepts often acted within the framework of one organization, in disputes defending their view of the future of the country. In the social movement of the second half of the XIX century. the delimitation of 3 ideological directions began: radical, liberal and conservative.
Conservative. Participants: Uvarov, Karamzin, Pogodin, Shevyrev, Bulgarin, Grech.
It was based on theories that proved the inviolability of autocracy and serfdom. Autocracy? the only possible form of government. Theory official nationality? orthodoxy (the main spiritual life of the people), autocracy (the guarantor of the inviolability of the Russian state), nationality (the unity of the tsar with the people), according to the conservatives, it was necessary to preserve and strengthen the estate system, in which the nobility played a leading role, as the main support of autocracy. From these postulates, the conclusion was drawn about the impossibility and uselessness of fundamental social changes, about the need to strengthen the autocracy and serfdom.
Liberal. 2 currents: Slavophiles and Westerners
Slavophiles:
The noble intelligentsia stood for a fundamentally different from Western Europe. ways of development on the basis of its originality (patriarchy, cr. community, Orthodoxy).
Cancel crepe. law, the development of industry, trade, education.
Negative attitude to Peter's transformations
Ch. purpose? preservation of identity, a special way for Russia.
Kireevsky, Khomyakov, Aksakov, Koshelev, Samarin
Westerners:
The noble-landlord intelligentsia believed that Russia should follow the Western European historical path, criticized the theory of the identity of the Slavophiles
Negative rel. to the crepe law. constitutional monarchy according to the Western European model, political. freedom
Positive attitude towards the activities of Peter
Europe? role model
Granovsky, Solovyov, Kavelin, Annenkov, Botkin
Radical.
Representatives: Belinsky, Herzen, Ogarev.
The idea of? communal socialism? (originality) is aimed at overthrowing the feudal system, the elimination of landownership and consistent democratization.
Revolutionary. mugs: 1) Petrashevtsev (Saltykov-Shchedrin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Glinka). The idea of utopian socialism
2) Stankevich? use of progressive ideas of German idealist philosophy
3) Chaadaev? criticism of the theory of "official nationality"; he saw Russia's progress in the use of European experience.
And socialism views the present stage of historical development differently. Thus, for civilization, which made the individual the center of socio-economic and social life, has become a major achievement. This stage of human development is perceived by liberals as the final one. Socialism criticizes modern civilization, it considers it only a step in historical evolution, but not the last. According to socialist views, human history is just beginning, and the socialists see the global goal of development in overthrowing the current capitalist system and building an ideal society. That is why socialist ideas are often on the verge of utopian currents.
The most important of the freedoms considers entrepreneurship or the right of every person to private property. Whereas political freedom for him is secondary to economic freedom. The ideal society for is seen as providing for each individual equal rights and equal opportunities for success and social recognition. If for liberalism freedom is identical to the individual freedom of each person, then for socialism it goes beyond private life. On the contrary, socialism is opposed to individualism and brings to the fore the idea of social cooperation.
A great contribution of liberal doctrine to the development of society can be considered the spread of the principles of the rule of law, the equality of all before the law, the limited power of the state, its transparency and responsibility. In particular, liberalism rejected the previously dominant theological theory of the emergence and functioning of power, which substantiated its divine. If initially they were inclined to minimal influence of the state on economic processes, then today's theories allow state intervention to solve socially significant tasks - equalizing social status, struggle, ensuring equal access to education, etc. But power, according to liberalism, exists only for the benefit of those subject and should secure their interests.
The ideal society for a socialist is one in which there is no place for the exploitation of man by man, and social equality and justice are also approved. According to ideological current, such a society can only be achieved by abolishing private property and replacing it with collective and public property. This process should lead to a reduction in the alienation of man from the results of his labor, to eliminate the exploitation of man by man, to reduce social inequality and ensure the harmonious development of each individual.
1. Compare the political views of conservatives, liberals, and socialists of the 19th - early 20th centuries: highlight the general and the special
Conservatism, liberalism and socialism represent the "main" political worldviews of the 19th and 20th centuries. All of them were formed in the process of gradual erosion of traditional political worldviews - realistic, utopian and theocratic, which were the form of existence and development of specific political concepts from the 2nd millennium BC. to the 18th century. This erosion and, accordingly, the formation of new worldviews took place during the 17th and 18th centuries, during the period of bourgeois revolutions.
The concepts of liberalism, conservatism and socialism are ambiguous. As a worldview, each of them has a certain philosophical basis and represents a certain way of understanding the world as a whole, primarily society and ways of its development. As political ideologies, liberalism, conservatism and socialism paint a picture of the desired future and the main ways to achieve it. In other words, each ideology offers a certain model for the development of society, which seems optimal to its creators and supporters. It should be emphasized that political ideology is not a system of views in the strict sense of the word. This is a more or less interdependent set of concepts, principles and ideas, usually underlying the platforms of political parties.
There is a certain correspondence between one ideology or another, on the one hand, and the interests of certain classes and social strata, on the other. However, this correspondence is neither rigid nor immutable. Conservatism usually expresses the aspirations of large proprietors, as well as broad sections of the population whose social stability has been threatened as a result of some past or impending changes. Socialism represents the interests of the most disadvantaged part of society, or those who earn a living mainly by their work. Liberalism is the ideology of political centrism. As a rule, liberal views are held by broad sections of the bourgeoisie - middle and small. In today's post-industrial society, where class no longer determines a person's place in life, the wealthiest are often conservatives, while the less wealthy share the principles of socialism. At the same time, all modern political parties usually claim that they represent the interests of the people as a whole, offering a constructive program of rapid economic development and general welfare.
