Community development. Types of social dynamics

The founder of sociology O. Comte used the concept of "social dynamics" to refer to the section of sociology that deals with the laws of the development of society. In the first half of the 20th century, P.A. Sorokin created the concept of sociocultural dynamics, a multifaceted and multifactorial process of the development of society. In modern sociology, the term "social dynamics" used in a broader sense to refer to all social changes and processes.

It should be noted that Comte's division of sociology into social statics and social dynamics is not entirely correct. Change, along with stability, is the most important parameter of movement, which, in turn, is considered in modern philosophy and science as a key state of the system, including the social one. In essence, society can be understood as a social movement, and sociology as the science of social interactions or social change.

10.1 Basic sociological concepts of the development of society.

The study of the development of society was major problem sociology since its inception in the 19th century. At that time, there was not enough empirical data to create sociological models of social development, although there was a long philosophical tradition of describing the historical process, which was largely abstract and value-laden. It is this tradition that has seriously influenced sociological concepts.

In the philosophy of history, several models of the development of society have developed. Ever since the Middle Ages, in the works of A. Augustine (354-430), the idea of linear (linear) character historical process. History, according to the Christian philosopher, is a directed, progressive, consistent movement from the moment God created society to the building of the Kingdom of God on Earth.

In the works of the Italian thinker G. Vico (1668-1744). there is an idea of cyclical social process. The history of society embodies, in his opinion, a certain divine plan, goes through three stages: theocratic (the Gods rule), aristocratic (the best rule) and the "age of people" (the people or the monarch rules). The transition from one era to another is carried out through the struggle of people, each cycle ends with the collapse of the social system.

The linear model of history formed the basis of such sociological models community development as evolutionism and neo-evolutionism; the cyclical model was used in the works of philosophers N.Ya. Danilevsky and O. Spengler, historian A. Toynbee, sociologist P.A. Sorokina, V. Pareto. In addition to these two models of social development, there are other approaches. In particular, the Marxist model of the historical process enjoys great popularity. In the last decades of the twentieth century. popular were the concepts of the development of society, using as a key concept "activity" (A. Touraine, M. Crozier, E. Giddens, P. Sztompka, etc.). Let us dwell briefly on each of these concepts.

Evolutionism and neoevolutionism. Evolutionary development model society in sociology appears in the works of O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim. A feature of this model is the use of a naturalistic approach in sociology. Social processes are considered by analogy with natural ones, as objective, impersonal, necessary, having strictly defined stages, due to some one specific internal factor. The metaphor of society as an organism is widely used, so the development of society is considered as the development of a certain integrity, the source of which is internal, endogenous factors. common feature These concepts were Eurocentrism, since European society was seen as an ideal goal for all societies, and progressivism, since the development of society was seen as a progressive movement towards an ideal model.

The difference between evolutionary models is manifested, firstly, in what specific factor is thought to be key to understanding social change and, secondly, in what stages of development of society are distinguished. For O. Comte, this is the thinking of a person, whose three stages of development: religious, metaphysical and scientific (positive), are identified by a sociologist with the stages of development of society. For E. Durkheim, the key development factor is the division of labor, which determines the nature social connections, and the main stages in the development of society, mechanical and organic solidarity .. G. Spencer considered the process social evolution as a movement from incoherent homogeneity to a complex society, the mechanism of evolution is the differentiation of people and social groups, expressed in the emergence and growth of social inequality, he wrote about military and industrial societies.

Neo-evolutionary concepts of development Societies appear in the 20th century, they develop within the framework of the structural-functional approach by such sociologists as T. Parsons, N. Smelser and others as a response to the criticism of evolutionism and functionalism. They retain many of the features inherent in evolutionism, in particular, they clearly define the stages of development of society, they strive to explore the processes of social determination, Europe and North America are chosen as an ideal goal and model. In contrast to classical evolutionism, neoevolutionism proceeds from a multifactorial model of history, that is, it examines not just one relationship (factor), but a system of relationships. Usually allocate economic, political and socio-cultural factors. Among the latter, the role of technological development is especially emphasized, which allows us to speak of technological determinism, which is inherent in some of these concepts. As an example, one can point to the theory of post-industrial society by D. Bell, created in the 70s of the twentieth century, and the theory of modernization by N. Smelser, which were discussed in Chapter 3.

However, most often, non-evolutionism is associated with the name of T. Parsons, the largest American sociologist of the mid-twentieth century. In his book Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives, he writes about two types of processes inherent in any social system: integrative processes that ensure the functioning and reproduction of the system, and structural changes in the value-normative complexes of a given society. The goal of evolution is to increase adaptation, that is, the adaptation of the social system to the environment, the mechanisms for such adaptation will be differentiation, that is, the increase in differences between groups and institutions, the growth of the effectiveness of each institution, the processes of incorporating newly emerging groups and institutions into the social system, the formation of common normative standards . These processes operate simultaneously, therefore, the process of development of society is considered as the result of a complex series of changes. The initially linear model of the history of evolutionism becomes more complicated here, becoming multifactorial and multifaceted.

Modern researchers criticize evolutionism and neo-evolutionism for excessive adherence to the naturalistic paradigm. Focusing on the factors that ensure change, it does not pay due attention to the role of chance in history, the rigid necessity attributed to historical processes does not correspond to the real course of the history of societies, rich in deviations, setbacks, alternative possibilities. In evolutionism, social change appears as a result of structural changes and is not directly associated with people's activities, such a lack of subjectivity also raises fair objections, especially in the modern world, when conscious activity largely determines the course of society's development. In all versions of evolutionism, there is some ideal goal towards which society is allegedly moving; such finalism also does not correspond to the real course of development of the history of societies. In general, the desire of evolutionists to give order to the historical process ignores its real diversity. Many researchers note that evolutionists attach excessive importance to the internal factor of development, while the external impact of societies on each other in the modern era of globalization is very significant. Finally, the 20th century gave us enough examples of the fact that the development of society is by no means only progressive, but states of stagnation, anomie, and decay are observed in its history.

Cyclic theories.Cyclic processes represent a sequence of changes that returns to its beginning after a certain point in time, that is, a kind of social cycle occurs. Using the metaphor of the growth of an organism, the proponents of this approach believed that society goes through the stages of birth, flourishing, decline and death. An example of the cyclical nature of social change is the change of generations of people who go through all these stages. However, in sociology, they most often use a not so rigid model of the cycle, they rather talk about waves. So the famous Russian economist N.D. Kondratiev introduced the concept of large cycles or long waves- these are periodic repetitions of characteristic social economic, technological situations, such as, for example, economic ups and downs, relatively short periods of intensive implementation of technical innovations, followed by longer periods of accumulation of scientific and technical knowledge, peaks of social tension, followed by decades of social stability, etc. d. These characteristic situations regularly repeat approximately every 50 - 30 years. They are almost synchronous for most of the leading developed countries, their manifestations have been recorded in the statistics of these countries over the past 200 years.

The most famous cyclic theory in the sociology of the twentieth century is the theory of P.A. Sorokin, developed in the book "Social and cultural dynamics". Its key concept is culture, which is understood as an integrated system of society's achievements (art, education, ethics, law, etc.). The central principle that permeates all the achievements of the people of P.A. Sorokin calls "cultural mentality". This principle underlies the distinction between two main types of culture - speculative and sensual. The speculative culture is characterized by the fact that it understands the world as spiritual, intangible for the most part, therefore the goals and norms that underlie people's behavior are the requirements for fulfilling a sacred duty, moral obligations, saving the soul, serving God. To achieve these goals, efforts are being made and social practices are being developed to free a person from the temptations of material life, for example, prayer, meditation, etc. Sensual culture understands the world as corporeal, material, in the process of continuous formation. The goals and needs of people are determined by this world and involve the pursuit of happiness, pleasure, and usefulness. Intermediate between these main types of idealistic culture is a balanced combination of speculative and sensual elements: the world is both corporeal and spiritual, both material and spiritual values ​​are important.

Theory of P.A. Sorokin is based on significant empirical material, with the help of which he shows that these types of culture are realized through various processes: imitation, adaptation, cultural consumption, disintegration, conflict, alienation, penetrating all forms and types of culture. Therefore, the development of sociocultural systems is a multifactorial and multivariate process, waves are possible in it, peaks and recessions are possible. The history of society turns out to be a change in the types of cultures, the author believes that in Europe of the 11th century, the idealistic culture of the late Middle Ages was replaced by a sensual culture. It is the essence of the modern socio-cultural system and is characterized by moral anarchy, alienation and reification of people's relations, chaos of opinions, lack of social harmony, crisis and disintegration of the family, the dominance of mass culture, the growth of social pathologies and passivity. However, according to Sorokin, we can hope for the advent of the next type of culture, speculative or idealistic.

Cyclic models of the development of society largely repeat the shortcomings of evolutionary approaches. Here we also see a rigid division into stages, changes appear as a result of the functioning of structures, and not people, the process of development of society is schematized, its diversity, concreteness, and variability disappear. And the very metaphor of the growth of the organism, which underlies these theories, is questionable. Moreover, biological processes are not reduced to growth, which reveals the existing potential, and does not create a new system. In society, we see not only and not so much the implementation of existing explicit and hidden programs, but a continuous creative process of creating new practices in all spheres of society.

Marxist model of the historical process based on the works of K. Marx and F. Engels, who considered the history of society as a change in socio-economic formations. Formation, society at a certain historical stage of its development, was considered by the classics of Marxism as a set of social relations. Material relations arising in the process of labor activity form the basis of society. Ideological relations, political and spiritual, form a superstructure. The basis and superstructure make up the structure of society, and the basis (economic relations) is considered primary, determining, although the influence of ideological relations is not denied. Five main formations were distinguished: primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and communist (future), the change of which was carried out in the process of social revolution. The process of social development was carried out as a process of resolving contradictions within the social structure. These are contradictions between the base and the superstructure, between the components of the material mode of production, the productive forces and production relations.

K. Marx analyzed the process of development of society not only at the level of society as a whole, but also at the level of social groups. The structural contradictions of society manifested themselves as contradictions between social classes, hence the class struggle turned out to be the driving force of history.

