INTRODUCTION

Metaphor is the most commonly used trope to create imagery and expressiveness of a phenomenon. It is precisely because of the love of prose writers and, especially, poets, for the use of metaphorization that a huge variety of its types can be observed in the language. The metaphor contributes to the strengthening of the writer's sensual impact on the reader through his work, since thanks to the hidden comparison that is given in the text, one can indicate the attitude to a particular phenomenon.

Object of study: metaphors that are found in Mikhail Sholokhov's novel " Quiet Don».

Subject of study: ways of expression and options for using one or another type of metaphor in the text.

The relevance of the topic raised in this study, lies in the fact that, thanks to a detailed analysis of the text, it is possible to identify specific features of metaphor in the novel, and this can help to avoid mistakes when using and writing these metaphors in any context other than the original one.

The purpose of this study was to identify the features of metaphors in M. Sholokhov's novel "Quiet Flows the Don" and determine their types, after which, through this, to derive common features.

The following tasks were set:

Select and classify metaphors in M. Sholokhov's novel "Quiet Flows the Don";

Determine the features of the use of metaphors by M. Sholokhov in this novel.

The following methods were used:

Observation of language material;

Comparison of theoretical facts with linguistic phenomena.

The structure of the work: introduction, two chapters, conclusion, list of references.

CONCEPT Metaphors. ITS Types

Metaphors in the Language of Fiction

The Russian language is interesting by its nature. It has many facets, various directions, and it is impossible to list all of them at once. By studying our native speech, one can get acquainted with the history of the development of the human soul, its rise and fall. The language speaks about its history vividly, colorfully, and, above all, this is displayed in fiction, since it is from it that we learn how people spoke, thought, felt in a different time than ours.

Our Russian works are decorated with many turns. Most often, writers use a metaphor, as it is simpler in appearance and makes it possible to convey their thoughts more colorfully. It can be found almost everywhere, in a wide variety of forms and interpretations. The study of this trope will help in the future to understand how the metaphors of an individual writer differ from language ones, but for now I would like to designate for a general understanding what a “metaphor” is.

“Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - I transfer) is a type of path in which individual words or expressions come together in the similarity of their meanings or in contrast” Introduction to literary criticism: textbook / L.N. Vershinina, V.E. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin et al. 2005, pp. 68-69.

Almost all parts of speech can act as a metaphor in the text: it can be a verb, an adjective, a noun, a participle, a participle, etc. Its stylistic coloring lies in the fact that there is a transfer of signs from one object to another, thereby creating an image of something alive, colorful or even spiritualized, sublime from the simple, familiar to our understanding.

Transfer by similarity can occur on the basis of:

Appearances;

Locations;

Shapes of objects;

Taste, smell;

Functions performed;

Feelings evoked (disgust, admiration, tenderness), etc.

Four components are involved in the creation of a metaphor: two separate objects-phenomena and the properties of each of them. The property of one class, selected for the formation of a metaphor, is attributed to the subject-phenomenon of another class, thereby forming an integral unity. Thus, when a person is called a "rat" or "fox", the properties of these creatures - self-interest and cunning, respectively - turn out to be his common characteristic, created new look and a new meaning is born.

Duality is also one of the signs of metaphor. Its semantic structure includes two components - the meaning as such (a property of the actual subject of the metaphor) and the image of a secondary, auxiliary subject from which this or that attribute was written off.

There are a number of patterns of metaphorization of the meaning of words-signs:

The transfer of a physical attribute of an object to a person (sharp, blunt, deep, hard) to indicate mental properties;

The principle of atropomorphism and zoomorphism: the actions/signs of animals or humans are transferred to nature, after which the object becomes an abstract concept (deep thought), and vice versa - signs of nature are transferred to animals and people.

Based on this, we can conclude that the processes of metaphorization can proceed in opposite directions.

The very term "metaphor" was introduced by Aristotle, and above all it has a connection with the understanding of art as an imitation of life. In fact, Aristotle did not distinguish between metaphor and synecdoche, personification, assimilation or hyperbole, because in all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one concept / object to another. Since the time of the great thinker, metaphor has been considered as an abbreviated comparison, in other words, such a comparison, where there were no similarity predicates and comparative conjunctions (similar, reminds; as, as if, as if, etc.). The difference between comparison and metaphor is observed in several ways:

Conciseness: a metaphor, unlike comparison, shortens speech, makes it more aesthetic and elegant, while comparison spreads it, trying to add color to the description of a sign of similarity;

Revealing the type of similarity: while comparison favors both permanent and transitory similarity, metaphor relies on permanent, deep similarity.