Conservatism
The concept of "conservatism" comes from the name of the literary magazine "Conservator", which began to be published in 1815 by the French romantic writer F.R. Chateaubriand. Conservatism is the protection of specific societies from the destructive impact of revolutionary and rationalist ideas, based on the values of the past and the present. It follows that conservatives always oppose revolutions that destroy the existing society, and against radical reforms, negative impact which in some cases can be comparable to the consequences of revolutions. Therefore, unlike liberalism, the essence of which is always unchanged, conservatism is historically changeable. The specific content of conservative concepts varies depending on what ideas these concepts oppose in a given historical period. However, it would be wrong to think that conservatism is opposed to any change in general. According to the well-known German conservative political figure R. Weizsäcker, conservatives are in favor of progress, because "he who closes the way to progress becomes a reactionary." But changes in society should occur naturally, and reforms should help to manifest already overdue changes, preserving all that valuable that was achieved in the process of previous historical development. Among the enduring values necessary for the normal functioning and development of any society, conservatives include patriotism, discipline, a strong family and religion. These values, as well as the stable and time-tested forms of organization of people's lives, historically formed in specific societies, customs, traditions, features of culture and mentality should not be destroyed in the process of inevitable changes in society, but reproduced in new conditions, ensuring stability and continuity.
The philosophical basis of classical conservatism is the realistic postulate that the general is higher than the individual. (Meaning medieval realism - a direction in scholasticism, asserting the real existence of general concepts and the secondary nature of individual objects in relation to them). Accordingly, it is argued that the interests of society and the state are higher than the interests of the individual, that the general interest is not a fiction, but a reality, which, moreover, has a greater value than the interest of an individual who must be subordinated to the general interest - public and state. It should be emphasized that in practice any state and society is guided by this principle, even if it is officially considered otherwise.
The notion that the individual is always subordinate to the general, constitutes a single whole with it, is reflected in the concept of society as a living integral organism, not a single element of which can be arbitrarily eliminated or replaced without harm to the organism itself. Such changes lead to the disease of society, and perhaps to its death, especially if the source of the body's vital energy - its soul - is affected.
This concept opposed the notion of society as a mechanism that was inherent in the ideologists of the Enlightenment, revolutionaries and liberals, which can be improved by arbitrarily replacing individual details, eliminating the unnecessary, adding something new, useful.
The mechanism does not have its own history, self-development. The body, on the contrary, is constantly evolving, changing naturally. It follows that the attempts of the revolutionaries and statesmen to realize the abstract models of society created by the mind are doomed to failure and dangerous. It is possible to reform a society only gradually, preserving its features that have arisen as a result of previous historical development, and the basic values inherent in this society. The ideas of the founders of classical conservatism about society as an integral structure based on the organic interconnection and interdependence of its constituent elements, about the difficulty of successfully reforming society, and about the basic principles of such reform are true and relevant for all societies that are in the process of active restructuring.
Only a strong state can successfully resist revolutions and the demands of radical reforms, therefore such a state was considered by the founders of classical conservatism as a value. Some of them, such as Joseph de Maistre, recognized the possibility and expediency wide application state violence in order to preserve the integrity of the social organism. But for the majority of Western European conservative thinkers of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century, this is not typical.
Thus, in the works of representatives of classical conservatism, the basic values were formulated, which have since become characteristic of conservative ideology in general. This is a strong state, patriotism, discipline and order in society, a strong family, the important role of religion and church.
In the middle of the 19th century, on the basis of the adoption by conservatives of a market economy, private property and competition, as well as the liberal principles of parliamentarism and political pluralism, classical conservatism became a thing of the past and a second historical type of conservative ideology was formed - conservatism of the second half of the 19th - first decades of the 20th century.
It is the least conceptual, most pragmatic of all the varieties of conservative ideology, although conservatism is generally considered much less conceptual and more pragmatic than liberalism and socialism. During this historical period, conservatives advocated the preservation of the existing state of affairs, that is, freedom of enterprise and unlimited competition, non-interference of the state in relations between wage workers and employers, opposing the introduction of state regulation of the economy and state social programs, speaking out against expanding the circle of voters, then - against the introduction universal suffrage.
This historical type of conservatism failed to win in the struggle against social reformism, the initiative of which came from the liberals, and from the end of the 19th century, from the social democrats. Therefore, at the beginning of the 20th century, new type conservatism - revolutionary conservatism (early 20s - first half of the 40s of the 20th century), represented by two types - Italian fascism and German national socialism.
The conservative ideology and the parties adhering to it are now successfully developing. Conservative parties periodically come to power, competing with the Social Democrats, and the conservative ideology has a significant impact on liberalism and socialism, on the practical policies of the socialist and liberal parties.
Liberalism
The concept of "liberalism" appeared in the early 19th century. Initially, liberals were called a group of nationalist deputies in the Cortes - the Spanish parliament. Then this concept entered all European languages, but in a slightly different meaning.
The essence of liberalism remains unchanged throughout the history of its existence. Liberalism is a statement of value human personality, her rights and freedoms. From the ideology of the Enlightenment, liberalism borrowed the idea of natural human rights, therefore, liberals included and continue to include the right to life, liberty, happiness and property among the inalienable rights of the individual, with the greatest attention being paid to private property and freedom, since it is believed that property provides freedom, which in its turn is a prerequisite for success in the life of an individual, the prosperity of society and the state. Freedom is inseparable from responsibility and ends where the freedom of another person begins. The "rules of the game" in society are fixed in laws adopted by a democratic state, which proclaims political freedoms (conscience, speech, meetings, associations, etc.). The economy is market based on private property and competition. Such economic system is the embodiment of the principle of freedom and a condition for the successful economic development of the country.