K. Marx's theory assumed another level of analysis; he created the theory of practice, which was developed in the works of a number of Western Marxists. Practice - the material activity of people was considered by Marx as the real social fabric of society, since everything in society, things, relationships, spiritual artifacts, are the result of human activity. Therefore, along with the fact that Marxism emphasizes the natural-historical nature of the development of society, points to the existence of objective laws and stages in the development of society, unlike evolutionism, it notes the importance of the vigorous activity of a person who actually creates history. This last point in the theory of Marxism largely determined the nature of the latest theories of development, based on the concept of "activity" and "action".

Theories of action. Previous approaches to the analysis of the development of society developed mainly within the framework of macrosociology, that is, they were considered at the level of social systems and structures, at best they pointed to the role large groups people: classes, nations. However, a microsociological approach to development is also possible, which focuses on the behavior of an individual and small social groups. This approach arose in the second half of the 20th century. in the works of famous French sociologists A. Touraine, M. Crozier, English sociologist A. Giddens, Polish sociologist P. Sztompka, etc. Although their theories differ significantly from each other, they have a number of common features, allowing them to be combined into one rubric. The key concept of this approach is the concept of "social action", introduced at the beginning of the 20th century. M. Weber, and "practice" introduced by K. Marx.

A. Touraine in his work “The Return of the Acting Man” emphasized that it is necessary to return to the idea that people make their own history, therefore the analysis of social changes is the main goal of sociological research. Social change is possible through collective action, the main carrier of which are social movements. It is they who, according to the French sociologist, directly destroy the cultural foundations of society. The mechanism of social change is proclaimed to be social conflict, understood not only as a class conflict, but as a conflict between very different groups, including elite groups. The new industrial society, the sociologist believes, is not so much the result of the action of social laws, but the result of the conscious efforts of social groups. However, in his passion for human activity, A. Touraine comes to the assertion that there are no laws of social development in general.

A. Giddens is an English sociologist who develops a theory of structuration, in which he tries to combine the study of social structures (sustainable relationships) and human activity in one theoretical analysis. He believes that it is pointless to study only structures, without taking into account the acting subject, since the properties of social systems are both a means and a result of the practice in the course of which these systems are formed. Unlike A. Touraine, the English sociologist emphasizes that the history of society is more often unintentional, all attempts by a person to go in the direction of certain goals and ideals are frustrated. The key, in his opinion, is organized activity people, but everyday practices that both shape and change the fabric of social life.

The Polish sociologist P. Sztompka in his book "Sociology of Social Change" seeks to create the concept of "social development", which would combine macro and micro sociological approaches to social change. He assigns the role of "connective tissue" between social structures and individual human behavior to activity and practice. Society, in his opinion, does not consist of people and structures, but of real events, in which both actions and social conditions affecting a person (structures) are fused. Their unity is expressed through the concept of practice. An event is not reducible to its components; it adds something new to the social fabric, since it can change the action and the condition for its implementation. P. Sztompka pays special attention to the influence of consciousness on the process of social change, noting the possibility of both unconscious actions, spontaneous manifestations of people's activity, and conscious actions that control practices. He emphasizes that in modern society there is an increase in last view social change. In his opinion, not only the social system can change, but also social change itself, it changes its character in the course of the history of society.

An important place in the theory of social change of the Polish sociologist is occupied by the concept social trauma, negative consequences of changes in themselves, regardless of the content and direction of these changes . Social dynamics can have both positive and negative consequences. The latter in one case can be the essence of changes, for example, environmental pollution, the escalation of war. In another case, negative consequences are the result of generally positively assessed changes, for example, the transition of the economy to a market organization is accompanied by negative processes of reducing the living standards of the population, the democratization of society can in some cases lead to an increase in deviant behavior. Social trauma is manifested in the growth of negative socio-psychological phenomena: anxiety, fears, uncertainty in tomorrow, passivity of the population. P. Sztompka analyzes in his works various types of social traumas, explores the processes leading to such states of society, describes the practices of overcoming social traumas.

Consideration of approaches to the development of society that have developed in the sociology of the 19th-20th centuries. allows you to do the following conclusions. The logic of the development of the concepts of social dynamics shows how sociology gradually freed itself from the influence of naturalism in the understanding of society. There is a rejection of schemes of rigid, unambiguous determinism, too many factors, often random, are involved in social processes. They are no longer understood only as linear or cyclical, there is an idea of ​​their multidirectionality, multifactoriality and alternativeness. The ideas about the factors of social change are expanding, they are not only diverse, but among them we see both internal to the system and external.

Ideas about the role of conscious efforts in history are being revised. Awareness of the increased role of purposeful and conscious efforts of people in the life of society raises the problem of responsibility as people who make decisions in politics, the economy, the cultural sphere, and ordinary citizens who follow these decisions.

Not only social systems are subject to change, but also our ideas about them, while conjectures are expressed that the mechanisms of social changes themselves may be changing.

In conclusion, it should be noted that although there is no single concept of social change in sociology, thanks to the author of these concepts, a number of concepts and ideas have been introduced that can be used in the analysis of real social processes, some of which will be discussed in more detail below.

10.2 Social change, social processes

Under social change sociology understands the differences in the state of the social system in a certain period of time. Social systems can differ in composition (elements), stable relationships (relationships), in value-normative complexes, in the nature of consciousness and self-awareness of people and social groups that form the system, in functions. For example, immigrants may appear in a society, changing the composition of urban settlements, as a result of the reform, the number of social institutions, new social groups with their own subcultures may appear, new ideological and religious movements may arise, existing social institutions acquire new explicit, and more often implicit functions. Finally, the boundaries between social systems can change: organizations can merge into one whole or, conversely, undergo division.

Social changes are single events that characterize the state of the social system, however, the event can be regularly repeated, or entail another event, or take place in parallel with other social changes. Such relatively stable series of successive social changes that cause and accompany each other are called social processes. Social processes take place in social systems that maintain a certain stability, since any change implies not only something new in the characteristics of the system, but also a certain stability, otherwise one would have to talk not about change, but about its complete destruction. The stability of a changing system is often expressed in the preservation of its identity, that is, in their self-consciousness, people or groups that are elements of this system define themselves as belonging to this stable community. So modern Russia is undergoing modernization, which includes a number of social processes, but it retains its Russian identity.

It is necessary to distinguish between social changes and changes in society. The latter term is broader in its scope; it includes, along with social changes proper, also economic, political, and spiritual changes. Social changes, in the words of the famous American sociologist N. Smelzer, are changes that affect the social organization of society. Economic, political organizations are the subject of study of other social sciences, in particular, economics and political science.

10.3 Types of social change and processes

In the previous sections of the manual, we have considered specific types of social change. At the level of society as a whole, we singled out such changes as globalization and Westernization, at the level of groups and social strata we talked about the class struggle, social mobility. Finally, at the micro level, that is, at the level of an individual or small groups, one can talk about such processes as communication, acculturation, etc. Most often, when talking about social changes, development processes are implied. However, development is only one of the types of social processes, along with such processes as adaptation, stagnation (stagnation) and destruction.

The following options can be selected development:

1. in the course of development, the social system has new characteristics (elements, relationships, functions), and usually they are assessed positively by society;

2. The process of development takes place on the basis of factors internal to the given social system. As an example of social development, we can cite the process of socialization, during which a person's personality is formed, his abilities are revealed; or the process of industrialization in Western Europe in the 19th century, during which industry and the working class arose.

If the process occurs mainly under the influence of external, exogenous factors, such as natural disasters, climate change, conquest, etc., it is rather adaptive character. Thus, climate change in North Africa in the first millennium of our era led to a change in the agricultural way of the region, cattle breeding replaced agriculture.

If the social system, supporting its existence, gradually loses important qualities, slows down growth, dysfunctions are found in social institutions, a person begins to experience a feeling of social humiliation, anxiety and fear, we can talk about state of stagnation or stagnation. The latter term is usually applied to economic systems, but is increasingly being used more broadly as social stagnation.

Finally, perhaps destruction of the social system Let us recall, for example, the tragic fate of the Mesoamerican civilization that perished during the European conquests.

It should immediately be noted that the allocation of these types of social processes is rather arbitrary and relative, social systems can simultaneously experience various types of changes, their classification as stagnant or adaptive. for example, will depend on the position of the researcher.

Development processes can differ in the nature of the flow. If development takes place slowly enough, gradually, often, especially at the beginning, is not realized by people, we can talk about evolutionary and change. An example of such a change can be the same socialization of the individual, or the processes of social mobility, leading to a change in the social structure of society, the emergence, for example, of new middle strata in the middle of the 20th century.

However, such calm periods of development can be replaced by fast, abrupt, spasmodic changes, in this case, we will talk about revolutionary the nature of the development processes. The founder of the theory of social revolution is K. Marx, who considered it as the highest form of class struggle, serving as a transition from one socio-economic formation to another. Now the concept of revolution is used to describe not only the change in society as a whole, but also in relation to individual social spheres or phenomena. Modern researchers write about revolutions in science, revolutions in fashion, technological revolutions, scientific and technological revolutions, political and, of course, social revolutions. In each of these cases, we mean the nature of the changes that affect the essential aspects of the social system (science, fashion, technology, power, social structure). Such changes occur relatively quickly, deeply experienced by people, who often evaluate events as catastrophic. After revolutions, social systems change so significantly that we have to talk about new social systems (new science, new fashion, new society).

10.4 Progress, regression, crisis

Development processes can differ in their direction, usually there are two types of processes: progress and regression. progressive development characterized by the following features. First, the social system improves its parameters, for example, the growth rate of industrial production increases, the material situation of citizens improves, the level and quality of education in society increases. Secondly, such changes bring the system closer to a state that, in the opinion of society, is preferable and is assessed as better, happier, more worthy, more just.

Regressive processes alienate people from recognized values, make their lives less secure, unstable, limited in their capabilities. In the course of regressive processes, the social system may find itself in a state of anomie, stagnation, and even disintegration.

The idea that a society can develop progressively by improving its parameters is very old, we can already find it in the works of ancient thinkers, but this idea became generally recognized in the philosophy of the 18th-19th centuries. In particular, O. Comte believed that his law of three stages testifies to the steady and progressive development of society based on the development of science. K. Marx argued that the basis of progressive changes in society is progress in the development of the material mode of production. E. Durkheim associated a possible improvement in the state of society with the development of the division of labor.

However, by the end of the 19th century, researchers began to voice their doubts about the absoluteness of the idea of ​​progress, since the relativity of characterizing changes as progressive or regressive became obvious. First, the same phenomenon is assessed differently by different groups. For example, the process of fencing in England in the 18th-18th centuries, which led to the development of English capitalism, is progressive from the point of view of the bourgeoisie, however, for farmers, this process destroyed the foundations of their economy and was regressive. Secondly, often social changes are assessed as progressive after the fact, many years after the relevant events, and contemporaries see them as only a manifestation of chaos. For example, the decline in the level of religiosity, the growth of freedom of morals in the XVIII-XIX centuries. often regarded by society as signs of a crisis, we are now inclined to see in this the progressive growth of individualism and individual freedom. The question of the price of progress also arises, since progressive changes are often accompanied by wars, conflicts and require heavy sacrifices from the population.

An important question is progress criteria. Obviously, such a criterion should be the values ​​that people strive for, but we know that value complexes are different for different people, groups, and social institutions. Therefore, it is necessary to find universal values ​​that everyone will agree with, for example, justice, the security of human existence. However, the abstract nature of these values ​​is immediately evident, because people understand their content in different ways. Perhaps it should be assumed that the concept of progress is applicable not so much to society as a whole, but to its individual systems, each of which will have its own criteria for progress. For example, the progressive development of science means an increase in the volume of knowledge and depth of understanding of nature. Progress in technology implies an increase in its usefulness and efficiency. However, there are such subsystems, for example, art, morality, where it is quite problematic to talk about progress.

Finally, it can be noted that the uneven processes of social change, improvement in one subsystem, say in the economy, may be accompanied by regressive phenomena in another, say, in the sphere of spiritual culture or morality.

All these considerations make many philosophers and sociologists skeptical about the idea of ​​progress, making the idea of ​​crisis the leitmotif of understanding modernity. The concept of crisis does not have an unambiguous definition, however, it can be said that a crisis- this is a state of the social system, when there are failures in its work, which are evaluated by people extremely negatively, they are acutely experienced by them as a state of instability, lack of hope for improving things. We constantly hear about the economic, political and spiritual crisis in modern society. Perhaps these sentiments are caused by the accelerated development of society, a decrease in the duration of states of relative social stability.

10.5 From mass actions to social movements.

Social processes are realized through the actions of people. Depending on the degree and nature of awareness of the goals, norms and conditions of action, we can speak of the following types. When mass actions people are each guided by their own interests and motives, but the cumulative result of such actions may diverge from the intentions of individuals or even be unconscious. For example, when we come to the store, we make purchases based on our desires and capabilities, without thinking that thousands of people are doing the same. However, the indirect end result of these decisions may be, for example, an increase in inflation, which will affect everyone, although, of course, no one wanted this. Coming to the bank to make a deposit, just like thousands of people, we do not think about the fact that by doing so we are strengthening the national currency. All these are the processes that Adam Smith wrote about as the invisible hand of the market. When deciding on the number of children in a family, we do not think about the consequences of our decision for the process of population reproduction. Mass actions can take place spontaneously, but it is also possible to direct these actions, which is what the state does, for example, by introducing maternity capital, it hopes for an increase in the birth rate, raising interest rates on deposits, hopes that people will not rush to withdraw money from accounts.

However, people's actions can have additional characteristics: they can be concentrated in one space and be influenced by the same situation. People still act individually, singly, each by himself, but spatial proximity and the general situation make such actions collective behaviour. An example of such behavior can serve as a crowd, audience, public One of the types of collective behavior of the crowd is panic, which occurs as a result of social tension caused by political and economic disasters.

Collective Action- a concept that allows you to describe a different type of behavior. Collective action is characterized by the following.

1. a clear statement of the goals of the action,

2. definition of a behavior strategy,

3. division of functions between participants,

4. coordination of various functions,

5. the presence of a leader. Such actions are more durable and long-term, rational, involving planning. If we compare the collective behavior, say, a fight, acts of vandalism, and the rather aggressive behavior of anti-globalism supporters during demonstrations in Quebec, Genoa, etc., then in the first case, the actions were spontaneous and were a manifestation of expressive malice, hostility.. In the second case, we had dealing with a targeted action that was supposed to draw attention to the plight of the developing countries. Collective action is used to achieve different goals: climbing Everest, training a sports team to win, workers on strike, scientific research conducted by a group of scientists, bank robbery.

Types of actions can be transferred into each other. For example, migration, which is an example of a mass action, can be transformed into a collective behavior, in the case of a decision to leave the country under the influence of ethnic cleansing, or a civil war, it can turn into a collective action when a community of people decides to move to another country.

Another example is tourism. It can proceed as a mass behavior of people, leading to a wide variety of consequences for the economy of host countries, transport and tourism companies. Tourism can lead to collective behavior causing crowds, queues, traffic jams. Finally, it can become a collective action, say, group tourism.

Among the collective actions of great importance are social movements, which are characterized by: 1. striving for a specific goal, the desire to cause specific social changes, 2. development within informal communities, which often do not have a clear membership, organizational hierarchy, and a rigid management system. In modern society, the phenomenon of social movements is very common, which is facilitated by:

1 urbanization (the appearance of large clusters of people interacting with each other);

2 industrialization, which leads to the concentration of masses of workers in factories, factories, the formation of trade unions, political parties and some religious movements takes place here;

3 the mass nature of education brought together students, at the same time, education allows you to better understand situations, formulate common goals;

4 modern technologies facilitate the mobilization of social movements and the recruitment of their members;

5, the motivation to participate in the movement is increasing, since the proportion of dissatisfied people is growing in modern society, despair pushes people to organize for a common, joint struggle for improving living conditions, motivation is also enhanced under the influence of activist and progressive ideology;

6 the key role is played by the democratization of societies, which makes possible the legal existence of the movement, its real influence on the decision-making groups. In addition, democracy creates chances for participants in the social movement to really have an impact on society.

There are different types of social movements.

Reform movements seek to change the norms and rules of behavior. Most often they affect the law, for example, labor legislation, towards ensuring greater rights for workers, housing legislation, legislation related to the environment. It can also be about customs and morality, for example, the movement for the protection of animals, the movement demanding the prohibition of pornography.

Radical movements strive for fundamental changes affecting the foundations of the social order and order, as well as for multilateral changes. For example. Solidarity movement in Poland, civil rights movement in the USA.

From a historical perspective, there are old and new social movements. The 19th century was dominated by movements that represented separate segments of the social structure: classes, estates, professions, for example, the labor movement, trade union movements. They sought to mobilize the forces of specific groups; their focus was on material, economic interests. These movements were characterized by a hierarchical structure, a high degree of organization and were easily transformed into political parties and trade unions. Now these movements, especially in democratic societies, have become institutionalized, turned into parties, factions in parliament, pressure groups.

In the 20th century there are new social movements: environmental, feminist, anti-nuclear, peace movement, anti-abortion movement, anti-abortion movement death penalty, the human rights movement, etc. They recruit supporters from different social groups, they are aimed at solving a specific problem, they concern the quality of life, the personal dignity of a person, self-realization, freedom, peace, that is, universal values. Many of the new social movements are distinguished by much freer forms of organization, rather decentralized, based on the principle of voluntariness, and include amateur forms of activity.

A special phenomenon of the 20th century was anti-globalization movements. Their focus on economic problems brings them closer to the old movements, they oppose transnational corporations. They are united with the new movements by the desire to represent the interests of not some group, but all people.

10.6 Social conflicts

Social processes, realized through the activities of people, can take the form of cooperation, competition and conflict. The latter form has especially attracted the close attention of sociologists.

The term conflict (conliktus) is translated from Latin as a clash of opposing interests, views, opinions, serious disagreements, a dispute. The most general definition social conflict- this is a hidden or open clash of subjects of social interaction.

There is an independent science conflictology, which not only studies the types and forms of conflicts, but also develops technologies for introducing them into a civilized channel, gives specific recommendations for their faster and optimal resolution.

In sociology, the topic of conflict was raised as early as the 19th century. So G. Spencer believed that social conflict is one of the forms of the struggle for existence and is caused by a limited amount of life resources and the natural aggressiveness of a person.

K. Marx considered conflicts as manifestations of contradictions in the social structure of society, which are realized in the behavior of social classes. He believed that conflict is a manifestation of the class struggle. Class conflicts are based on irreconcilable economic interests, the resolution of which requires a struggle for power (revolution), or changes in the existing system of society (reform).

Fundamentals of the study of social conflicts in the twentieth century. founded by German philosopher and sociologist Georg Simmel(1850-1918), who considered social conflict as a permanent state of society in general and individual social groups in particular. He explained the conflict nature of society by the fact that the renewing content of social life comes into conflict with outdated cultural forms. Within a group, conflict can perform various functions, including acting as a driving force for its development.

The modern interpretation of social conflicts is represented by two different points of view. One belongs to a representative of the Chicago school, Robert Park, who believed that social conflict is simply one of the types of social interaction along with competition, accommodation and assimilation. Another approach developed by the American sociologist L. Koser and German sociologist R. Dahrendorf considers social conflict as a constant desire of the individual and groups to redistribute statuses, incomes, values. Conflict prevents the ossification of society, opens the way for innovation. Society by its nature is contradictory, diverse and in constant conflict of the new with the old. Change and conflict are not only a necessary evil, but also a necessary condition for the existence of society.

Scientists argue that social conflict manifests itself differently in different social conditions. In open societies where there are democratic political regimes, laws are respected, where problems are raised and discussed publicly, there are alternative programs, the struggle of opinions, conflicts proceed smoothly, without social explosions, in a controlled, evolutionary way, without much loss. These conflicts are manageable. In closed societies, social conflict flows latently, is not detected in the early stages, accumulates, draws in more and more forces and layers, dividing people into hostile camps, and splashing out to the surface as a riot, uprising, revolution, coup, military violence.

In an effort to understand what social conflict is, it is necessary to correlate this concept with the concept of contradiction. These concepts, on the one hand, cannot be considered as synonyms, and on the other hand, they cannot be opposed to each other. Contradictions, opposites, differences are necessary, but not sufficient conditions conflict. Opposites and contradictions turn into conflict when the forces that are their carriers begin to interact. In this way, conflict- this is a manifestation of objective or subjective contradictions, expressed in the confrontation of the parties. Under with social conflict usually understood as the kind of confrontation in which the parties seek to seize any resources by threatening opposing individuals or groups, their property or culture. In conflictology, terms such as “disputes”, “debate”, “bargaining”, “rivalry”, “controlled battles”, “attack”, “indirect or direct violence” are used to describe conflicts.

Social conflict always requires at least two opposing sides. Their actions are usually aimed at achieving mutually exclusive interests, which leads to a clash of parties. That is why all conflicts are characterized by a strong tension that encourages people to change their behavior in one way or another, to adapt or "protect themselves from this situation." In order to more accurately understand the nature of the conflict, it is necessary to determine its boundaries, that is. outer limits in space and time. Three aspects of determining the boundaries of the conflict can be distinguished: spatial, temporal, and intrasystemic.

Spatial boundaries conflicts are usually defined by the territory in which the conflict occurs. A clear definition of the spatial boundaries of the conflict is important mainly in international relations which is closely related to the problem of the participants in the conflict.

Temporary boundaries is the duration of the conflict, its beginning and end. Whether the conflict is considered to have begun, is ongoing, or has already ended depends, in particular, on the legal assessment of the actions of its participants at one time or another. This is especially important for a correct assessment of the role of newcomers to the conflict.

The beginning of the conflict is determined by objective acts of behavior directed against another participant, who is aware of these acts as directed against him and counteracts them. This somewhat complicated formula means that a conflict will be recognized as having begun if:

1) the first participant deliberately and actively acts to the detriment of the other participant; at the same time, by actions we understand both physical actions and the transfer of information;

2) the second participant is aware that these actions are directed against his interests;

3) the second participant takes active actions directed against the first participant.

Intrasystem aspect the development of the conflict and the definition of its boundaries is as follows. Any conflict takes place in a certain system, whether it be a family, a group of colleagues, a state, an international community, etc. A conflict between parties included in one system can be deep, extensive or private, limited. Determining the internal boundaries of the conflict is closely related to the clear identification of the conflicting parties from the entire circle of its participants. Participants in the conflict can be such figures as instigators, accomplices, organizers of the conflict, as well as arbitrators, supporters, advisers, opponents of certain persons in conflict with each other. All these persons are elements of the system. The boundaries of the conflict in the system depend, therefore, on how wide the circle of participants involved in it is. Knowledge of the internal boundaries of the conflict is needed in order to influence the ongoing processes, in particular, to prevent the destruction of the system as a whole.

Sociologists note a variety of functions social conflicts. The usual assessment of any conflicts is negative. The conflict is assessed by public opinion mainly as an undesirable phenomenon. In general, he is such - at least for one of the parties. So, due to conflicts in production, up to 15% of working time is lost. There is another point of view, according to which conflict is not only inevitable, but also a useful social phenomenon.

Authors who recognize conflict as undesirable consider it a destroyer of a normally functioning social system. In its original basis, the conflict is not inherent in the system and is usually exhausted when those forces appear that will restore stability to it. It follows that already in the conflict itself there is an incentive for the emergence of institutions to maintain the system in a stable state. These are legislative activity, and adopted procedures for resolving various disputes, and political meetings, where party conflicts are resolved in the “war of words”, that is, debates and discussions, and the market, where competing interests between buyers and sellers are resolved through contracts, etc. . It follows from this that even those experts who consider conflict to be a negative phenomenon see some positive features in it.

Another scholarly tradition generally regards conflict not as aberrant and transient, but as permanent and even required component social relations. This tradition goes back to Aristotle, T. Hobbes, G. Hegel, K. Marx, M. Weber. According to this view, the fact of any scarcity in society is sufficient in itself to cause conflict; each person in any group tries to increase his share of scarce resources and, if necessary, at the expense of others. And if among the seekers of territories and resources we also find a struggle for leadership, power, and prestige, then conflict is simply inevitable.

According to L. Koser, the conflict within the group can contribute to its cohesion or restoration of unity. Therefore, internal social conflicts affecting only such goals, values ​​and interests that do not contradict the accepted foundations of intra-group relations, as a rule, are functionally positive in nature.

At the interpersonal level, the functions of conflict are also contradictory. The problem is that in most cases the functions of the conflict are associated with its negative consequences, since they lead mainly to the violation of certain forms of communication, norms, standards of behavior, etc. Less studied is the positive function of interpersonal conflicts. The constructive functions of this type of conflict are as follows. First, interpersonal conflict can help mobilize the efforts of the group and the individual to overcome those that arise during joint activities critical situations. Secondly, the “developing” function of the conflict is expressed in expanding the sphere of knowledge of the individual or group, in the active assimilation of social experience, in the dynamic exchange of values, standards, etc. Thirdly, the conflict can contribute to the formation of anti-conformist behavior of the individual’s thinking. Finally, resolving these kinds of conflicts leads to stronger group cohesion.

In addition to these, the conflict performs an informational function, showing the position of people to a group, fixing their diverse interests. The signal function of the conflict is manifested in the fact that it, as it were, notifies others about the problems that exist in this community, without which it is impossible to resolve the conflict. Finally, the differentiating function of the conflict is manifested in the fact that it can contribute to the differentiation (separation) of groups, social institutions, which can lead to an improvement in their activities.

Allocate various types of social conflicts. depending from social areas where they manifest themselves, one can single out economic, political, including interethnic, domestic, cultural and actually social conflicts.

It is worth paying attention to economic conflicts, the essence and degree of prevalence of which change markedly during the transition of society to a market economy. In fact, the market itself is a field of constant conflicts, not only in the form of competition or ousting the enemy, but, above all, in the form of commercial transactions, which are always associated with dialogue, and even with various actions aimed at forcing the partner to a favorable agreement. . Along with this, other acute conflict situations arise in a market economy: strikes, lockouts, crises in monetary circulation, etc. The market generally implies the emergence of labor conflicts, which are regulated by specially developed rules. Although labor conflicts exist in any social system, they are most characteristic of a market economy, which is based on the purchase and sale of any product, including labor.

A feature of large-scale economic conflicts is the involvement of wide sections of the population in their sphere. For example, an air traffic controllers' strike affects the interests of not only aviation companies, but also thousands of passengers. Therefore, the institutionalization of labor conflicts, including the prohibition of certain types of strikes, is an important means of stabilizing public life.

Conflicts in the political sphere are a common phenomenon. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that they can develop into large-scale social events: uprisings, riots, and, in the end, a civil war. Many modern political conflicts are also characterized by an interethnic aspect, which can acquire independent significance.

The conflicts that take place in the social sphere, the health care system, social security, education are closely related to the two named conflicts - economic and political. Often these conflicts do not affect the foundations of a given social system, and their scale is not great. The same can be said about everyday conflicts between people at their place of work or place of residence.

The nature all conflicts are divided into open (contact) - controversy, violence, class struggle, raiding, and hidden (non-contact) - intrigues, conspiracies, wars of secret diplomacy.

By time indicators distinguish between conflicts that last from a few minutes and hours, days, months, to many years, for example, the hundred-year war between France and England in the Middle Ages.

By the composition of the participants and the level at which I arise t and conflicts occur interpersonal, intergroup, class, interethnic, interstate, interfaith, ideological conflicts. Now they write about world and global conflicts.

Other types of conflict classification are also possible: by the number of participants, by the degree of settlement, by motives, etc. It is clear that within the framework of any type of conflict, further classification is possible. Here is one of them related to interethnic conflicts. First, allocate conflicts of uncontrollable emotions. We are talking about riots, pogroms. Such conflicts are characterized by the uncertainty of the purpose of the organizers of the riots, the randomness of specific events. Often external signs such events hide the true causes that have not been clarified to the end. This is confirmed by the analysis of the dramatic events in Fergana in 1989, when uninvolved Meskhetian Turks were subjected to pogroms, as well as the events in the former Yugoslavia, which in many ways defy rational interpretation.

Secondly, it is possible conflicts of ideological doctrines. They are associated with political, national, religious movements and have more or less ancient historical roots. National requirements are formed and developed by ideological theorists. Supporters of a certain idea are ready to sacrifice their very lives for it, so such conflicts are characterized by a long and violent nature. Such conflicts include disputes over the ownership of territories, over their state or administrative status, the return of previously deported peoples, etc.

Thirdly, there are conflicts of political institutions. These are mainly disputes about borders, relationships, authorities, jurisdiction, the role of political parties and movements. "Wars of laws" and "parades of sovereignties" are among the conflicts of this type.

Finally, it is possible to single out non-institutionalized conflicts, conflicts, the flow of which is not regulated by any mechanisms. If in institutionalized conflicts there are rules common to the parties, according to which the problem is resolved, then in the second type of conflicts, the possibility of reaching agreement between the parties is minimal or non-existent, and the struggle is carried out without rules. Between these poles there is a wide variety of types of confrontation, which are regulated at least partially.

Social conflict has the following flow stages. On the pre-conflict stage manifestations of discontent, violations of normal interaction are visible. The state of people is characterized by frustration: anxiety, the collapse of hope, the feeling of the impossibility of achieving the goal. Frustration can be resolved in two ways: retreat, as if the conflict is driven inside, not developed, or aggression against the participants in the conflict. At this stage, the causes of the conflict are understood, goals are set, allies are sought, and means are chosen. The analysis and search for solutions begins, and often it is at this stage that the problem can be solved.

Actually direct conflict begins with an incident, a certain situation that serves as a kind of impetus for the deployment of a number of actions by the participants in the conflict. This stage is characterized by the desire to change the behavior of the subjects of the conflict, which can manifest itself in an open clash and take the form of debates, sanctions, protests, and violent actions. The parties at this stage are joined by sympathizers, allies, and the conflict is expanding. A direct conflict can also be realized with the help of covert actions, in which case rumors are spread, opponents are misinformed, intrigues are woven, deceitful actions are committed. The goal is to impose disadvantageous erroneous actions on the enemy, and make it easier for yourself to win.

The third stage is conflict resolution. It presupposes the cessation of external actions. Conflict resolution can be realized in two forms: full conflict resolution, when one of the parties is defeated, the cause of the conflict is eliminated, and partial resolution, when the scope of the conflict is limited, the parties try to find a way to an agreement. Ways full resolution is rivalry and competition, the use of force. Ways partial permission conflict can be a compromise (mutual concessions), adaptation (the desire to smooth out contradictions by changing one's position), cooperation (an attempt to jointly develop a solution), negotiations, mediation (using a third party), ignoring (avoiding conflict), arbitration (appeal to power ), control (regulation of the process in order to minimize losses and maximize gains)

At the fourth stage of the conflict, the parties exercise control over the implementation of decisions on the conflict.

Factors (causes) of changes in society page, fill in the table: Factors Essence of views Natural Spiritual Material Technogenic Combined approach

Factors of change in society Factors Essence of views Natural climatic conditions determine the individual characteristics of a person, his character and inclinations Spiritual "Ideas rule the world." Individuals are able to rule the world Material Before engaging in philosophy, people must drink, eat, have a home, and therefore produce all this Technogenic Techniques and technologies determine the course of human development Combined approach The interaction of various causes and conditions of development should be taken into account

THE ROLE OF THE PEOPLE Page Who do scientists classify as the masses? How did Klyuchevsky interpret the concept of "people"? What did Herzen say about this? What is Berdyaev's point of view? Jaspers? What is known about the theory of elites?

The role of social groups and public associations, p. What definition of social groups did Hobbes give? Give examples of social groups For what purpose did social groups create public associations? What do we mean by public associations? Give examples. What role do political parties play in the historical process?

The Role of Historical Figures What is the universality of the historical process? What do we mean by the term "historical personality"? Comment on Plekhanov's opinion. How can you evaluate a historical figure? What features should a great personality have from Klyuchevsky's point of view?

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TYPES OF SOCIAL DYNAMICS

The historical process is a society in dynamics, that is, in motion, change, development. The last three words are not synonyms. In any society, diverse activities of people are carried out, state bodies, various institutions and associations perform their tasks: in other words, society lives, moves. In daily activities, the established social relations retain their qualitative characteristics, society as a whole does not change its character. Such a manifestation of the process can be called functioning society.
Social changes - this is the transition of certain social objects from one state to another, the appearance of new properties, functions, relations in them, i.e. modifications in social organization, social institutions, social structure, patterns of behavior established in society.
Changes that lead to deep, qualitative shifts in society, the transformation of social ties, the transition of the entire social system to a new state, are called social development.
Philosophers and sociologists consider various types of social dynamics. The most common type is linear movement as an ascending or descending line of social development. This type is associated with the concepts of progress and regress, which will be discussed in the following lessons. Cyclic type unites the processes of the emergence, flourishing and disintegration of social systems that have a certain length in time, after which they cease to exist. You have been introduced to this type of social dynamics in previous lessons. Third, spiral type associated with the recognition that the course of history can return a particular society to a previously passed state, but characteristic not of the immediately preceding stage, but of an earlier one. At the same time, the features characteristic of a state that has long gone into the past seem to be returning, but at a higher level of social development, at a new qualitative level. It is believed that the spiral type is found when reviewing long periods of the historical process, with a large-scale approach to history. Let's look at an example. You probably remember from your history course that scattered manufacture was a common form of manufacture. Industrial development has led to the concentration of workers in large factories. And in the conditions of the information society, there is, as it were, a return to work at home: an increasing number of workers perform their duties on personal computers without leaving home.
In science, there were supporters of the recognition of one or another of these options historical development. But there is a point of view according to which linear, cyclical, and spiral processes are manifested in history. They act not as parallel or successive, but as interrelated aspects of a holistic historical process.
Social change can take place in various forms. You are familiar with the words "evolution" and "revolution". Let us clarify their philosophical meaning.
Evolution is gradual, continuous changes, passing one into another without jumps and breaks. Evolution is opposed to the concept of "revolution", which characterizes spasmodic, qualitative changes.
A social revolution is a radical qualitative upheaval in the entire social structure of society: deep, fundamental changes covering the economy, politics, spiritual sphere. In contrast to evolution, a revolution is characterized by a rapid, spasmodic transition to a qualitatively new state of society, a rapid transformation of the basic structures of the social system. As a rule, a revolution leads to the replacement of the old social order by a new one. The transition to a new system can be carried out both in relatively peaceful forms and in violent ones. Their ratio depends on specific historical conditions. Often revolutions were accompanied by destructive and cruel actions, bloody sacrifices. There are various assessments of revolutions. Some scientists and political figures point to their negative features and dangers associated with both the use of violence against a person and the violent rupture of the very “fabric” of social life - public relations. Others call revolutions "the locomotives of history." (Based on knowledge from the history course, determine your assessment of this form of social change.)
Considering the forms of social change, one should also remember the role of reforms. You met the concept of "reform" in the course of history. Most often, social reform is called the reorganization of some aspect of public life (institutions, institutions, orders, etc.) while maintaining the existing social order. This is a kind of evolutionary change that does not change the foundations of the system. Reforms are usually carried out "from above", by the ruling forces. The scale and depth of reforms characterize the dynamics inherent in society.
At the same time, modern science recognizes the possibility of implementing a system of deep reforms that can become an alternative to revolution, prevent it or replace it. Such reforms, revolutionary in their scope and consequences, can lead to a radical renewal of society, avoiding the upheavals associated with spontaneous manifestations of violence inherent in social revolutions.

FACTORS OF CHANGE IN SOCIETY

The word "factor" means the cause, the driving force of the historical process, which determines its character or individual features. There are various classifications of factors influencing the development of society. One of them highlights natural, technological and spiritual factors.
French educator of the 18th century. C. Montesquieu, who considered natural factors decisive, believed that climatic conditions determine the individual characteristics of a person, his character and inclinations. In countries with fertile soil, the spirit of dependence is more easily established, since people who are engaged in agriculture have no time to think about freedom. And in countries with a cold climate, people think more about their freedom than about the harvest. From such reasoning, conclusions were drawn about the nature of political power, laws, trade, etc.
Other thinkers explained the movement of society spiritual factor:"Ideas rule the world." Some of them believed that these were the ideas of critically thinking individuals who create ideal projects. social structure. And the German philosopher G. Hegel wrote that history is ruled by "universal reason".
Another point of view was that the activities of people can be scientifically explained by studying the role material factors. Meaning material production in the development of society was justified by K. Marx. He drew attention to the fact that before engaging in philosophy, politics, art, people must eat, drink, dress, have a home, and therefore produce all this. Changes in production, according to Marx, entail changes in other areas of life. The development of society is ultimately determined by the material, economic interests of people.
Many scientists today believe that it is possible to find the determining factor in the movement of society, highlighting it from others. In the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution of the XX century. they recognized as such a factor technology and technology. They associated the transition of society to a new quality with the “computer revolution”, the development of information technologies, the consequences of which are manifested in the economy, politics, and culture.
The views presented above are opposed by the position of scientists who deny the possibility of explaining historical changes by any one factor. They investigate the interaction of the most diverse causes and conditions of development. For example, the German scientist M. Weber argued that the spiritual factor plays no less a role than the economic one, that important historical changes took place under the influence of both. (Based on the course of history studied, determine your attitude to the considered views on the factors of social change. Which explanation seems to you the most convincing?)
These factors have a strong influence on people's activities. All those who carry out this activity are the subjects of the historical process: individuals, various social communities, their organizations, great personalities. There is another point of view: without denying that history is the result of the activities of individuals and their communities, a number of scientists believe that only those who are aware of their place in society, are guided by socially significant goals and participate in the struggle rise to the level of the subject of the historical process. for their implementation.

THE ROLE OF THE PEOPLE IN THE HISTORICAL PROCESS

This role is interpreted by scientists in different ways. Marxist philosophy claims that populace, which primarily include the working people, are the creators of history, play a decisive role in the creation of material and spiritual values, in various spheres of socio-political life, in the defense of the motherland.
Some researchers, characterizing the role of the masses, put at the forefront the composition of social forces striving to improve social relations. They believe that the concept of "people" has a different content in different historical eras, that the formula "people - the creator of history" means a broad community that unites only those strata and classes that are interested in the progressive development of society. With the help of the concept of "people", in their opinion, the progressive forces of society are separated from the reactionary ones. The people are, first of all, the working people; they always make up the bulk of it. At the same time, the concept of "people" also embraces those strata which, while not being working people, express the interests of progressive movement at a given stage of historical development. As an example, they usually cite the bourgeoisie, which in the 17th-19th centuries. led anti-feudal revolutions.
The Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) did not saturate the concept of “people” with social content, but put ethnic and ethical content into it. “The people,” wrote V. O. Klyuchevsky, “are characterized by ethnographic and moral ties, a consciousness of spiritual unity, brought up by a common life and cumulative activity, a community of historical destinies and interests.” Those historical epochs are especially significant, noted V. O. Klyuchevsky, “in the affairs of which all the people took part and, thanks to this, felt themselves whole, doing a common cause.”
Statements that glorify the people are opposed by other judgments of thinkers. A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) wrote that the people are conservative by instinct, “he clings to his depressing way of life, to the tight frames in which he is included ... The farther the people are from the movement of history, the more stubbornly they clings to the learned, to the familiar. He even understands the new only in old clothes ... Experience has shown that it is easier for peoples to endure the violent burden of slavery than the gift of excessive freedom.
The Russian philosopher N. A. Berdyaev (1874-1948) believed that the people may not have democratic convictions: “The people may hold a completely non-democratic way of thinking, they may not be democratically disposed at all ... If the will of the people is subject to evil elements, then it is the enslaved and enslaving will.
In some works, the difference between the concepts of "people" and "mass" is emphasized. The German scientist K. Jaspers (1883-1969) noted that the mass should be distinguished from the people. The people are structured, aware of themselves in the foundations of life, in their thinking, traditions. The mass, on the contrary, is not structured, does not possess self-consciousness, it is devoid of any distinctive properties, traditions, soil - it is empty. “People in the mass,” wrote K. Jaspers, “can easily lose their heads, indulge in an intoxicating opportunity to become just different, to follow the rat catcher, which will plunge them into hellish abysses. Conditions may arise in which the reckless masses will interact with the tyrants who manipulate them.
Thus, the views of thinkers on the role of the people in history differ significantly. (Remember what you learned about the role of the people from the history course. Think about which of the above points of view more accurately reflects the role of the masses in history. Maybe you have your own special point of view on this issue? How could you justify it? Bring examples where the actions of the people influenced the course of events.)
For the normal life of the people, it is also important that there are special layers, which are called elites. This is a relatively small number of people who occupy a leading position in the political, economic, cultural life of society, the most qualified specialists. It is assumed that these people have an intellectual and moral superiority over the masses, the highest sense of responsibility. (Does this always happen?) According to a number of philosophers, elites play a special role in the management of society, in the development of culture. (Think about what qualities people should have in managing various spheres of society: economic, political, military, etc.)

SOCIAL GROUPS AND PUBLIC ASSOCIATIONS

Every individual belongs to a community. Speaking about the participants in the historical process, we refer to such communities as social groups. English philosopher T. Hobbes wrote: "By a group of people, I mean a certain number of people united by a common interest or common cause." Interests may differ in their orientation (state, political, economic, spiritual); can be real and imaginary; may be progressive or regressive or conservative. They are the basis for uniting people, mobilize them for common actions.
Historically, stable and long-existing groups of people are formed. You are familiar with the classes (slaves - slave owners, feudal lords - peasants, etc.); tribes, nationalities, nations; estates; groups distinguished by religious (Protestants, Catholics, etc.), age (youth, the elderly, etc.), professional (miners, teachers, etc.), territorial (residents of a certain region) signs. The common interests of each of the groups are determined by the position of its members in production, social, religious life, etc. At different periods of history, we see certain groups as active participants in events. (Recall the slave uprisings, the struggle of the “third estate” against the monarchy, national liberation movements, religious wars and other facts that testify to the active role of various groups of society in historical events.)
To protect their interests, social groups create public associations, which includes the most active members of the group. Public associations are understood as formations of citizens based on voluntary participation, commonality of views and interests, self-government, pursuing the goals of joint realization of their rights and interests. (Remember the medieval guilds, political clubs during the French Revolution.) trade unions hired workers. Their task is to protect the economic interests of the working people. Formed and business organizations, designed to coordinate the actions of entrepreneurs. There were also agricultural organizations, representing the interests of the landowners. We should not forget about such an influential organization as church. For the struggle for power in modern times are created political parties.(Think of examples that might illustrate the marked impact of social associations on the historical process.)

HISTORICAL PERSONS

At the beginning of the paragraph, the universality of the historical process was noted. Since it covers all manifestations of human activity, the circle of historical figures includes figures from various spheres of public life: politicians and scientists, artists and religious leaders, military leaders and builders - all those who left their individual imprint on the course of history. Historians and philosophers use various words that evaluate the role of a particular person in history: a historical figure, a great man, a hero. Reflecting the significant contribution of a certain figure to history, these assessments at the same time depend on the worldview, political views of the researcher and are largely subjective. “The concept of “great” is a relative concept,” wrote the Russian philosopher G. V. Plekhanov.
The activity of a historical person can be assessed taking into account the characteristics of the period when this person lived, his moral choice, the morality of his actions. Evaluation can be negative or positive, but most often it is ambiguous, taking into account the positive and negative aspects of this activity. The concept of "great personality", as a rule, characterizes the activities of people who have become the personification of radical progressive transformations. “A great man,” wrote G. V. Plekhanov, “is great in that he has features that make him the most capable of serving the great social needs of his time ... A great man is precisely the initiator, because he sees further than others and wants stronger than others. He decides scientific tasks put on the queue by the previous course of the mental development of society; he indicates the new social needs created by the previous development of social relations; he takes the lead in meeting these needs.” V. O. Klyuchevsky gave impressive images of historical figures in his lectures. And although he spoke about people of relatively distant centuries, the qualities of these personalities that he revealed are still of considerable interest, because, as he wrote, in difficult times, the example of good people not only encourages, but also teaches how to act. Historical personalities, according to V. O. Klyuchevsky, are characterized by the desire to serve the common good of the state and people, the selfless courage necessary for this service; the desire and ability to delve into the conditions of Russian life, into the very foundations of existing social relations, in order to find here the causes of the disasters experienced, detachment from national isolation and exclusivity; conscientiousness in all matters, including diplomacy; the desire to communicate to transformative impulses and thoughts the appearance of such simple, distinct and convincing plans, in the reasonableness and feasibility of which one wanted to believe, the benefits of which were obvious to everyone.
Basic concepts: historical process, types of social dynamics, factors of social change, subjects of the historical process.
Terms: philosophy of history, evolution, revolution, reform, popular masses, historical personality. 1. Does the relationship between historical science and philosophy reflect the thought of the ancient Greek historian Thucydides (about 460-400 BC): "History is philosophy in examples"? Justify your point of view.
2. In 1999 Sociologists conducted a survey in which each respondent was asked to name ten outstanding people of all time. As a result, the most frequently named: Peter I - 46%, Lenin - 42%, Pushkin - 42%, Stalin - 35%, Gagarin - 26%, Zhukov - 20%, Napoleon - 19%, Suvorov - 18%, Lomonosov - 18 %, Mendeleev - 12%. Make your own list of ten outstanding people and match it with the one above. Justify your choice and explain its likely discrepancy with the results of sociological research.
3. Based on the positions outlined in the paragraph, analyze the activities of the most famous historical figure to you.
4. How do you feel about N. A. Berdyaev’s statement: “All historical epochs, starting from small initial epochs and ending with the very pinnacle of history, the present era, everything is my historical destiny, everything is mine”? Argument your position.
5. What period of history do you study simultaneously with this topic of social science? Analyze the changes that took place in society during this period. Try to answer the questions: what is the nature of these changes? What type of social dynamics took place? How did the various factors of social development act? How did the subjects of the historical process show themselves?

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Russian historian and philosopher L.P. Karsavin on the philosophy of history. The philosophy of history is determined by its three main tasks. Firstly, it explores the fundamental principles of historical existence, which at the same time are the basic principles of historical knowledge, history as a science. Secondly, it considers these fundamental principles in the unity of being and knowledge, that is, it indicates the significance and place of the historical world in the whole and in relation to absolute Being. Thirdly, its task is to cognize and depict a specific historical process as a whole, to reveal the meaning of this process. Since the philosophy of history limits itself to the first task, it is "theory" of history i.e., the theory of historical being and the theory of historical knowledge. Since she is pursuing the solution of the second task, she - philosophy of history in the narrow and specialized sense of the term "philosophy". Finally, in the area defined by the third task, it appears to us as metaphysics of history, moreover, of course, in the term "metaphysics" I do not conceive of abstraction from concrete empiricism, but concrete knowledge of the historical process in the light of the highest metaphysical ideas.
At first glance, the deep organic, indissoluble connection between the problems of the theory of history and the philosophy of history is obvious. It is impossible to define the foundations of history otherwise than through their relation to the foundations of being and knowledge in general, and, consequently, without clarifying their connection with absolute Being. Any theorist of history, unless he artificially closes himself in the circle of questions of the so-called technical methodology, must inevitably find out: what is the specificity of historical being and whether this specificity exists, what are the main categories of historical knowledge, basic historical concepts, are they the same, as in the field of knowledge of nature, or others, etc. All this makes it urgently necessary to consider theoretical-historical and philosophical-historical problems in interconnection.
Questions and tasks: 1) What, according to the author, are the tasks of the philosophy of history? How do you understand the meaning of each of the tasks? 2) How do historical being and historical knowledge relate? 3) What task is the philosophy of history called upon to solve in the narrow sense? 4) Why does the author combine consideration of theoretical and philosophical problems of history? 5) What is the connection between the study of a specific historical process and the philosophy of history? 6) Which of the tasks of the philosophy of history can be attributed to the issues discussed in this paragraph?

§ 15. The problem of social progress

ancient greek poet Hesiod(VIII-VII centuries BC) wrote about five stages in the life of mankind. The first stage was the "golden age", when people lived easily and carelessly, the second - " silver Age when morality and piety began to decline. So, sinking lower and lower, people found themselves in the "iron age", when evil and violence reign everywhere, justice is trampled on.
Unlike Hesiod, the ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle viewed history as a cyclic cycle repeating the same stages.
And in the XVIII century. French Enlightenment Philosopher Jean Antoine Condorcet(1743-1794) wrote that history presents a picture of continuous change, a picture of the progress of the human mind. “Observations on what man was, and on what he has now become, will help us,” Condorcet wrote, “to find the means to secure and hasten the new advances that his nature allows him to hope for.”

PROGRESS AND REGRESS

The direction of development, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect, is called in science progress(a word of Latin origin, meaning literally "moving forward"). The concept of progress is opposed to the concept regression. Regression is characterized by movement from higher to lower, degradation processes, return to obsolete forms and structures. The idea of ​​progress, which was substantiated by Condorcet, was developed by many thinkers in the future. At the same time, they revealed its new aspects. Karl Marx also accepted this faith in progress, believing that humanity is moving towards an ever greater development of production and of man himself.
The 19th-20th centuries were marked by turbulent events that provided new information for reflection on progress and regression in the life of society. In the XX century. philosophical and sociological theories appeared that abandoned the optimistic view of the development of society, according to which a bright future will surely come sooner or later. The Spanish philosopher X. Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955) wrote about the idea of ​​progress: “Because people allowed this idea to overshadow their reason, they let go of the reins of history, lost their vigilance and dexterity, and life slipped out of their hands, stop giving in to them." Instead of the idea of ​​progress, various philosophers offer theories of cyclical circulation, pessimistic ideas of the "end of history", global environmental, energy and nuclear disasters.
So, which way is society going - the way of progress or regression? What the answer to this question will be depends on how people think about the future: does it bring a better life or does it bode well?

Literature textbook for the 10th grade of educational institutions "Literature of the 19th century"

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1. The following year, Chekhov had a chance to see ... with Tolstoy, to be fascinated by him later write enthusiastic letters about him and fear his death as the most terrible for Russian life and literature (M.

Logic and philosophy

Comte, who introduced this term into scientific circulation, meant by it unidirectional progressive processes of social development that exclude jumps and breaks. Meanwhile, the concept of social dynamics reflects a certain and very significant side of social development as a whole. CYCLIC TYPE OF SOCIAL DYNAMICS In public life, cyclical processes are widespread, having their own logic of development and specific forms of implementation. They cannot be reduced to random and short-term phenomena in the offensive...

1. TYPES OF SOCIAL DYNAMICS*

* This paragraph uses the materials of M.G. Khamdamov.

The term "social dynamics" in both our and foreign literature is interpreted ambiguously. O.Kont, who introduced this term into scientific circulation, meant by it unidirectional progressive processes of social development, excluding jumps and breaks. In modern Western sociology, the development of the problem of social dynamics is associated with the name of P. Sorokin, who believed that "like the physiology of the human body, which studies the basic physiological processes that are repeated in human organisms, "social physiology", or dynamics, focuses its attention on the main social processes recurring in the life history of all social groups. So, in the first case, social dynamics are understood as linear processes, in the second - cyclic ones. Until recently, in our literature, the concept of "social dynamics" was denied the status of a scientific category. Moreover, in special reference publications it was emphasized that this term retained its meaning only in studies of history and sociology.

1 Sorokin P . Society, Culture and Personality. - N.-J.-L.: 1947.P. 367.
2 See, for example: Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1989. S. 175.

Meanwhile, the concept of "social dynamics" reflects a certain and very significant aspect of social development as a whole. From the totality of the diverse changes in historical reality, the concept of "social dynamics" absorbs and focuses its attention on one side - the direction social change, their trajectories. In this regard, we can distinguish cyclic, linear and spiral types of social dynamics.

CYCLIC TYPE OF SOCIAL DYNAMICS

In public life, cyclical processes are widespread, having their own logic of development and specific forms of implementation. They cannot be reduced to

random and short-term phenomena in the offensive movement of society, to partial "deviations" from the main ascending

a common line, as it is often presented within the framework of a purely progressive approach to the interpretation of social development.

Two classes of cyclic changes can be distinguished - system-functional and historical.

The system-functional cycle reflects social changes within the framework of one qualitative state, and the end result of a series of changes becomes the starting point for a new series of similar changes. As a result of the resolution of emerging contradictions within the framework of this quality, there is a repeated alternation of ups and downs, a repetition of the same phases of the functioning of the social system. It should be emphasized that the reproduction of social quality in an unchanged form does not mean a complete meaningful identity of the beginning and end of the cycle, and thus, system-functional cycles are in fact quasi-cyclic, supposedly circular processes.

The development of society in the order of socio-functional cycles testifies to its relatively stable state: naturally formed social communities (ethnoi, classes, strata) are reproduced; stable forms of activity of social subjects, their traditional roles in society are reproduced; political, social and other institutions are reproduced. Thus, self-regulation of society is carried out. An unbalanced social system through certain time returns to its original state again - a kind of pendulum movement occurs. The cycle is a way of existence and preservation of society, and this is especially evident in societies that are relatively closed in relation to the outside world.

The geographic location of a society may have a certain influence on isolation, but the activity of its internal immune systems, which prevent the penetration of innovations, is of decisive importance. Artificial restriction of contacts with outside world carried out different means(political, religious, ideological, etc.), but at the same time a single main goal is pursued - the preservation of the social system in its current form through the sustainable reproduction of traditional relations and ties. Such societies, of course, change, although on the whole their development is hampered and they do not move to the next stage for a more or less long time. Classical nomadic societies, some archaic agricultural communities, as well as Eastern civilizations, often called "traditional" can serve as examples of such development.

When comparing the dynamics of two societies (one with a predominance of linear processes, and the other with a predominance of cyclical ones) in the social philosophical literature often there are ideas of absolute stagnation. A striking example of such ideas are the Eurocentric views that have formed

developed in the 18th and 19th centuries. AT Western countries at that time, there was a linear progress associated with the development of capitalist relations, and, comparing it with Eastern societies, in particular with China, many thinkers (I.G. Herder, A.I. Herzen, N.Ya. Danilevsky, N.G. .Chernyshevsky) defined the latter as societies of a stagnant type. Meanwhile, the history of China, where feudal relations have dominated for almost two millennia, is a typical example of cyclical development, conditioned, on the one hand, by geopolitical isolation and, on the other hand, by high internal stability and overregulation. Political centralization, a strict hierarchical structure of power, the regulation of economic life, the socio-economic ethics of Confucianism, which rejected and suppressed cultural, ideological and technical innovations - all this was a prerequisite for increased stability of Chinese society. Even the numerous movements of the popular masses contributed to the stabilization and ordering of society, for they freed it from certain obvious vices. It was only in the second half of the 19th century that cyclical processes began to show a tendency to transform into a linear regression. This trend manifested itself in the form of a growing paralysis of power, a decline in the living standards of the majority of the population, and declassification. Nevertheless, the loss by society of certain results achieved earlier occurred while maintaining and reproducing in the main features of traditional relations and forms of activity.

The historical cycle is the unity of the processes of genesis, flourishing and decay of social systems and reflects the real fact that society, like any material formation, has a certain life span, after which it ceases to exist. Of course, the disappearance of a social organism does not occur absolutely without a trace: in each individual case, a certain connection with it is preserved by the formations that have arisen in its place. So it was on the territory of the former Roman Empire, where a number of independent states arose, which in the Renaissance and Modern Age enriched many of the inherited achievements of Roman culture. But in this case it is legitimate to speak about the historical cycles of the newly formed states.

Recently, more and more attention has been paid to the development of the question of a possible megacycle in the evolution of the Earth as a planetary system, in which a change in the ascending line of the descending line is not excluded. This problem, first posed (albeit in an abstract form) by C. Fourier, is becoming more and more relevant today due to the sharp increase in contradictions on a global scale.

1 See Cyclicity in Social Systems ("Round Stop") // Sociological Studies. 1992. No. 6.

A reflection of the cyclical type of social dynamics is the theory of historical circulation, well known to the reader, extremely diverse in terms of the material used by the authors, the form of presentation, the methods of argumentation, and the vision of world-historical perspectives. Let's compare, for example, the concepts of D. Viko and N. Ya. Danilevsky. If for Vico the fundamental principle is the unity of world history, then Danilevsky, on the contrary, proceeds from the denial of this unity and considers the history of society as a combination of various cultural and historical types, each of which ceases to exist after passing a certain life cycle.

Unfortunately, even in the recent past, the analysis of these theories suffered from a significant simplification and one-sidedness. Firstly, these theories were rigidly opposed to the idea of ​​social progress, although a closer analysis reveals that throughout the development of social philosophy, the theory of circulation in various options included this idea, and this is quite logical, because the cycle is the conjugation of the ascending and descending branches of development. Secondly, the emergence of cyclical theories was somewhat directly correlated in the literature with the political sympathies and emotions of their authors, as well as the moral and psychological atmosphere of the corresponding time. Undoubtedly, these factors leave a certain imprint on any creativity, but the main thing should not be missed: the theories of cyclism reflect certain aspects of objective social dynamics and their appearance at different historical stages indicates the essential nature of these aspects. Thirdly, the metaphysical nature of these concepts was somewhat exaggerated, it was forgotten that within certain limits the metaphysical approach is legitimate and even necessary.

An extremely large place in historical reality is occupied by linear processes. At the same time, the essence of the linear type of social dynamics is not limited to linear progress - another historical form of its implementation is linear regression, as a descending line in the development of society, when a narrowing process occurs. functionality social system, leading ultimately to deadlocks in social development. Linear progress and linear regress are a contradictory unity of opposites, one of which plays a dominant role at a certain stage.

Considering the ratio of linear progress and linear regress, let's pay attention to the following circumstance. Their understanding as multidirectional vectors of historical development often leads to a significant shift in this emphasis over time. And if linear progress is considered

directed to the future, then linear regression is perceived almost as a movement back even in time, as a kind of "progress in reverse." In reality, linear regression should not be interpreted as a simple repetition in the reverse order of previously passed stages and phases. At the new temporary stage of social development, there are different conditions, a different social environment, and therefore the repetition of the old is possible only primarily in terms of form, although, of course, to a certain extent this also applies to content. Old social institutions cannot be revived in their original appearance, because in the new historical conditions they are unable to perform their former functions. In this regard, it is legitimate to speak of an asymmetric direction of linear progress and linear regress.

A distinctive feature of linear dynamics is its cumulative nature, which is expressed in the fact that each new phenomenon is not a mechanical addition to the old one, but its genetic continuation. During the implementation of linear processes, irreversible states arise that do not completely negate the previous ones, but partially absorb their properties, enrich them, thereby complicating the whole process. This position is very well illustrated by V.G. Revunenkov in the analysis of the development of the French Revolution. late XVIII century. Describing the period of linear progress in the history of this revolution, V. G. Revunenkov emphasizes that "the main feature of the ascending line of the revolution was that at each of its next stages more and more radical groups of the bourgeoisie came to power, the influence of the masses on the course of events increased more and more , the tasks of the bourgeois-democratic transformations of the country were solved more and more consistently. At the same time, the stage of linear regression as "the descending line of the revolution did not represent a retreat towards the feudal past, on the contrary, it meant the strengthening and further development of social orders based on private capitalist property and the system of wage labor" . In other words, the descending phase of the revolution realized one of the possibilities genetically laid down in the ascending phase. The linear regression did not consist in a total rejection of the achievements of the first phase, but in a shift in emphasis: bourgeois democracy was replaced by bourgeois authoritarianism, which protects the interests, first of all, of large owners.

1 From the old order to the revolution. To the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution. L., 1988. S. 13.

2 Ibid. S. 23.

The implementation of the linear type of social dynamics is associated with such a historical phenomenon as the multivariance of social

development. It manifests itself to the greatest extent in critical situations, when the problem of historical choice arises before society. During these periods, in comparison with periods of stable functioning, there is a much wider range of possibilities, the whole variety of which can be reduced to three main options: conservation of the existing state, forward and downward movement. The last two options are implemented in the form of linear trends, and behind each of them there are material and ideological carriers - different classes and social strata, which are fighting among themselves in order to direct these trends in accordance with their interests.

1 See: Volobuev V.P. Choice of ways of social development: theory, history, modernity. M., 1987. S. 21.

Of great theoretical and practical importance is the elucidation of the limits of the linear dynamics of society. In a broad sense, these limits are limited by the period of quantitative changes between two sequentially replacing each other qualitative states of society. In general historical terms, linear progress and linear regress replace each other when the potential for growth on its own basis is exhausted. A certain influence on the limits of linear dynamics is exerted by the nature of the interaction of society with the natural and historical environment. At the same time, the limits of the linear progress of society can be expanded due to the surge of historical backwardness due to the assimilation of the social experience of countries moving ahead.

A large-scale, panoramic approach to the study of social reality makes it possible to detect in it a spiral type of dynamics, which reflects the direction of processes covering various qualitative states of society. Let us emphasize right away that in social life spiraling appears not as the only, but as one of the relatively independent types of social changes. Such a remark is extremely important, considering that in our philosophical literature the opinion of development as being carried out exclusively along a spiral has firmly established itself.

The spiral type of social dynamics reflects a set of genetically related processes that negate each other, and is found when summing up a large amount of data at relatively long stages of historical development. In the course of each negation, the phenomenon passes not only into another qualitative state, but also into its opposite. In the course of subsequent denials, the phenomenon again turns into its opposite and at the same time, as it were, returns to its original state, but this return to the supposedly old

takes place at a new level, with the discovery of new properties. In terms of socio-ontological, this thesis can be illustrated by the example of a spiral turn associated with the denial of primitive public private property, which today, in turn, is denied by the processes of socialization and socialization. In terms of socio-epistemological, one can refer to such a turn: ancient dialectics - the centuries-old dominance of metaphysics in philosophy and natural science - a return to dialectics. It is quite understandable that in both cases we have only an alleged return taking place on a qualitatively new level.

Let's try to graphically depict the three types of social dynamics now known to us:

Even a cursory analysis of these images reveals that the spiral is a synthesis of a cycle (circle) and a line.

The spiral as a graphic image, a geometric model acts as an analogue of the term "social continuity", which reflects the dialectical unity of discontinuity and continuity, relative identity and difference, the genetic connection of successive processes. When the spiral is defined by the formula "return to the supposedly old, repetition of the old at a different level", then we are talking, in essence, about such a process of development, when renewal and obsolescence are only partial.

It would be simplistic to interpret the spiral orientation as unambiguously progressive, ascending. As part of the development of the social system, downward spiral processes are also realized, which are also natural and allow us to understand the reasons for the decomposition of this society. Spiral processes of both directions also take place in the development of culture. So, at the beginning of the 17th century, in the European mind, thanks to the intensive growth of scientific and technical knowledge and their introduction into production, psychology began to take shape.

man-conqueror of nature, which became a hallmark of European humanism over the next two centuries. The utilitarian attitude to nature contributed to the economic and cultural progress of Europe and, in general, provided it with a significant breakthrough compared to other regions. But the 19th and especially the 20th century, with their dehumanization of production, environmental crises etc. showed with sufficient obviousness that a certain limit had been reached to the progress of European culture in its traditional forms. The realization of this fact led to the crisis of the former psychology of the "ruler of nature", which was reflected in the widespread anti-scientist and anti-technical sentiments.

In social reality, cyclic, linear and spiral processes do not act as parallel or following friend after another at certain intervals of time, but as interconnected, interdependent and interpenetrating moments of the same integral process of development. In other words, the dialectics of social development is such that it simultaneously contains cyclicity, linearity, and spirality in the variety of its historical forms of manifestation. Turning, for example, to any transitional period, we find within its framework the action of various alternative trends, including those that qualify as "zigzags" in retrospective analysis. In reality, these trends are multidirectional linear processes reflecting society's painful search for optimal ways further development. In the same period, there are both the beginnings of the future society and the remnants of the past, that is, elements of the spiral dynamics of both directions. This situation characterized the period from 1917 to the mid-1930s in Russian history, which abounded in various linear processes: "war communism", the new economic policy, the "great turning point". At the same time, the society kept " birthmarks"of the past system and the embryos of the future administrative-command system appeared. In general, in the transition period, a cyclic type of social dynamics prevailed in the form of a system-functional cycle, due to a fierce struggle of opposites ("who wins?") in the economy, politics, and public consciousness.

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Social progress and its criteria

Progress is the progressive movement of mankind towards one higher rational goal, towards the ideal of the good, worthy of universal desire. And although sometimes, as Leibniz said, there is a backward movement like lines with inversions, nevertheless, in the end, progress will prevail and triumph. Hegel defines world history as a progress in the consciousness of freedom - a progress that we can know in its necessity. The development process involves the accumulation of qualitative new formations that irreversibly lead the system away from its initial state in the direction of either increasing the level of organization of the system, or lowering it, or maintaining the same level in general with some modifications. Such forms of development are expressed in the categories of progress, regression and one-plane development. The path from the primitive herd to modern social, information and technical systems is long. It is estimated that over 6,000 years of human history, there have been more than 20,000 wars on Earth that have claimed the lives of much more people than is now living. Of the 3600 years, only 292 years of peace. In history, powerful states arose and died right there. Reflections on social progress lead to controversial questions: is humanity becoming physically and spiritually healthier and happier or not? What has modern technology brought to people - this idol of humanity? Progress in its purely logical sense is only an abstraction. The development of art proves this well. Compare masterpieces, distant centuries, which one is more artistic. Some authors argue that biologically, intellectually and morally people degenerate, proving this by the fact that cancer patients, neuropsychiatric, mentally retarded, AIDS, drug addiction, and alcoholism are increasing. Each new source of energy is a new discovery, contributing to the progress of the productive forces. But this can also contribute to a threat to humans. Once Rousseau put forward the thesis that the progress of science and art has brought people incalculable harm. As attractive as the idea of ​​reversing everything is, it is not feasible, it is an attempt to get away from the problem, not to solve it. Modern criticism of technological progress is more sophisticated. She has several sides. 1. The boundaries of the growth of human civilization are recognized, at least on Earth. 2. The approach of a new era, there is a search for an opportunity to apply the fruits of technological progress itself to its elimination.
Even at the beginning of the 20th century. progress was used in specific turns, progress National economy, and the modern reflects the tendency to operate with separate concepts, symbols. An interesting statement by Schelling: the idea of ​​unceasing progress is the idea of ​​aimless progress, and that which has no purpose has no meaning.
If progress is the goal, then who are we working for? The question of historical progress has long been treated as a path to perfection. This is development from the lowest to the highest. But the question arises whether the modern type of society can be considered higher than the previous one. If we take technology, of course there is progress, but if the state of morality is very debatable. Humanity faced the problem of harmonious development of all spheres to the highest. Man is at the center of all kinds of social progress. Human problems are considered central. The highest and universal objective criterion of progress is the development of productive forces, including the development of man himself. Varieties of progress: NTP - i.e. with the development of science and technology, production improves and develops, it is automated; Social progress is a gradual improvement in the material conditions of a person's life, an increase in living standards, etc.; Spiritual progress is the development of human spirituality, i.e. man improves himself.
Progress and regress- opposite forms of development of society as a whole or its individual parts, meaning either the progressive development of society in an ascending line, flourishing, or a return to the old, stagnation. The criterion is the degree of development of the productive forces, the economic system, science, culture and development of the individual. The basis for the development of yavl. development of the mode of production.
From a general point of view, progress from simple to complex, increasing the complexity of the organization of systems, can serve as a measure of progress. In vivo, as a general improvement of the system, increasing the possibilities for further development. In the economy, it is necessary to proceed not only from the levels and pace of development of production, but from the standard of living of workers and the growth of people's well-being, the quality of life.
An essential measure of historical progress is the increase in freedom in its rational use, as well as in the increase in human needs for scientific, philosophical, aesthetic knowledge of the world.
We single out three spheres of material reality: inorganic, organic, social, in each of which the criteria of progress are manifested.
For inorganic, the criterion is the degree of complexity of the structure of the system (for example, molecular relative to atomic).
The process in relation to living nature is defined as such an increase in the degree of systemic organization of an object, which allows the new system to perform functions that are inaccessible to the old system.
Speaking of social progress, this is an increase in happiness and goodness in society. And the criteria for EP are: 1) the growth rate of production, labor productivity, leading to an increase in human freedom in relation to nature; 2) the degree of freedom of production workers from exploitation; 3) the level of democratization of public life; 4) the level of real opportunities for the comprehensive development of individuals; 5) an increase in human happiness and goodness.
Man-Nature Relationshipin its significance begins to overlap our economic, political, social, and other concerns. Because of the threat of ecological catastrophe. When We kill the last beast and poison the last stream, then We will understand that it is impossible to live on money.
The essence of ES is to break the natural cycles of reproduction of biological resources, self-purification of soil, water, atmosphere.
The difference between the current situation and previous eras is that changes in the living environment negatively affect the nature of the person himself, his initial needs, biological and spiritual state.
Overcoming global threats:
1. Deployment of the information computer, biotechnological revolution as a technical and technical basis for a possible way out of the situation of survival, overcoming obstacles to the unification of mankind. Creation on its basis of a new Civilization. It is important to emphasize that it is this information revolution that creates an objective substantive basis that will make it possible to avert thermonuclear and environmental threats. Rethinking the world.

2. Democratic consent in foreign and domestic politics in group and interpersonal relationships.

3. Unifying processes of spiritual life in both religious and secular versions. An attempt at ideological convergence.

4. Interethnic and intercultural integration while maintaining the autonomy and uniqueness of each ethnic group and each culture.

5. Intelligent search.

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