If, however, we consider metaphor in more detail as a type of trope, we get the following definition: a metaphor is a type of trope, the basis of which is an association by analogy or similarity. Like many other tropes, metaphor is not only a device of the poetic genre. It is a general language trope that can be used both in high literature and in the simple speech of people.

It also happens that some words or phrases, formed metaphorically and used only in a metaphorical form, soon lose their original meaning and are used only in a figurative meaning, which is now accepted as direct. Most often, this kind of metaphorical origin is revealed in phrases. However, if we are talking about a metaphor as a stylistic phenomenon, then we should not forget that in a phrase or word, not only a figurative, but also a direct meaning should be felt.

In a metaphor, it is most often possible to restore the method of opposition, which, as it were, is cut out of it. “What are these people? Flies! (not people)" (Gogol). The opposition gives us at least an approximate understanding of how the author characterizes the subject of his description.

In addition to words-metaphors, metaphorical images, or extended metaphors, have become widespread in the literature. They can be a phrase, part of a sentence, the sentence itself, or the whole text - it all depends on what the author wants to say and how he wants to say it.

“Metaphor is a dream, a dream of language,” says D. Davidson. - The interpretation of dreams needs the cooperation of the dreamer and the interpreter, even if they converge in one person. In the same way, the interpretation of metaphors bears the imprint of both the creator and the interpreter ”Davidson D. What do metaphors mean. M., 1990. S. 173-193. .

If there is a place to be polysemy, then it is due to the fact that in a simple context the word has one meaning, but in a metaphorical one it is completely different. Metaphor has two different meanings - literal and figurative. The literal meaning can be quite imagined as something that we feel, something hidden, something that affects us without appearing openly in the context, while carrying the main load in the figurative meaning.

In its appearance, the metaphor looks more like an unusual language that is not understandable to everyone, but this does not make it less common in literature, not only Russian, but also foreign. Metaphor - is a single whole, the members of which are interdependent in their meaning from each other. That which has been compared is displaced and replaced by that with which it has been compared.

Metaphor can perform the following functions Metaphor function [ Electronic resource]. Access Mode: http://helpiks.org/1-22443.html.:

1. Characterization - gives someone or something, positive or negative characteristic, using the transfer of the properties of one object to another; most often, the predicate acts as a metaphor (“He is a real bull” - either the ferocious nature of a person or his unrealistic dimensions are implied);

2. Nomination - nomination of the objects of action, that is, the one who performs is called on the basis of association with what he does; most often, a phrase like “subject + object” acts as a metaphor;

3. Informative function - transmission of integrity, panorama of the image: connection of a huge amount of the unconscious to the mental holistic display; any metaphor carries aesthetically colored information;

4. Style formation - the participation of metaphor in the creation of the style of fiction; the degree of metaphorical character of a literary text depends on the author's attitudes;

5. Text formation - as mentioned above, a metaphor can be expanded, and it is this property that is the basis of this function;

6. Genre formation - the participation of metaphors in creating the atmosphere of a certain genre; for example, for riddles, proverbs, odes, aphoristic miniatures, etc., a metaphor is almost mandatory;

7. An emotional-evaluative function is a way of a metaphor to influence the reader by awakening any emotions in him (“Stupid boy” is a stupid, uncouth boy who is treated with disdain).

So, having considered the concept of metaphor, its properties and functions, we can proceed to the study of its types.

How often do you meet people who can speak pure Russian, without repetition and banality, so as to hypnotize the interlocutor from the first words, and covering with a stream of thought, carry him to the very end of the dialogue, not letting the thread of the conversation be missed and carefully observing that Is the text being presented interesting to the listener?

Often, experienced speakers, writers and people whose profession, one way or another, is connected with communication and literature, are able to make such an impression on the interlocutor, to find his weaknesses. They succeed in this thanks to many different tricks, including when using literary speech - tropes. One of the paths that help make the statement clearer juicier and more figurative is the metaphor. And we will try to understand what it is, and what is its essence and meaning.

History of metaphor

I would like to write something about the origin of metaphor, but, fortunately, or vice versa, this is impossible. It originated, perhaps, together with language, fantasy, and with a person in principle. With him, she grew and developed.