The first historical type of worldview containing the complex of ideas outlined above was classical liberalism (late 18th - 70s-80s of the 19th century). It is not for nothing that John Locke is called the "father of liberalism", and the founders of classical liberalism, Jeremy Bentham and Adam Smith, are considered the largest representatives of the late Enlightenment in England. Throughout the 19th century, liberal ideas were developed by John Stuart Mill (England), Benjamin Constant and Alexis de Tocqueville (France), Wilhelm von Humboldt and Lorenz Stein (Germany). Classical liberalism is distinguished, first of all, by the lack of connection with revolutionary processes, as well as by its negative attitude towards revolutions in general and the Great French Revolution in particular. Liberals accept and justify the social reality that has developed in Europe after the French Revolution, and actively strive to improve it, believing in the boundless social progress and the power of the human mind.
Classical liberalism includes a number of principles and concepts. Its philosophical basis is the nominalistic postulate about the priority of the individual over the general. Accordingly, the principle of individualism is central: the interests of the individual are higher than the interests of society and the state. Therefore, the state cannot violate the rights and freedoms of a person, and the individual has the right to protect them against encroachments by other individuals, organizations, society and the state.
If we consider the principle of individualism from the point of view of its correspondence to the actual state of things, it should be stated that it is false. In no state can the interests of an individual be higher than public and state interests. The opposite situation would mean the death of the state. It is curious that for the first time one of the founders of classical liberalism I. Bentham drew attention to this. He wrote that "natural, inalienable and sacred rights never existed", since they are incompatible with the state; "...citizens, demanding them, would only ask for anarchy ...". Nevertheless, the principle of individualism played a highly progressive role in the development Western civilization. And in our time, it still gives the individual the legal right to defend their interests in the face of the state.
The principle of utilitarianism is further development and concretization of the principle of individualism. I. Bentham, who formulated it, believed that society is a fictitious body consisting of individuals. The common good is also a fiction. The real interest of society is nothing but the sum of the interests of its constituent individuals. Therefore, any actions of politicians and any institutions should be evaluated solely in terms of the extent to which they contribute to the reduction of suffering and increase the happiness of individuals. The construction of a model of an ideal society, according to I. Bentam, is unnecessary and dangerous from the point of view of possible consequences class.
Nevertheless, based on the principles of individualism and utilitarianism, classical liberalism proposed a very specific model of society and the state as optimal. The core of this model is the concept of social self-regulation developed by A. Smith. According to A. Smith, in a market economy based on private property and competition, individual individuals pursue their selfish interests, and as a result of their collision and interaction, social harmony is formed, which implies effective economic development country. The state should not interfere in socio-economic relations: it is more likely to disrupt harmony than to promote its establishment.
The concept of the rule of law corresponds to the concept of public self-regulation in the sphere of politics. The goal of such a state is the formal equality of opportunities for citizens, the means is the adoption of relevant laws and ensuring their strict implementation by all, including government officials. At the same time, the material well-being of each individual person is considered his personal matter, and not the sphere of concern of the state. Alleviation of the extremes of poverty is supposed to come from private philanthropy. The essence of the rule of law is briefly expressed by the formula: "the law is above all."
The programs of the liberal parties usually included the following demands: separation of powers; approval of the principle of parliamentarism, that is, the transition to such forms of state organization in which the government is formed by parliament; proclamation and implementation of democratic rights and freedoms; separation of church and state.
From the end of the 18th century until the first two decades of the 20th century, the initiative for social reform in the countries of Western civilization belonged to the liberals. However, already at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, a crisis of liberalism began.
Then liberalism changed significantly and the second stage of its development began, associated with the emergence of social liberalism as a new historical type of liberal ideology. Social liberalism (the end of the 1970s of the 20th century) absorbed some social democratic ideas, and, as a result, some of the postulates of classical liberalism were abandoned. The creators of social liberalism were such political thinkers as J. Hobson, T. Green, L. Hobhouse (England), W. Repke, W. Eucken (Germany), B. Croce (Italy), L. Ward, J. Crowley, J. Dewey (USA).
First of all, social liberalism included in the liberal doctrine the social democratic idea of state regulation of the economy (the economic concept of state regulation was developed by J.M. Keynes and is not socialist, although it was also used by the social democrats), since under the domination of monopolies the demand for unlimited freedom competition was adopted by the monopolists and acquired the function of protecting the interests of the privileged segments of the population. Already at the end of the 19th century, the liberal governments of European countries, one after another, began to pass antitrust laws that prohibited the excessive concentration of property. The world economic crisis of the late 20s - mid-30s of the 20th century finally made the idea of the possibility of an efficient economy without regulatory state intervention a property of the past.
The second idea, borrowed by social liberalism from social democracy, is the idea of social justice, understood as the right of everyone to a decent life. The broad social programs proposed by the Social Democrats, which involve the redistribution of profits from the rich to the poor through the system state taxes. Social insurance for sickness, unemployment, old age, insurance medicine, free education, etc. - all these programs, gradually introduced and expanded in the countries of Western civilization during the late 19-70s of the 20th century, existed and continue to exist thanks to the introduction of a progressive taxation scale. Such a system of taxation assumes that people with more income or capital pay a higher percentage of this income or capital than people with less means of livelihood. Social programs at the same time contribute to the development of the economy, as they expand effective demand.
At present, the influence of liberalism as a political worldview is growing. This is connected both with the resurrection by neoconservatives of a number of fundamental provisions of classical liberalism, and with the collapse of the USSR, the world system of socialism, with the transition of the European countries that were part of it to a liberal economic model and Western-style political democracy, in the establishment of which liberalism and liberal parties played a decisive role. At the same time, the crisis of the liberal parties continues.
Socialism
The concept of "socialism", which came into general use in the third decade of the 19th century, was intended to designate the direction of social thought, seeking to develop a fundamentally new model for organizing society as a whole based on the transformation of socio-economic relations. It is difficult to give a brief meaningful definition of this ideology, since the concept of socialism combines a large number of concepts that differ greatly from each other, which can be divided into two large groups: actually socialist and communist.
The concepts of the first group assume that a decent life for workers can be achieved in a society based on a combination of public and private ownership of the means of production, and universal absolute equality is neither necessary nor desirable. The concepts of the second group propose to create a society based solely on social forms of ownership, which implies complete social and property equality of citizens.
Characteristic socialist ideology, which takes into account the existence of the two directions of socialist thought indicated above, can be given as follows. Socialism presupposes a critique of bourgeois society from the positions of some ideal, "situated" according to the socialists in the future. The formulation of the main features of the future society is given from the standpoint of the most disadvantaged part of the population, earning a living by their own labor. The society of social justice itself presupposes the essential role of social forms of ownership, the convergence of the extremes of wealth and poverty, the replacement of competition with solidarity and mutual assistance. The new society is conceived as capable of ensuring faster and more comprehensive social progress than the bourgeois one.
The first historical type of socialist ideology is the humanistic socialism of the first half of the 19th century, also called utopian socialism (at present, the second name seems unreasonable, since Marxism also turned out to be a utopia, although in a different sense). Its founders and major representatives are Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier (France), Robert Owen (England). This socialism is called humanistic because its creators, formulating the main features of a society of social justice, proceeded from the interests of a person in general, and not a representative of any class or stratum, although the implementation of the proposed model was supposed to bring the greatest gain to working people.
The specific systems of views of the founders of humanistic socialism were different, but in general, a society of social justice was conceived as based on a combination of public and private forms of ownership, on the cooperation of classes. It was supposed to preserve social and property inequality associated with the unequal contribution - financial and labor - to the development of the enterprise, with the different roles of representatives of various social strata in society. The transition to a new social organization was conceived as gradual and taking place exclusively by peaceful means. The following were proposed as means of transition: appeal to those in power, to representatives of big business, the creation of exemplary enterprises on new principles, and the promotion of positive experience. It is the indicated means of transition to a society of social justice that gave rise to the name "utopian socialism".
In the 40s of the 19th century, Marxism arose, also called workers' or economic socialism, as well as scientific communism. This ideology appeared on the basis of Karl Marx's analysis of the economic relations of bourgeois society under the conditions of the growth of the labor movement. The basic tenets of Marxism are as follows.
Capitalist society will inevitably lose its economic efficiency due to its inherent contradiction between the social character of production and private form assignments. In order to eliminate this contradiction and open up scope for the development of the productive forces, private ownership of the means of production must be abolished. Accordingly, the future society of social justice will be at the same time the most economically efficient. There will be public ownership of the means of production, there will be no classes, exploitation will disappear, complete social and property equality will be established, the state will cease to exist as a political organization of the economically dominant class (it will be replaced by public self-government), creative self-realization of each person will become possible.
The transition to a new society is possible only through class struggle and social revolution, which will be carried out by the working class, led by the Communist Party, armed with knowledge of the laws of social development. Immediately after the victory of the revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established, which will become a new, higher form of democracy, since by that time the proletariat will constitute the majority of the population in society.
The development of Marxism in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries led to the emergence of two modern types of socialist ideology: Marxism-Leninism and the ideology of social democracy.
Marxism-Leninism, also called Bolshevism and scientific communism, arose as an adaptation of Marxism to the conditions of Russia and to the practice of socialist construction after the victory Russian revolution 1917. The parties that adopted this ideology began, as a rule, to be called communist.
An attempt to implement the Marxist model, carried out in the USSR and other countries of the world socialist system, led to the emergence of a society in which the state economy was controlled from a single center in the absence of political democracy. It was another attempt to overcome the crisis of liberalism and the liberal economic model. However, the created society did not become either more humane or more economically efficient than the capitalist one in the long run, and therefore left the historical arena.
The ideology of social democracy, which was formed in the 90s of the 19th century, arose as a criticism, a revision of Marxism. Its main provisions were developed by the German Social Democrat Eduard Bernstein and gradually adopted by the international Social Democracy, although not without a sharp conflict of opinions. There was a rejection of such fundamental provisions of Marxism as social (socialist) revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat, complete replacement private ownership of the means of production by public property.
The revision of Marxism turned out to be possible and inevitable, since in the last decades of the 19th century it became obvious that the situation of the working class was not worsening with the development of capitalism, as K. Marx predicted, but improving. From this fact, E. Bernstein drew far-reaching conclusions that have not lost their significance today, and developed a program for building democratic socialism.
Since economic development under capitalism leads to an increase in the material well-being of the workers, the task of the social democratic parties should be to improve existing society, and not in its elimination and replacement by another, fundamentally different from the bourgeois one.
A necessary condition for such improvement is political democracy. E. Bernstein drew attention to the fact that the consistent implementation of the basic liberal principles political structure leads to the elimination of the political domination of the bourgeoisie, if the working class manages to organize itself and constantly supports its party in the elections.
At the beginning of the 21st century, the core values of international social democracy continue to be solidarity, freedom, equality, political democracy, a state-controlled market mixed economy, and the social security of the population. The gradual expansion of the public sector of the economy is no longer considered appropriate.
At the present time, despite the fact that social democratic parties periodically come to power in European countries, replacing neoconservatives, the crisis of social democratic ideology cannot be considered overcome, since new constructive ideas that can renew the program and practice of democratic socialism in the international socialist there is no democracy.
2. Finance and politics. The role of the state in the formation of economic relations
Finance and politics
Public finance has an impact on international life in two ways.
First, they can affect the international structure. The size of the necessary public expenditures encourage states to pool their financial forces, group themselves into international corporations, etc., which changes the structure of international communication.
Secondly, the capabilities and role of all international organizations are largely determined by their financial capabilities. The management of finances makes it possible to implement policies. The most striking example is the formation of the customs union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan, the consequence of which is the expansion of the market for goods and services produced in these states.
Finance can affect international organizations in two ways. First of all, international financial relations have now acquired such importance that this has led to the creation of international financial institutions such as the International Bank for Development and Reconstruction, the Bank for International Settlements, the International Monetary Fund, etc. The existence and development of these organizations proves the growing importance of finance in international relations. These international organizations with financial competence are governed mainly by international law.
The influence of finance on international organizations can be expressed in another way. All international organizations, no matter what they do, need, like the state itself and state organizations within the country, in cash in order to carry out their functions. Hence the problem of the finances of international organizations arises. This problem relates more to financial law than to international law. Therefore, it will be considered in two aspects: from the point of view of the nature of the finances of international organizations and from the point of view of the relationship between financial independence.
Like all social organisms, in order to function, an international organization must make certain expenses, to cover which it needs certain incomes. These expenses and incomes constitute the finances of international organizations.
The costs of international organizations are of two types. First of all, these are the costs for the performance of their functions, similar to the costs of institutions that operate within the state. These are expenses that include wages employees of the organization, the purchase, hiring and maintenance of the necessary premises and, finally, those amounts without which the administrative apparatus of the organization could not function.
In addition, there are costs associated with the implementation of activities. They are found in most international organizations and enable them to better carry out their mission. An example of this would be the cost of Scientific research and investment by the European Atomic Energy Community in the promotion of scientific and technological research, guarantees for the payment of interest on loans, modernization assistance by the European Coal and Steel Community, costs associated with the operations of the international military forces of the United Nations. And in order to make all these expenses, international organizations must be provided with funds.
The role of the state in the formation of economic relations
1. The state participates in the economy almost everywhere, becoming more and more active participants in market relations. It uses various methods of regulating economic life:
A) Legal Methods
They consist in the fact that the state adopts laws designed to streamline the relationship between participants in the market game. A special place among these laws is occupied by the so-called antimonopoly legislation, laws aimed at supporting small and medium-sized businesses, thus supporting a diverse structure of production.
B) Financial and economic methods
These include primarily taxes. By increasing or decreasing the size of taxes, the state either promotes the development of production or slows it down. The state has a certain influence on the economy in carrying out its monetary policy. Under the monetary policy understand the policy of the state to manage the money supply and loans. The main responsibility for its implementation, as a rule, lies with the state bank of the country, which regulates the rate of bank interest. With its help, the bank either limits or expands the opportunities for entrepreneurs to obtain a loan for the development of production.
The state can also help producers by introducing customs duties. A duty is a special state tax on goods bought abroad. It is introduced so that imported goods are more expensive than domestic ones and consumers choose the latter. Thus, the state, on the one hand, restrains imports, and, on the other hand, protects the relevant domestic industries (for example, the government of the Russian Federation does this when protecting domestic car manufacturers). This group includes taxes, budget, public investment, etc.
C) Economic programming
It means that the state is approximate plans economic development for a certain period. But in contrast to a command economy, where such plans are mandatory and are implemented with the help of orders from above, in a market economy they are advisory in nature and in practice usually have a certain impact on private producers.
3. Show the procedure and principles for the formation (election) of state authorities of the Russian Federation (President of the Russian Federation, the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, the Government of the Russian Federation, the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation)
liberal government conservative
The activity of any state is realized primarily through the system of its state bodies. The body of the state is a separate link in the mechanism of the state, which has its own structure, strictly defined functions and the necessary state powers.
The structure of state bodies may be different. The higher the place of an organ in the vertical hierarchy, the more complex its structure, as a rule. Each body of state power is created in accordance with the constitution, laws or other regulatory legal acts.
The body of state power is endowed with powers of authority. Its decisions are binding on all citizens, officials and organizations to which the competence extends. this body states.
According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the state power in Russian Federation carried out on the basis of the division into legislative, executive and judicial. These branches of power are independent and do not interfere with each other's operational activities. The implementation of the principle of separation of their relationships guarantees society from a dangerous concentration
power in the hands of any one body or official, capable of leading to a dictatorship and the establishment of a totalitarian regime.
The legislative authorities of Russia include the Federal Assembly (the Federation Council and the State Duma) and the legislative (representative) bodies of the subjects of the Russian Federation. The main task of these bodies is to adopt laws regulating the most important social relations. All legislative bodies are elected, ie. elected directly by the people on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.
The executive authorities of Russia exercise state power in the form of organizing the implementation of laws. These include the Government of the Russian Federation, federal ministries, state committees, federal services, federal commissions, Russian agencies, heads of administrations of subjects of the Russian Federation.
The judicial authorities of Russia are the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation and courts in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The judiciary is an independent and independent branch and operates through constitutional, criminal, civil and administrative proceedings.
There are also state authorities that are not included in any of the three branches of government. These include the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation.
President of Russian Federation
The post of President in the Russian Federation was established by a nationwide referendum on March 17, 1991. On June 12, 1991, the first general presidential elections took place, in which B.N. was elected President of the Russian Federation for a five-year term. Yeltsin. The election of the first President of Russia was carried out on the basis of the Law of the RSFSR of April 24, 1991 "On the Election of the President of the RSFSR". After the adoption of the Constitution of 1993, this Law was terminated.
At present, the procedure for electing the President of the Russian Federation is enshrined in the Federal Law of January 10, 2003 "On the Election of the President of the Russian Federation"
The President of the Russian Federation is elected for four years by the citizens of the Russian Federation on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot. The participation of a citizen of the Russian Federation in the election of the President of the Russian Federation is voluntary.
A citizen of the Russian Federation at least 35 years of age who has permanently resided in the Russian Federation for at least 10 years may be elected President of the Russian Federation. Has no right to elect the President of the Russian Federation and be elected President a citizen of the Russian Federation recognized by a court as incompetent or held in places of deprivation of liberty by a court verdict.
Elections of the President of the Russian Federation are held in a single federal electoral district, which includes the entire territory of the Russian Federation. Voters residing outside the territory of the Russian Federation are considered to be assigned to a federal electoral district.
Elections of the President of the Russian Federation are appointed by the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly. The decision to call elections must be made no earlier than 100 days and no later than 90 days before voting day. Voting day in elections is the second Sunday of the month in which voting was held in the previous elections of the President of the Russian Federation.
If the Federation Council does not call presidential elections, then the elections are called and conducted by the Central Election Commission.
If the President of the Russian Federation terminates the exercise of his powers before the expiration of the terms, the Federation Council no later than 14 days later calls early elections. The day of voting in this case is the last Sunday before the day when three months expire from the date of early termination by the President of the Russian Federation of the exercise of his powers.
The same person cannot hold the post of the President of the Russian Federation for more than two consecutive terms.
The preparation and conduct of elections is carried out by election commissions, which are independent of state authorities and local self-government bodies.
State bodies and their officials are obliged to assist election commissions in the exercise of their powers.
For conducting voting and counting the votes of voters, polling stations are formed on the basis of data on the number of voters registered on the territory of municipalities (no more than 3,000 voters per polling station).
Political parties, electoral blocs, as well as citizens in self-nomination can nominate a candidate for the post of President of Russia. To support the self-nomination of a candidate, it is necessary to create a group of voters in the amount of at least 500 citizens of the Russian Federation with active suffrage. In support of the nominated candidate, the initiators must collect at least 2 million signatures of voters, while no more than 50 thousand signatures of voters should fall on one subject of the Russian Federation.
In the event of early or repeated elections of the President of the Russian Federation, the number of signatures is reduced by half.
The determination of the results of elections is carried out according to the majority system of the absolute majority. The candidate for the position of the President of the Russian Federation who received more than half of the votes of the voters who took part in the voting is considered elected.
Elections of the President of the Russian Federation are recognized as valid if more than half of the voters took part in them.
If more than two candidates for the position of the President of the Russian Federation were entered on the ballot and none of them was elected, the Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation after 21 days appoints a repeat voting for the election of the President of the Russian Federation for two registered candidates who received the largest number of votes.
The elected President of the Russian Federation takes office on the 30th day from the date of the official announcement of the election results by the Central Election Commission. Upon taking office, the President takes an oath, the text of which is contained in Art. 82 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. From the moment of taking the oath, the President of the Russian Federation begins to fulfill his duties.
Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation
The Federal Assembly - the Parliament of the Russian Federation - is the representative and legislative body of the Russian Federation.
The Federal Assembly consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma. The composition of the chambers, as well as the principles of their staffing, are different.
The Federation Council includes two representatives from each constituent entity of the Russian Federation: one each from the legislative (representative) and executive bodies of state power of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation. Since Russia includes 89 subjects, there are 178 members of the Federation Council.
A citizen of the Russian Federation not younger than 30 years of age who, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, has the right to elect and be elected to bodies of state power, may be elected (appointed) as a member of the Federation Council.
A representative from the legislative (representative) body of state power of a subject of the Russian Federation is elected by the legislative (representative) body of state power of a subject of the Russian Federation for the term of office of this body. A representative from the bicameral legislative (representative) body is elected in turn from each house for half the term of office of the respective house.
A group of deputies numbering at least 1/3 of the total number of deputies of a legislative (representative) body of state power of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation may submit alternative candidates for consideration by this body to elect a representative to the Federation Council.
A representative in the Federation Council from the executive body of state power of a subject of the Russian Federation is elected for the term of his powers.
The powers of a member of the Federation Council begin from the day the decision on his election (appointment) comes into force and terminate from the day the decision on the election (appointment) of a member of the Federation Council comes into force by the newly elected legislative (representative) body of State power of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation or the highest official subject of the Russian Federation.
The powers of a member of the Federation Council may be prematurely terminated by the body of state power of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation that elected (appointed) him or her in the same manner in which he is elected (appointed).
The State Duma consists of 450 deputies and is elected for a term of four years. They are elected by various systems. One half of the chamber, i.e. 225 deputies of the State Duma, elected by single-mandate (one constituency - one deputy) constituencies - majoritarian system. The other half of the chamber, i.e. also 225 deputies, elected in a federal constituency in proportion to the number of votes cast for federal lists of candidates for deputies nominated by political parties, electoral blocs - proportional system.
The first elections to the State Duma were held on December 12, 1995 on the basis of a special Federal Law of June 21, 1995 "On Elections of Deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation".
Currently, the legislation on the election of deputies of the State Duma is made up by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Federal Law of June 12, 2002 "On the Basic Guarantees of Electoral Rights and the Right to Participate in a Referendum of Citizens of the Russian Federation", the Federal Law of December 20, 2002 "On the Election of Deputies State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation”, other federal laws.
A citizen of the Russian Federation who has reached the age of 21 on the voting day can be elected as a deputy.
Elections of deputies of the State Duma are appointed by the President of the Russian Federation. The decision to call elections must be made no earlier than 100 days and no later than 90 days before voting day. Voting day is the second Sunday of the month when the constitutional term for which the State Duma of the previous convocation was elected expires.
Elections are considered valid if 25% of voters took part in them.
To conduct elections of deputies of the State Duma elected in single-mandate electoral districts, 225 single-mandate electoral districts are formed on the territory of the Russian Federation on the basis of data on the number of voters submitted to the Central Election Commission by the executive bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Single-member constituencies are formed in compliance with the following requirements:
Approximate equality of single-mandate constituencies in terms of the number of voters registered in their territories should be observed. The deviation from the average norm within one subject of the Russian Federation should be no more than 10%, and in remote areas no more than 15%;
it is not allowed to form a district from the territories of two or more subjects of the Russian Federation;
at least one single-member constituency must be formed on the territory of each subject;
within the territory of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, the formation of a single-member constituency from territories that do not border on each other is not allowed, with the exception of territories that are enclaves for a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, a municipal formation, or another administrative-territorial unit.
no more than 3,000 voters may be registered in the territory of each polling station;
it is inadmissible to cross the boundaries of electoral districts with the boundaries of polling stations.
The preparation and conduct of elections of deputies of the State Duma are provided by election commissions: the Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation, election commissions of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation; district election commissions, territorial (district, city and other) election commissions and precinct election commissions.
Candidates for deputies of the State Duma may be nominated directly, as well as as part of the federal list of candidates. Direct nomination of candidates may be carried out by self-nomination, as well as by nomination by a political party, electoral bloc.
Electoral blocs are formed voluntarily for the period of elections of deputies of the State Duma from two or three political parties. An electoral bloc can also be a voluntary union of one or two political parties with, respectively, no more than two or one all-Russian public association created in the form of a public organization or public movement, the charter of which provides for participation in elections. Electoral blocs are registered with the Central Electoral Commission.
The federal list of candidates for deputies of the State Duma to run for elections in the federal constituency is nominated by the political party at the congress. This decision is made by secret ballot. The total number of candidates should not exceed 270 people.
All candidates have equal rights and bear equal responsibilities.
After receiving certified copies of the federal list of nominated candidates from the Central Election Commission, the collection of signatures in their support begins. In single-mandate constituencies, in support of each candidate, it is necessary to obtain at least one percent of the total number of voters registered in the territory of the respective constituency, and if there are less than 100,000 voters in the constituency, at least 1,000 signatures. A political party or an electoral bloc that has put forward a federal list of candidates is required to collect at least 200,000 voter signatures in support of it. At the same time, no more than 14 thousand of the number of signatures required for registration should fall on one subject of the Russian Federation. In the event of early elections, the indicated number of signatures is reduced by half.
After registration, all candidates acquire the rights they need to conduct an election campaign (they are released from work with compensation, use transport free of charge, etc.). After registration, a candidate for deputies cannot be prosecuted, arrested or subjected to administrative penalties imposed by a court without the consent of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation.
Election campaigning begins on the day of registration of a candidate, the federal list of candidates and ends at 00:00 local time one day before voting day. On the voting day and the day preceding it, any election campaigning is prohibited.
Expenses for the preparation and conduct of elections of deputies of the State Duma shall be made at the expense of the federal budget. Candidates for deputies, political parties and electoral blocs form their own electoral funds to finance the election campaign.
The counting of votes is carried out by the precinct election commission, which submits the protocol to a higher commission, and so on - up to the Central Electoral Commission, which establishes and announces the results of the elections.
The candidate who received the largest number of votes of the voters who took part in the voting is recognized as elected in a single-mandate constituency.
The distribution of deputy mandates in a federal electoral district according to federal lists is carried out between those parties and electoral blocs that received 7% or more of the votes of voters who came to the elections (during the elections of deputies to the State Duma in 2003, five or more percent of the vote). They receive deputy mandates to the State Duma in proportion to the number of votes received. Inside the list, first of all, the mandates are received by those candidates who are at the top of it.
The Federation Council elects the Chairman of the Federation Council and his deputies from among its members. The State Duma also elects the Chairman of the State Duma and his deputies from among its members. The specific procedure for electing leaders is established in the regulations of each chamber.
The State Duma meets for the first session on the thirtieth day after the election.
The Federation Council and the State Duma form committees and commissions. There are currently 28 committees in the State Duma. The Federation Council has 11 committees.
The State Duma and the Federation Council may themselves decide on the liquidation, reorganization of individual committees or the formation of new committees. Committees may form subcommittees. Each committee has the competence approved by the regulations.
In the State Duma, a Duma Council is created, which includes the Chairman, heads of factions and deputy groups.
The internal structure and organization of the activities of the chambers, the Federal Assembly is determined by their regulations.
The competence of the Federation Council includes:
appointment to the post of all the highest officials of the state who represent the judiciary: judges of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation and the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation;
appointment and dismissal of the Deputy Chairman of the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation and half of its auditors;
approval of changes in borders between subjects of the Russian Federation;
approval of the decree of the President of the Russian Federation on the introduction of martial law;
resolving the issue of the possibility of using the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation outside the territory of the Russian Federation;
appointment of elections of the President of the Russian Federation;
removal of the President of the Russian Federation from office.
The competence of the State Duma includes:
giving consent to the President of the Russian Federation for the appointment of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation;
resolving the issue of confidence in the Government of the Russian Federation;
appointment and dismissal of the Chairman of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;
appointment and dismissal of the Chairman of the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation and half of its auditors;
appointment and dismissal of the Commissioner for Human Rights in the Russian Federation;
amnesty declaration;
bringing charges against the President of the Russian Federation to remove him from office.
Government of the Russian Federation
The Government of the Russian Federation is a body of state power of the Russian Federation and exercises executive power in the Russian Federation.
The Government of the Russian Federation is a collegial body heading the unified system of executive power of the Russian Federation. It consists of the Prime Minister, his deputies and federal ministers.
The Government of the Russian Federation ensures the implementation of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws, regulations of the President of the Russian Federation.
The Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation is appointed by the President of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma within the following terms:
no later than two weeks after the newly elected President of the Russian Federation takes office;
no later than two weeks after the resignation of the Government of the Russian Federation;
within a week from the date of rejection of the candidature of the Chairman of the Government submitted by the President of the Russian Federation for consideration by the State Duma.
The newly appointed Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation submits to the President of the Russian Federation his proposals on the structure of federal executive bodies and candidates for the positions of his deputies and federal ministers.
The system of federal executive authorities includes ministries and other federal executive authorities: state committees, federal commissions, federal services, Russian agencies, federal oversight bodies, and other federal executive authorities.
The Ministry of the Russian Federation is a federal executive body pursuing state policy and exercising control in the established area of activity, as well as coordinating, in cases established by laws, decrees, resolutions, the activities in this area of other federal executive bodies. The Ministry is headed by the Minister of the Russian Federation (Federal Minister), who is part of the Government of the Russian Federation.
The State Committee of the Russian Federation, the Federal Commission of Russia are federal executive bodies that carry out, on a collective basis, intersectoral coordination on issues within their jurisdiction, as well as functional regulation in a certain area of activity. The State Committee of the Russian Federation and the Federal Commission of Russia are headed respectively by the Chairman of the State Committee of the Russian Federation and the Chairman of the Federal Commission of Russia.
The Federal Service of Russia, the Russian Agency, the Federal Supervision of Russia are federal executive bodies that perform special (executive, control, licensing, regulatory, etc.) functions in the established areas of jurisdiction. The Federal Service of Russia is headed by the Head (Director) of the Federal Service of Russia, the Russian Agency is headed by the General Director of the Russian Agency, the Federal Supervision of Russia is headed by the Head of the Federal Supervision of Russia.
In May 2000, the structure of the federal executive authorities was reorganized, as a result of which the number of ministers was 23, state committees - 6, federal commissions - 2, federal services- 12, agencies - 7, federal supervision - 2.
Decrees of the President create, abolish, merge and separate ministries and departments. In each ministry and department, a collegium is formed consisting of the minister (chairman of the collegium), his deputies, as well as other senior officials of the central apparatus of the ministry.
The Government of the Russian Federation, in order to exercise its powers, may create its own territorial bodies and appoint appropriate officials.
The main directions in the activities of the Government of the Russian Federation are determined in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws, and decrees of the President of the Russian Federation.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation does not establish the term of office of the Government, but provides for the possibility of the Government's resignation. This may be the case when:
The government resigns its powers before the newly elected President of the Russian Federation;
The government itself submits its resignation, which is accepted or rejected by the President;
The President independently dismisses the Government;
The State Duma expresses no confidence in the Government of the Russian Federation;
The Chairman of the Government raises the question of confidence in the Government before the State Duma. If the State Duma refuses confidence, then the President within seven days decides on the resignation of the Government or on the dissolution of the State Duma.
In the event of resignation or resignation on behalf of the President of the Russian Federation, the Government continues to act until the formation of a new Government of the Russian Federation.
Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation
The judicial system of the Russian Federation is understood as the totality of all courts in Russia. The judicial system is established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal constitutional laws.
The federal constitutional law of December 31, 1996 "On the judicial system of the Russian Federation" secured the unity of the judicial system
Federal courts include:
Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation;
the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, the supreme courts of the republics, regional and regional courts, courts of cities of federal significance, courts of the autonomous region and autonomous districts, district courts, military and specialized courts that make up the system of federal courts of general jurisdiction;
The Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation, federal arbitration courts of districts, arbitration courts of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, which make up the system of federal arbitration courts.
The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation was established by the decision of the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR on December 19, 1990. The Committee of Constitutional Supervision of the USSR, which existed from 1989 to 1991, can be considered its predecessor. There were no such institutions in the USSR.
The procedure for the organization and activities of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation is determined by the Federal Constitutional Law of July 24, 1994 "On the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation".
The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation consists of 19 judges appointed by the Federation Council on the proposal of the President of the Russian Federation.
A citizen of the Russian Federation who has reached the age of at least 40 years by the date of appointment, with an impeccable reputation, has a higher legal education and at least 15 years of experience in the legal profession, and has a recognized high qualification in the field of law, may be appointed a judge of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation.
A judge of the Constitutional Court is appointed for a term of 15 years. The age limit for serving as a judge is 70 years. Appointment for a second term is not allowed.
The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation elects the Chairman, Deputy and Judge-Secretary of the Constitutional Court from among its members for a period of three years.
The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation issues an opinion on compliance with the established procedure for bringing charges against the President of the Russian Federation.
Bibliography
1. Baburin S.N. Jurisprudence. "Norma", 2003. - 592 p.
Komarov S.A. Jurisprudence "Jurist", 2003. 526 p.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation - M. 1993.
Kutafin O.E. Jurisprudence. "Jurist", 2002.-398 p.
Larionova I.L. Political ideologies of the XIX-XX centuries. Liberalism. Conservatism. Socialism: Method. recommendations for the courses "Political Science", "Global Conflicts of Modern and Contemporary Times", " National history» // Mosk. state Institute of Electronics and Mathematics - 2004
Chicherin B.N. History of political doctrines. // St. Petersburg, Russian Christian Humanitarian Academy - 2006
Chicherin B.N. Various types of liberalism // General. science and modernity - 2003.