So what is a metaphor in literature? If we consider this issue in the least detail, then we can say that this comparison, but, digging deeper, the definition will turn out to be more extensive for you. Metaphor - figurative comparison one object with another on the basis of some properties, this rule, by the way, the futurists tried to bypass and ignore as much as possible. The meaning of this path for them is the transmission of feelings, emotions and pictures in front of the reader. There are countless examples of outrageous futuristic metaphor in Mayakovsky's poems, which is why it is worth dwelling on:

• Behind the sun of the streets, a useless, flabby moon hobbled somewhere - the poet compares the moon with an old woman, weak and lonely;
• The street flour silently pearled.

A scream rose from his throat.

Bristled, stuck across the throat,

Plump taxis and bony hansoms.

The chest was in a hurry.

The consumptives are flatter. - this poem describes a comparison where the street is likened to a sick person;

• On the pavement

my soul is shattered

the steps of the lunatics

twist hard phrases heels. - in the same poem, on the contrary - the person himself is likened to the street.

• Throwing the Milky Way as a gallows, take and hang me, a criminal. - an incredible sentence that clearly describes the meaning of how the writer sees the starry sky, namely, a comparison milky way with a rope for the gallows where the author is to be hung.

We learn about metaphor as a literary trope from Aristotle's teachings, who believed that it should be as close as possible to the truth and personify an undeniable resemblance to the subject. The philosopher of antiquity was sure that art, including literature, should convey realism as much as possible. surrounding life creator, this is its essence and meaning.

But, over time, opinions about the property and functions of comparison have changed markedly, and during the era of futurism, which was mentioned a little above, the creators came to the conclusion that this complex comparison should be used to make the reader think about why the author wanted to say exactly and in what he saw the comparison.

Basically, it's a metaphor description of the worldview the writer himself, a path, the essence of which is to convey the images swarming in the head of the writer, and to give the reader the opportunity to imagine the author's point of view as clearly as possible.

Structure and principles of metaphor

The metaphor itself is multifaceted and complex concept, in which everything is not as easy to sort out as it might seem at first glance, but everyone has the right to a chance, so we will try.

Components of building a metaphor

Such a multifaceted comparison that reflects the whole essence inner peace the author and his vision of life, cannot be structured, according to at least some dogmas and the law of literary vocabulary. So let's consider semantic elements, which are represented by particles of a single whole canvas - metaphors.

Consider the components on the example of such a metaphor: "it withered, losing its charm."

Types of metaphor

There are two main types of metaphors - dry and expanded. The differences between them are obvious and immediately evident, so the question of how to find a metaphor should not arise, even for inexperienced readers.

Dry metaphor- a comparison, often already firmly established in everyday life, which is sometimes difficult to notice in a conversation, for example:

• Eyeball - a metaphor whose meaning is obvious, and the comparison is in the word apple, due to the similarity of forms;
• Cabinet leg - leg, this comparison is used due to the fact that it is a support, as well as human lower limbs, although the furniture obviously cannot move on it;
• Golden words - naturally, words are not made of precious stone, but such a parallel is drawn, thanks to the great value of what was said;
• Burning foliage - in fact, the foliage does not glow, it’s just that its color is very reminiscent of a fire, by the way, the time for “burning foliage” is Pushkin’s favorite time, also one of the fans of using vivid metaphors in his poems.

Expanded metaphor people often use literature. Such a comparison can last for a line, sentence, paragraph, page or book.

So, we can conclude that our language is rich and diverse. Moreover, it is vast and great. Great amount writers, poets and philosophers have been proving these simple truths for centuries. From the great mind of Aristotle to Pushkin, Lermontov, Tolstoy and, in the end, Mayakovsky and Vysotsky. They all talked about the delights of native conversation. And we need to remember only that the word can both kill and heal. Speak your native language and find beauty in the ordinary, good luck.

Each of us has heard the word "metaphor" at least once in our lives, but not everyone knows what it means.

Metaphor is a professional term for those who, by occupation, deal with oral or written speech: writers, journalists, philologists, literary critics, etc. It is derived from the Greek metaphora, which means transfer.

According to the definition, a metaphor is an artistic technique based on transferring the name of one object or phenomenon to another. In this case, an involuntary comparison of both objects arises, which contributes to a more complete understanding of the essence of the statement.

The term "metaphor" was coined ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who believed that art should be an imitation of real life.

The metaphor can be in the form:

- turn of speech, which uses the transfer of the meaning of words from one concept to another;

- an indirect message in the form of a short story or a figurative comparison.

In any metaphor can be identified three semantic elements:

- The subject of comparison (what is being compared);

- The image of comparison (with what it is compared);

- A sign of comparison (on the basis of which it is compared).

Metaphor is one of the oldest artistic devices used in literature. It is most widely used in poetry, where metaphorical expressions and images are found literally in every work. We all know from childhood the New Year's song about the Christmas tree:

The Forest Raised a Christmas Tree,
She grew up in the forest.

If you think objectively, a spruce cannot be "born" - it grows from seeds. But with the help of a metaphor comparing a Christmas tree with a child, a bright, memorable image is created that is understandable even to small children.

In S. Yesenin's poem "Bird Cherry", metaphors are used in almost every stanza.

Fragrant bird cherry
Bloomed with spring
And golden branches
What curls, curled.

The bird cherry bush is compared with a girl here to become even more beautiful.

And next to the thawed patch,
In the grass, between the roots,
Runs, flows small
Silver stream.

The color of the water in the stream is compared with the precious metal - silver.


With this comparison, the poet most fully conveys the purity of the water in the stream and its murmur, similar to the chime of silver. The stream "runs" - this metaphor demonstrates the rapid flow of water jets.

Fragrant bird cherry
Hanging out, standing
And the green is golden
Burning in the sun.

Of course, the green does not burn - this expression is used in order to more clearly convey the radiance sun rays on young cherry leaves.

Brook with a thundering wave
All branches are covered
And insinuatingly under the steep
She sings songs.

This stanza uses a comparison of a stream with a young man who, courting a girl he likes, sings songs to her. Bird cherry acts as a girl in this comparison.

There are two types of metaphors: dry and expanded. Dry metaphors do not create artistic image, and the transfer of properties in them serves to better understand the subject. Examples are the expressions "eyeball", "chair leg", "strawberry mustache".

On the contrary, a detailed metaphor is an artistic technique that allows you to most fully reveal the essence of the depicted object or phenomenon. The transfer of concepts in a detailed metaphor is carried out over a sufficiently large fragment of a phrase or even the entire text. A vivid example of a detailed metaphor is the stanza from the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin.

The night has many lovely stars,
There are many beauties in Moscow.
But brighter than all the girlfriends of heaven
Moon in the air blue.
But the one I don't dare
Disturb my lyre,
Like a majestic moon
Among wives and maidens one shines.
With what heavenly pride
She touches the earth!
How full of bliss her chest is!
How languid her gaze is wonderful! ..
But full, full; stop doing that:
You paid tribute to madness.

In this stanza, a consistent comparison is made between the beauties of Moscow and the poet's beloved with starry sky and the moon. This metaphor allows him not only to emphasize the dignity of the woman he loves, but also to give the reader an idea of ​​the strength of the poet's feelings, for whom all other beauties serve only as a background, and the chosen one is a shining luminary.


The use of metaphors in oral and written speech enriches the language, contributes to a better understanding of the meaning of phrases and contributes to the development of creative abilities.

It is rich in artistic techniques, among which metaphors occupy a leading place. Similar speech turns are used both in fiction and in everyday communication. We give a definition of the concept and consider the features of the use of expressions in a figurative sense.

In contact with

Characteristic

Despite the difference in wording in different dictionaries, all interpretations are the same in that the metaphor is this is a figure of speech in a figurative sense based on similarity. The word has Greek roots and means "transfer", "figurative meaning". These can be separate word forms or phrases, and sometimes sentences that are used in an indirect sense. Transfer is most often based on the similarity of properties, signs, external manifestations, action.

The metaphor formation mechanism consists of three stages:

• comparison,
• matching,
• highlighting the common.

It is necessary to highlight the similarities of the two concepts. Thus, the concept of "mirror of the river" arose as a result of a comparison river water with a mirror in which different objects are reflected. Matching in progress common features which makes water look like a mirror. In this regard, the concept of hidden comparison appeared.

Important! Comparisons and metaphors are not identical concepts. In the second case, traditional, well-established similar features are expressed.

Concept evolution

To the question what is metaphor in literature, ancient philosophers tried to find the answer. Aristotle was the first to reveal the meaning of the word metaphor.

Philosophers of antiquity believed that such literary device connected directly with nature, and its use is not something special. Similar techniques were used in everyday colloquial speech, therefore, there was no need to somehow name this concept.

ancient philosophers considered a solution lack of words problems, so later the meaning of the word metaphor began to acquire a negative connotation. It was believed that this literary device hinders the search for truth and is therefore harmful to science. Despite all the disagreements metaphorical expressions continued to exist, but became the main scope of their application.

It began to be perceived as a separate part of speech in the 20th century, when the scope of using this artistic technique expanded, which led to the emergence of new genres of literature. - allegories, proverbs and riddles.

Functions

In Russian, as in all others, metaphor plays an important role and performs the following main tasks:

• giving the statement emotionality and figuratively expressive coloring;
• vocabulary building new constructions, and lexical phrases(nominative function);
• bright unusual revealing images and essence.

Due to the wide use of this figure, new concepts have appeared. So, metaphorically means allegorically, figuratively, figuratively, and metaphorically expressed means used in an indirect, figurative sense. Metaphorism is the use of metaphors to represent something..

Varieties

Often there are difficulties with how to define a given literary device and distinguish it from others. Define metaphor possible by availability:

• similarities in spatial arrangement;
• similarity in form (a woman's hat is a hat by a nail);
• external similarity (sewing needle, spruce needle, hedgehog needle);
• the transfer of any sign of a person to an object (a dumb person - a silent movie);
• similarity of color (golden necklace - golden autumn);
• similarity of activity (a candle burns - a lamp burns);
• similarity of the position (the sole of the boot - the sole of the rock);
• similarities between man and animal (sheep, pig, donkey).

All of the above is confirmation that this is a hidden comparison. Suggested classification indicates what types of metaphors are depending on the similarity of concepts.

Important! Artistic technique has its own specifics in different languages, so the value may differ. So, the "donkey" among Russian people is associated with stubbornness, and, for example, among the Spaniards - with hard work.

expressive means classified according to various parameters. We offer classic version which has existed since antiquity.

The metaphor could be:

1. sharp- based on a comparison of different, almost incompatible concepts: the stuffing of the statement.
2. Erased- one that is not regarded as a figurative turnover: the leg of the table.
3. Have the form of a formula- similar to the erased one, but has more blurred edges of figurativeness, non-figurative expression in this case is impossible: the worm of doubt.
4. Implemented- when using an expression, its figurative meaning is not taken into account. Often realized by comic statements: "I lost my temper and got on the bus."
5. Expanded metaphor- a turn of speech, which is built on the basis of an association, is realized throughout the utterance, is common in literature: "The book hunger does not go away: products from the book market are increasingly stale ...". It also occupies a special place in poetry: “Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong embrace and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger at the cliffs ...” (M. Gorky).

Depending on the degree of prevalence, there are:

• commonly used dry
• common figurative,
• poetic,
• newspaper figurative,
• copyright figurative.

Expression Examples

Literature is replete with sentences with metaphor examples in Russian.

metaphor extended- A metaphor built on various similarity associations. Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong embrace and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger on the cliffs, breaking the emerald bulks of dust and spray (Bitter). Lexical metaphor (dead, ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

Metaphor- (from other Greek μεταφορά “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) trope, a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of their common feature.… … Wikipedia

METAPHOR- METAPHOR, s, wives. 1. The type of path is a hidden figurative comparison, the likening of one object, a phenomenon to another (for example, a cup of being), as well as a figurative comparison in general in different types arts (spec.). Symbolic, romantic m. M. in cinema, in painting. ... ... Dictionary Ozhegov

Allegory- (Greek allegory) expression of an abstract object (concept, judgment) through a concrete (image). So. arr. The difference between A. and related forms of figurative expression (tropes (see)) is the presence in it of a specific symbolism that is subject to ... ... Literary Encyclopedia

Akhmadulina- Bella (Isabella) Akhatovna (b. 1937, Moscow), Russian poetess. B. A. Akhmadulina Born in a family of employees, she graduated from the Literary Institute (1960). She began publishing in 1955 in periodicals. In 1962, the first book "String" was published, in 1968 ... ... Literary Encyclopedia

Figures of speech- In linguistics, there is no exhaustively precise and generally accepted definition of F. r. The term itself is used in various senses (most often approximate). However, there is a tendency to consolidate this term and to reveal its linguistic meaning. ... ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary