Bell pepper is a wonderful tasty and healthy vegetable that you can ...
2.1. The concept of social attitude: a historian's theoretical survey
The search for regulators of human social behavior in the sphere of his subjective personal relationships to the world, other people and himself is a traditional branch of scientific psychological research. Theoretical and research activities in this area are typical for both domestic and foreign authors. Traditionally, it unfolds around a number of concepts that have close, but far from identical meanings: attitude, social attitude, attitude, value orientations and some others. The inner closeness of these concepts lies in the fact that, regardless of the initial orientations of their creators, they are all created to explain and study those intermediate variables (factors, prisms) that mediate the connection between the personality and the external environment in a complex way. By their nature, they are dual, since they owe origin and content as features inner peace a person, and the properties of his social and natural environment.
Today, the above concepts have lost their original belonging to a particular school or author's concept, crossed the borders of various countries and continents, however, historically, the domestic and foreign lines of their development practically did not intersect. And since the very concept of attitude first appeared in the mainstream of Western socio-psychological thought, and there it initially acquired its "scientific face", we first of all turn to this line.
In Western psychology of the middle of the XX century. the most productive and widespread concept, denoting the system of subjective relationships of a person and the mechanism that regulates real behavior, has become the concept of "attitude". It comes from the Latin word "aptus" - "preparedness", "fit" - and implies a subjective or mental state of readiness for action (144). The popularity of this concept, according to G. Allport, the most authoritative foreign researcher and analyst in this area, is due to the fact that it is not the property of any one psychological school and serves well the purposes of combining various directions. In addition, this concept managed to avoid a theoretical contradiction regarding the influence of heredity and the environment. And this allows it to be used in relation to the dispositions of both individuals and entire cultures (144).
G. Allport traces three main sources of origin of the modern concept of "attitude". The first is experimental psychology of the late 19th century, which in its practice used such conceptual predecessors of attitudes as the muscular set, task attitud, and others. It was at this time that the foundations of the typologization of attitudes, the experimental basis for their identification and differentiation were laid.
Sociology is the second source of origin for the concept of "attitude". In particular, in the classic sociological works of W. Thomas and F. Znanetsky to characterize the features social organization the concepts of "social value" and "attitude" were used productively. According to these authors, attitude is a process of individual consciousness that determines both actual and potential human activity in the social world. And since attitude is always directed towards an object, it can be defined as someone's state of mind in relation to value. The value, they noted, is the objective side of the attitude. Therefore, attitude is the individual (subjective) side of social value (133, 134). The significance of the works of W. Thomas and F. Znanetsky lies, in particular, in an attempt to synthesize the theory of values and the theory of attitudes. However, according to F. Znanetsky himself in one of his later works, “this conceived synthesis did not live up to expectations, since it was not possible to overcome the traditional dichotomy of internal subjective processes and external objective reality” (152, p. 413).
Finally, the third source of origin of the concept we are considering, according to Allport, is psychoanalysis. In particular, G. Sullivan defined personality as "a relatively persistent pattern of repetitive interpersonal situations that characterizes a person's life" (150, p. 110).
In the second half of the XX century. two lines have clearly emerged in the understanding and study of the social attitude as a multidimensional phenomenon that cannot be reduced to emotional-evaluative reactions. The first line is individual psychological. The essence of theoretical research in this direction is the study of the phenomenon of social attitude as a factor of individual behavior, the search for internal and external grounds for its emergence and change. Within the framework of this direction, behavioral and cognitive studies are being developed, including the approaches of M. Rokeach and M. Fishbein. The second line of research is socio-psychological. It is primarily associated with an interactionist orientation and is characterized by the study of socio-psychological mechanisms and factors, regulating the process of the emergence and change of social attitudes of the individual, as well as the role of these phenomena in group processes (10, 103). Let us dwell on these approaches in more detail.
From the point of view of M. Rokich, a person has a subjective integral system of ideas, in which three of its most significant components are subject to theoretical analysis: the concept "I am", values and attitudes. The concept of "I" occupies a central place in this system. By its nature, it is a cognitive formation, as it is formed from ideas about physical, personal and social status. These ideas can have a positive or negative content, be interconnected with each other. And already around this core, a terminal and instrumental value system is organized, and then a system of attitudes, that is, ideas about one's own behavior and the behavior of others (118). "I", as mentioned above, can contain both positive and negative self-representations. Each personality seeks to maintain and, if possible, strengthen the concept of "I", which allows you to maintain a positive image of "I" as a whole. What role do personal values and attitudes play in solving this problem?
According to Rokeach, "value (value) is a stable idea that a particular mode of behavior (instrumental value) or goal-state (terminal value) of existence are personally or socially more preferable than the opposite or reverse mode of behavior or goal-state" (149, p. 5). Attitudes, on the other hand, fix not a way of behavior or state, but ideas about a certain object or situation. These representations describe an object or situation as true or false, evaluate them as desirable or undesirable, good or bad. Rokeach identifies three components in the structure of such a representation-attitude: cognitive, affective and behavioral (for the first time, the three-component structure of a social attitude was announced in the work of M. Smith, back in the 30s. And this last point associated with the behavioral component, we emphasize especially: “... all the representations that make them up (attitudes), regardless of whether they describe, evaluate or defend, are predispositions that, when activated, will lead to a reaction” (149, p. 430). however, for Rokeach, the most important process that regulates the integrity of the concept of "I" and guides behavior are not attitudes, but values. It is they that determine both the attitudes themselves and the behavior of a person as a whole. The author specifically noted that changes, re-arranging attitudes fail, if they are carried out in isolation from the concept of "I" and the values of the subject: the induced change in attitude will be short-lived, and after a certain moment it will again return to pr the current state, that is, there will be a "rubber band effect"
We dwelt in detail on the views of M. Rokich, since in many ways they reflect modern views about attitudes in foreign psychology and, more importantly, establish, on the one hand, a deep connection between attitudes and behavior, and on the other hand, with the motivational-value structures of the personality, its basic subjective foundations.
M. Fishbein originally built his theory of attitude on Thurstone's definition, setting attitude as "the amount of affect" for "and" against "a psychological object." Then, to the emotional component, he added “beliefs” (an analogue of the cognitive component) and “behavioral intentions”, establishing a causal relationship between attitude and behavior. Fishbein proposed a certain typology of attitudes, dividing them into attitudes to action and attitudes to an object. M. Fishbein himself considers the breeding of these types to be one of the most important discoveries of social psychology over the past 10 years. In particular, it allows one to explain the difficulties that arise when trying to change the specific actions of a person in relation to an object, influencing the system of attitudes that this person has. If the personality has formed an attitude to the object, it is disposed to perform a number of actions in relation to it, but it is difficult to predict what kind of action will be performed. That is, the attitude to an object may have little effect on the specific actions of a person in relation to this object. Of course, this does not mean that there is no connection between the personality's existing attitude and the intention to perform specific actions. It exists, however, it is possible to predict a real action only if we know the general picture of the personality's intentions in relation to this object. And even in this case, we will identify a certain line, a tendency of the personality's response, and not a specific way of behavior chosen by it. In contrast to the attachment to an object, attitudes to actions are associated with a single intention and action.
As a normative factor regulating the effect of attitudes on real behavior, M. Fishbein considers the impact social environment... The personality perceives and is aware in a certain form of some total normative pressure that the surrounding people put on it. A person interprets the expectations of their reference groups or individuals regarding the intended action, and these interpretations can significantly influence the choice of behavior. For some actions, the author is sure, normative data may be more important in determining behavioral intentions than data on attitudes, for other actions the opposite may be true.
The idea of normative influence, in a fairly simple (if not to say, primitive) form, is present in M. Fishbein, received its detailed study in the works of the authors of the socio-psychological study of social attitudes. For psychologists-interactionists to understand the phenomenon of attitude, the fundamental position of J. Mead about the symbolic mediation of the interaction of a person and the surrounding world (external environment) turned out to be fundamentally important. A person, using the symbolic means at his disposal, primarily speech, language, interprets, explains for himself external influences, immediate stimuli and then interacts with the situation in its symbolically interpreted quality (147). From this point of view, the social attitude is a symbolic definition of the situation. “Interactionism,” notes K. Bauer, “asserts that“ reality ”is constructed, that it arises from a continuously renewing equilibrium or balance between the knower and the knowable ... and not from some discovery of an undoubted everyday reality” (145, p. 328). This new reality is constructed by a person on the basis of "everyday reality" taking into account the characteristics and requirements of the latter, but to a much greater extent the result of interaction between a person and a situation depends on the meaning and meaning that he attaches to the perceived reality. This methodological approach of interactionism has found wide application in the field of solving specific practical problems, in particular - the formation of socially desirable images of reality in people, this or that object, situation. The image of an object should have some characteristics that are attractive to a person, often this largely determines the person's reactions in relation to this subject or situations than the fact that they actually possess these properties and traits.
In line with the theoretical approach described above, interactionism studies the phenomena defined by the concept of "attitude". Social attitudes of a person are considered as certain mental formations that arise on the basis of mastering the attitudes of other, reference groups and individuals. Structurally, they are elements of a person's “self-concept”, some definitions of desired and socially desirable behavior (10). In this sense, social attitudes are perceived, fixed in a sign form, the preferred type of behavior or attitude. According to a number of researchers, for example T. Newcomb, they are based on the consent of the subject to consider certain objects or situations through the prism of social norms and values. This gives the attitudes quite definite properties, including the very way of their formation. For example, according to Korvers, attitudes are formed in the process of a person's education, therefore, the higher the level of intellectual, cultural development of a person, the more attitudes he has (96). The form of existence also determines the functions and role of social attitudes in relation to the group. They perform a normative function, and through the manifestation of certain social attitudes, a person gets the opportunity to confirm his group affiliation.
Investigation of the system of human relations to outside world in domestic science is associated with the names of such scientists as V.N. Myasishchev, D.N. Uznadze, A.N. Leont'ev, V.A. Asmolov and others. VN Myasishchev's concept of personality relations is one of the first in Russian psychological science. Speaking about the personality as a system of relations, he postulated as the central personality formation ("core") an individual integral system of subjective-evaluative relations to reality (69). Relationships of a person are its integral characteristics, they are selective in nature. The content of personality relations is determined by objective reality, but they are actually made subjective by the system of affective, semantic experiences of the personality in connection with the perceived activity. The dynamics of relations is closely related to the dynamics of the objective life of the individual, however, here, too, it is necessary to take into account the semantic, affective nature of the relationship: “The point is not only that the functional structure of work changes with changing conditions, but that with changing conditions its meaning for the worker changes. and, consequently, his attitude "
A significant event in the development of domestic psychological ideas about the mechanisms of mental regulation of human behavior, including social behavior, was the theory of attitudes by D.N. Uznadze and the Georgian
Human interaction with the environment is not limited to direct contacts. A person establishes relations with objects with which he is not directly materially in contact as an organism. The body manages to establish these indirect contacts on the basis of mental activity (54). Overcoming the distance between a person and an object is carried out through such phenomena as sensory data and needs. Sensory data overcome the spatial distance, the need for appropriate objects - temporary. The need is experienced by a person as a lack in a certain object, which he does not have at this particular moment and with which he must establish contact in the future. On the basis of the activation of the need and the receipt of sensory images from the object, the individual begins to carry out activity, as a result of which contact is established with the desired object and, ultimately, the need is satisfied. DN Uznadze was one of the first to draw attention to this specific form of interaction between the individual and reality. He was able to show that with the simultaneous presence of a need and an appropriate environment, the individual creates a readiness, an attitude to activity, which significantly determines his further behavior (PO). This formed the basis for the approach to understanding social attitudes widely presented in Russian psychology. We emphasize that the general biological mechanisms of formation and regulation of purposeful human behavior have become the main source of their consideration and study.
Along with an unconscious mental attitude to reality, a person is characterized by a conscious attitude to it, which allows him to consider the environment as a system of possibilities, that is, human behavior is influenced not only by real, but also expected, and possible events. Behavior is built in accordance with anticipated situations. The environment itself is becoming more complex, it is supplemented by a social system of relations and interconnections. A person anticipates and focuses in his behavior on the reactions, assessments, potential intentions of other people, which is also included in the system of factors that regulate his behavior. The theories of Sh. A. Nadirashvili and V. A. Yadov are of great interest in terms of studying the mechanisms of regulation of conscious, socially oriented human behavior.
Sh. A. Nadirashvili in his approach distinguishes three levels of human mental activity - individual, subjective and personal - in the form of practical, theoretical and social behavior. The setting of practically impulsive behavior arises on the basis of vital needs and data of sensory reality, the setting of theoretical behavior - on the basis of the unity of the needs of cognition, defined functional system knowledge and problem situation. The formation of an attitude of social behavior presupposes the unity of social requirements, the choice of a socially acceptable and imaginary situation (70). This is the so-called social attitude. Its objective factor (component) is social objects, values realized in the process of human relations, subjective factors- social needs, as well as the need to express personal value content and a psychological self-portrait. How private view social attitudes Sh. A. Nadirashvili and his collaborators identify a fixed social attitude in relation to specific social objects and designate it as an attitude, that is, they have made an attempt to organically integrate the foreign line of studying social attitudes into the framework of their theory. A fixed social attitude, or attitude, is viewed by them as a secondary education. Sh. A. Nadirashvili noted: “Social attitudes, in contrast to the theory of attitudes, are considered by representatives of other psychological theories not as orientations obtained as a result of fixing primary attitudes, but as complex mental formations formed from other mental processes ”(70, p. 131). For Nadirashvili himself and his school of attitudes, as a certain type of attitude of a person to social objects, they are formations of a secondary nature, formed on the basis of fixing the primary attitude of social behavior.
In a slightly different vein, the concept of a social attitude is reflected in the domestic theory of activity. The most important for its understanding is such a concept as semantic education - a system of personal meanings and meaningful attitudes expressing them, depending on the position of the individual. More precisely, it is “the ratio of the more general motive to the less general motives associated with it and, accordingly, the more general and broader activity to the less general activities” (39, p. 117). Various semantic formations are organically woven into the activity that gave rise to them and cannot be investigated by themselves outside of their activity-related life content. Representatives of the activity approach in domestic psychology, in particular A.G. Asmolov, define the attitude as "the readiness, predisposition of the subject, which arises when anticipating a certain object and ensures a stable purposeful nature of the course of activity in relation to this object" (12). Attitudes are addressed when studying the relationship of an individual as a member of a group to certain social objects, mechanisms of self-regulation, stability and consistency of social behavior, the process of socialization or changing opinions and ideas, as well as when predicting possible forms of behavior in certain situations.
Another interesting author's point of view on the nature and functions of a social attitude is presented in the works of V. A. Yadov. In his "dispositional concept of the regulation of social behavior", the social attitude is given a certain place in common system motivation and regulation of human behavior. The author believes that both the conditions of activity, needs, behavior of the subject, and his personal dispositions (states of readiness for a certain method of action) are organized hierarchically. Social fixed attitudes occupy the second level in it, after elementary behavioral readiness (141). Social attitudes arise from the assessment of individual social objects (or their properties) and individual social situations. Social attitudes are, according to V.A.Yadov, an analogue of desires - emotionally colored readiness for methods of activity and assessment of the conditions in which it takes place. They "are formed under the active influence of general social conditions, but in the regulation of behavior they correlate precisely with the specific circumstances of the microenvironment, are responsible not for programming a person's life path, but for his behavior in a social situation limited by time and space" (106, p. 97 ). First of all, fixed social attitudes are viewed as regulators of behavior at the level and in the conditions of intra-group interaction.
Thus, by most authors, the social attitude is understood as a stable, fixed, rigid formation of the personality, which gives stability to the direction of its activity, behavior, ideas about the world and oneself. In a number of theories, attitudes themselves form a structure, in others, social attitudes occupy only a certain place among the qualitative levels of the personality hierarchy.
Almost everyone emphasizes the motivating and regulatory functions of this formation, its three-component internal structure. In Russian psychology, there is a tradition of a deeper understanding of the social attitude as a specific type of fundamental mental mechanism that regulates the relationship between the subject and the environment.
Social behavior of an individual is a complex social and socio-psychological phenomenon. Its emergence and development is determined by certain factors and is carried out according to certain patterns. In relation to social behavior, the concept of conditioning, determination is replaced, as a rule, by the concept of regulation. In an ordinary sense, the concept of "regulation" means ordering, establishing something in accordance with certain rules, the development of something in order to bring it into the system, measure it, establish order. Personality behavior is included in a wide system of social regulation. The functions of social regulation are: the formation, assessment, maintenance, protection and reproduction of norms, rules, mechanisms, means necessary for the subjects of regulation, ensuring the existence and reproduction of the type of interaction, relationships, communication, activity, consciousness and behavior of an individual as a member of society. The subjects of the regulation of the social behavior of the individual in broad sense words are spoken by society, small groups and the person herself.
In the broadest sense of the word, the regulators of personality behavior are the "world of things", "the world of people" and "the world of ideas." By belonging to the subjects of regulation, one can distinguish social (in a broad sense), socio-psychological and personality factors regulation. In addition, the division can also go according to the parameter objective (external) - subjective (internal).
12. Business communication is a process in which there is an exchange of business information and work experience, presupposing the achievement of a certain result in joint work, a decision specific task or the implementation of a specific goal. The ability to behave with people during a conversation is one of the major factors that determine your chances of success in business, work or business. A person's success in his affairs, even in the technical field or the scientific field, only fifteen percent depends on his professional knowledge and eighty-five percent - on his ability to communicate with people with whom he works.
Business communication as a process involves establishing contact between participants, exchanging certain information for building joint activities, establishing cooperation, etc.
One of essential conditions successful business communication is the ability to listen and hear. Unfortunately, these are not very common skills these days. Since any negotiations imply a certain compromise of interests, the ability to understand the point of view of the opposite side, be able to assess it sensibly and accept the most reasonable is the key to successful business communication. Absolutely unacceptable tough and peremptory pressure on the interlocutor, you cannot drive into a corner, since the state of hopelessness forces your interlocutor to defend their positions to the last, refusing even from completely reasonable and profitable compromises - no one wants to be in an absolute loss. So, for the development of business communication skills, not so many qualities are needed: the first is the understanding that you are communicating with an absolutely equal interlocutor, whose opinion and interests have the same right to exist as yours; the second is to listen carefully to the opinions and arguments expressed; third, a willingness to make reasonable compromises.
Features of business communication.
The ability to successfully conduct business negotiations, competently draw up the text of the document, the ability to work with documents are the most important components professional culture decision maker.
Low speech culture is directly related to low efficiency of meetings, negotiations, paralysis of laws, which are often drafted in such a way that they simply cannot be enforced.
The culture of speech is an economic category. A high speech culture and a developed economy in advanced countries are inseparable from each other, interrelated. Conversely, the low speech culture of a society determines the corresponding level of development and efficiency of the economy.
The specificity of business communication lies in the fact that the collision, interaction of economic interests and social regulation are carried out within the legal framework. Most often, people enter into business relationships in order to legally formalize interactions in a particular area. The ideal result of interaction and legal registration of relations is partnership relations built on the basis of mutual respect and trust.
Another specific feature of business communication is its regulation, that is, subordination to the established rules and restrictions.
These rules are determined by the type of business communication, its form, the degree of formality and those specific goals and objectives that the communicators face. These rules are determined by national cultural traditions and social norms of behavior.
An important feature of business communication is strict adherence its participants in the role-playing role. In life, we constantly play, we play various roles: wife, husband, son, daughter, citizen, boss, seller, buyer, etc. Our roles can change several times during the day. The same happens in business communication... In the process of interaction, a business person in different situations has to be both a boss and a subordinate, and a colleague, and a partner, and a participant in an event, etc. It is necessary to take this into account and behave in accordance with the requirements of the specific situation and the accepted role ... Compliance with a role-playing role in business communication streamlines, stabilizes the work process and thereby ensures its efficiency.
The peculiarities of business communication include the increased responsibility of the participants for its result. After all, successful business interaction is largely determined by the chosen communication strategy and tactics, that is, the ability to correctly formulate the goals of the conversation, determine the interests of partners, build a justification for one's own position, etc. If business communication is ineffective, this can lead to the failure of the business itself.
Therefore, in business communication, such important qualities acquire special significance. business people, as commitment, organization, loyalty to the word, as well as adherence to moral and ethical norms and principles. Business communication also requires a stricter attitude towards the use of speech means by its participants. In business communication, swear words and obscene expressions, vernacular are not allowed, it is undesirable to use words of a limited scope of use (jargon, dialectism, archaism, etc.).
13. The concept of "interpersonal interaction" indicates, firstly, the actions that individuals take in relation to each other, and secondly, people correlate their goals and organize their achievement, that is, how reciprocity between participants in communication.
Depending on the degree of personal involvement in the transformation of relationships, three levels of communication are distinguished: social-role (or short-term social-situational communication), business and intimate-personal. E. Bern lived to consider six ways of structuring time, represented ways of organizing interpersonal interaction: avoiding communication; rituals; pastime; joint activities; games; proximity.
The structure of any social situation includes as necessary a trace; Other elements: 1) the roles of the participants in the interaction, that is, a set of prescriptions for how a person should behave if he took a fixed position! among people, about which normative ideas have already developed; 2) a set and order of actions (or scenario sequences); 3) rules and norms governing the interaction and the nature of relations between participants in a social situation. The characteristics of the specific situation in which the communication of these people takes place impose significant restrictions on their behavior, feelings and even desires.
Interpersonal interaction can be viewed as a process of construction, the formation of interpersonal space. It presupposes: 1) the choice of a position in relation to the other, an addition to each other's positions, “testing them for strength”; 2) a clear definition of the spatial and temporal boundaries of the interaction situation, beyond which the chosen position becomes inappropriate; 3) registration of the occupied position through the use of verbal and non-verbal means of communication.
The main mechanisms that ensure the formation of interpersonal space include mutual understanding, coordination and agreement of the intentions and interests of the parties. For each level of communication, the strategically most significant is a certain level of mutual understanding, coordination and agreement, assessment of the situation and the rules of behavior of each participant. The ability to understand the situation, to bring the expression of one's emotions and behavior in accordance with it, as well as in accordance with the behavior of other people, is a necessary condition for joint life.
14 . Communication barriers are factors that cause or contribute to ineffective interaction, conflicts. From a psychological point of view, these factors include differences in temperaments, characters, communication manners and emotional states of the communicating partners.
The temperament barrier arises as a result of the meeting of two people with different types of the nervous system. Temperament is the foundation of character that determines the characteristics of the nervous system's response to the environment. The type of temperament depends on the congenital type of higher nervous activity. In the nervous system, as you know, two main processes are replaced - excitation and inhibition. The type of temperament depends on their interaction. The interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition in each person is characterized by the strength, mobility and balance of the nervous system.
Communication between people of different temperamental structure can form barriers to interaction and even lead to conflict.
Character is an individual combination of the most stable personality traits, which are manifested in human behavior and in a certain respect:
1) to oneself (exactingness, criticality, self-esteem);
2) to other people (individualism - collectivism, egoism - altruism, cruelty - kindness, indifference - sensitivity, rudeness - politeness, deceit - truthfulness, etc.);
3) to the assigned work (laziness - diligence, accuracy - sloppiness, initiative - passivity, perseverance - impatience, responsibility - irresponsibility, organization - disorganization, etc.).
The character also reflects volitional qualities: the willingness to overcome mental and physical pain, obstacles, the manifestation of perseverance, independence, determination, discipline.
The character of a person is associated with his temperament, that is, the innate properties of higher nervous activity. But it also depends on the acquired during life individual qualities... With a certain temperament, some qualities are acquired more easily, others more difficult. For example, discipline and organization is easier to develop in oneself phlegmatic than choleric. However, one cannot justify defects in one's character with innate properties, temperament.
A person of any temperament, engaged in self-education, can be restrained, tactful, kind and responsive.
Opposing characters can create communication barriers.
The reason for the formation of barriers in communication can be accentuations of individuals. Accentuation hides both positive and negative charges and predetermines the processes and style of personality behavior in communication.
Accentuated personalities are often found in everyday life. Psychologists believe that each type of accentuation gives rise to its own problems, and in certain situations gives rise to the same type of conflicts. One of the sources of conflict and resentment is the discrepancy between self-esteem and the assessment of others. In this regard, you should be aware that:
a) emphasizing their own merits, arrogance, bragging always irritate others;
b) the cause of tension in communication may be an inadequate overestimated self-esteem (in this case, the "level" of one's claims should be reduced);
c) it is unacceptable to give a general negative assessment of a person instead of an indication or remark “on the case”, for example: “And he, in general, is a fool!”;
d) each person has his own particularly vulnerable spots, which cannot be “hit” by reproaches and criticism, or teasing a person (especially when it comes to people's appearance: facial features, posture, gait, figure, etc.); girls are especially sensitive in this regard and women);
e) each person needs a worthy assessment of his activities, including well-deserved praise. However, a person is not indifferent to who praises him (“and who are the judges?”). For example, if a young boss praises an experienced, recognized and respected specialist, then this is a psychological mistake. A person does not need praise from someone for whom he does not have a sense of respect;
f) a person who experiences the indifference of those around him, as a rule, ascribes to others the same feelings, emotions, desires that he himself is experiencing at a given time;
g) when someone is experiencing a painful feeling of loss, loss loved one, he needs compassion, condolences.
The manner of communication, formed on the basis of temperament, character and type of personality accentuation, can also create a barrier in communication between people who have differences in this manner. Therefore, it is important to know the techniques of entering a communicative situation when communicating with different partners.
The main subjects of communication, from a psychological point of view, are: dominant, non-dominant, mobile, rigid, extraverted and introverted subjects of communication.
The dominant subject of communication seeks to appeal to any person, without caring about the appropriateness or expediency of communication. He wants to take the initiative in communication, to influence others, to suppress the activity of the communication partner. His attitude to this can be detected by his posture, facial expressions, gestures, glances, and remarks. In communication, he raises his voice, interrupts his partner, repeats the same thing many times, is assertive.
When communicating with a dominant subject, you need to give him the opportunity to reveal his dominance; not refute or ridicule the partner's "power tricks", while calmly adhering to their independent point of view.
The non-dominant subject of communication constantly feels insecure, afraid once again take the initiative, ask a question, express your point of view. He is very sensitive to outward signs intelligence, strength, emotionality of a partner. He is indecisive in disclosing his own knowledge. Sometimes he allows himself to be confused; pliable, easily lost; he never interrupts his partner himself and patiently carries off when he is interrupted.
When communicating with a non-dominant subject, it is necessary to stimulate him to openness, provide him with initiative and the opportunity to express himself.
The mobile subject of communication easily enters into communication, switches attention, quickly draws in his mind the image of a communication partner (often too superficially). His speech is hasty, phrases easily replace each other; sets the pace for communication; often interrupts. In the course of verbal communication, he actively expresses his attitude to what the partner says, inserts remarks and remarks. He tries to grasp the meaning of speech without delving into "verbal vestments." He always strives to add variety to communication, changing superficially discussed topics, jumping from one to another.
When communicating with a mobile subject, one should remember that it is practically impossible to discuss with him long-term, serious topics with a deep analysis of the essence of the issues raised. In such cases, he easily breaks off communication, neglecting the forms and rituals of parting.
The rigid subject of communication is not immediately involved in communicative activity. He needs to study a partner, to understand his intentions in communication. As a rule, he listens carefully. Speaks slowly, expresses his thoughts in detail, carefully choosing words and expressions, building phrases. He doesn't like to be interrupted; does not tolerate hasty presentation of thoughts from others. Communication with such a person can be painful for the impatient.
When dealing with a rigid subject, one should avoid haste and negligence. It is necessary to enter and exit communicative interaction taking into account the established etiquette forms of communication. You need to set yourself a communicative task of patience. It is unacceptable to rush such a partner, to be irritated.
The extroverted subject of communication is openly disposed to interaction. Communication is his element. Regardless of his state of mind, he is always aimed at partnership. He is confident in his own ability to understand any person, inquisitive, shows a genuine interest in people. He wants to be useful to others, is attentive to them, tries to express his sympathies and wants the same attitude towards himself. To draw attention to his person, he is often eccentric in his statements, using fashionable novelties. Knows how to speak openly and sincerely.
It is easy to communicate with an extroverted subject, since he himself creates a positive communicative situation.
The introverted subject of communication is not inclined to external dialogue. Most of all, he is focused on dialogue with himself (auto-communication). Shy, touchy, not inclined to discuss personal topics. However, he has a well-managed system of psychological protection of "personal zones".
It is more favorable to communicate with an introvert "face to face". He must be drawn into intensive communication gradually and delicately.
Taking into account the above characteristics of the subjects of communication makes it possible for each person to form skills in understanding the characteristics of another person's personality, recognizing its merits. Only then there are conditions for effective communication between people in a team.
A person's emotional state can also affect the effectiveness of communication. Human emotions are one of the main mechanisms for the internal regulation of mental activity and behavior. They are able to dramatically increase or weaken the stiffness, timidity in communication. However, only persistent negative emotions create communication barriers. These fundamental emotions include: suffering (grief), anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame and guilt, bad mood, etc. In accordance with this, personal barriers of negative emotions include:
The barrier of suffering. This barrier of communication is caused by tragic events, physical pain, severely low self-esteem, dissatisfaction with one's social status, etc. Such a barrier also reduces the level of sociability of the person who is experiencing suffering and those who come into contact with the suffering person. The barrier to suffering can be caused by a person's shyness.
The barrier of anger. It is especially difficult to overcome it, since anger provokes unexpected obstacles, insults, etc. Anger can double physical and mental energy: the stronger it is, the more actively a person pours it out in words or aggressive actions.
The barrier of disgust and disgust. This barrier arises due to violation by someone of elementary norms of ethics of behavior or due to "hygienic rejection" of another person. It can be provoked by: a) wrinkled, dirty clothes and shoes; b) careless, excessive gesticulation of the partner, twitching; c) repulsive manners (rude cynicism, fingers in the mouth, ears, nose, demonstration of indecent sounds, etc.); d) violation of the psychological distance of communication; e) hygienically unpleasant actions (scratching, blowing your nose without using a handkerchief, spitting up, drooling, etc.); f) wet, sweaty palms and dirty nails of an outstretched hand for a handshake; g) unpleasant odors from the mouth, body, legs; h) rotten front teeth, etc.
It should be noted that others quickly cease to pay attention to physical defects, but they always do not accept hygienic deviations. It is these deviations that people remember for a long time, provoking a persistent communication barrier.
Contempt barrier. As well as the barrier of disgust, it limits contact with a person who causes negative emotions. People usually cause contempt for: immoral actions of a person; his prejudices; unacceptable character traits (cowardice, stinginess); betrayal, etc.
Fear barrier. This communication barrier is one of the most difficult to overcome in communication between people. With a person who is the source of fear, contact is minimized. They avoid him, try not to be alone with him, not to meet, not to catch his eye.
A barrier to shame and guilt. It arises as a result of the awareness of the irrelevance of an ongoing event as a reaction to criticism; excessive praise, flattery, courtship; for fear of appearing awkward or being convicted of something they did; from the realization of deep guilt towards someone, etc. In these cases, the person blushes, his voice changes, he takes his eyes away from the communication partner or lowers them, tries to get away from contact.
Bad mood barrier. Bad moods often contribute to conflict. This emotionally negative state affects the partner, paralyzing his desire to communicate. The Bulgarian psychologist F. Genov, when studying the causes of service conflicts, in particular, found that: 1) the level of emotional balance in people engaged in administrative work is much lower than the average, and decreases even more with age; 2) the bad mood of the leader significantly worsens the mood of subordinates.
Barrier to speech. This communication barrier arises due to the mistakes made in speech. It can distort or even completely drown out the words of the speaker. Such a barrier arises due to: emotional excitement; wrong choice of words; errors in the construction of the message; incorrect assessment of the partner's ability to understand the information transmitted to him; weak argumentation of statements; inability to use social and psychological mechanisms of communication.
External factors regulating behavior. Personality is included in complex system social relations All types of relations: industrial, moral, legal, political, religious, ideological determine the real, objective, due and dependent relations of people and groups in society. To implement these relations, there are various types of regulators.
A wide class of external regulators is occupied by all social phenomena with the definition of "social", "public". These include:
Social production,
Social relations (a wide social context of a person's life),
Social movements,
Public opinion,
· social needs,
Public interests,
Public sentiment,
Social tension,
· Socio-economic situation.
The general factors of universal human determination include lifestyle, lifestyle, level of well-being, and social context.
In the sphere of the spiritual life of society, the regulators of personality behavior are morality, ethics, mentality, culture, subculture, archetype, ideal, values, education, ideology, mass media, worldview, religion. In the sphere of politics - power, bureaucracy, social movements. In the field of legal relations - law, law.
Common human regulators are: sign, language, symbol, traditions, rituals, customs, habits, prejudices, stereotypes, mass media, standards, labor, sport, social values, ecological situation, ethnos, social attitudes, way of life, family
Internal regulators of behavior. In the system of influences of external, objectively existing factors of determination of social behavior, the personality acts as an object of social regulation. But the main thing in the study of social behavior is the understanding that personality is not only the subject of social behavior, but also the subject of regulation of this behavior. All mental phenomena act in their dual quality: they 1) the result of the determination of external influences and 2) determine the behavior and activities of a person. These two planes are united in the main functions of the mental: reflection, relationship and regulation.
The regulatory function of the mental in behavior and activity is manifested with varying degrees of severity and intensity in different blocks of mental phenomena. The largest blocks are: mental processes, mental states and psychological qualities.
As part of mental processes, cognitive processes act as internal regulators through which a person receives, stores, transforms, and reproduces the information necessary for organizing behavior. A powerful regulator of interaction and mutual influence of people (in joint activities and communication - as forms of social behavior) is oral and written speech (language acts as an external regulator of behavior). Inner speech- one of the psychological (intimate) regulators of personal behavior. As part of mental processes, specific regulatory loads are carried by such phenomena as insight (an intellectual phenomenon, the essence of which is in an unexpected understanding of the problem at hand and finding its solution), intuition, judgments, inferences, problem solving. Generalizing the cognitive block of regulators is the subjective semantic space.
Mental states constitute an important arsenal of internal regulators of behavior. These include - affective states, depression, expectations, relationships, moods, mood, obsessions, anxiety, frustration, alienation, relaxation
The psychological qualities of a person provide an internal subjective regulation of social behavior. These qualities exist in two forms - personal properties and socio-psychological qualities of a person. The first include - the internal locus of control - internal causation, the meaning of life, activity, relationships, identity, personality orientation, self-determination, self-awareness, needs, reflection, life strategies, life plans. Socio-psychological personality phenomena as internal regulators of behavior include: dispositions, achievement motivation, social need, affiliation (the desire to be in the company of other people, a person's need to create warm, emotionally significant relationships with other people) attraction, goals, assessments, life position, love, hatred, doubt, sympathy, satisfaction, responsibility, attitude, status, fear, shame, anticipation (expectations), anxiety, attribution (the process of understanding and explaining the behavior of other people and one's own).
To feel like a full member of society, a person must meet the requirements of the social environment, i.e. comply with the norms and rules accepted in society. This usefulness is a condition of normal social existence, and vice versa, the discrepancy gives him a feeling of discomfort, can cause anxiety.
Therefore, a person needs constant control and regulation of his behavior. External control is carried out thanks to the institution of public opinion, legal bodies, etc., and internal control is carried out by the individual himself from the standpoint of the norms and requirements of society.
A social regulator of behavior is a reference point perceived (rationally or attractively) by an individual, in accordance with which he carries out his action. Therefore, it is necessary to find such traits of behavior that perform the function of regulators of social behavior. Accordingly, such regulators can only be found among typical behavioral traits. The system of regulators of social action of Russian employees / Electronic library "Bookinist's Shelf", 2009
Internal cognitive processes and external phenomena of the surrounding social environment act as regulators of human behavior. Socio-psychological regulators of the life of large groups are: group consciousness, customs, traditions, public opinion, mood, attitudes, values, stereotypes, etc.
Let us give brief description main regulators.
Public conscience is a system of spiritually mediated, social-value relations of people to the world and to themselves, arising in the process of the life of society. Public consciousness reflects social life, is determined by it, affects it. General and social psychology. Textbook for universities. - M .: Publishing group NORMA-INFRA-M, 1999, p. 278
Public consciousness is formed by the totality of its forms - science, socionormative sphere (morality, politics, law), art and religion.
A variety of social consciousness is mass consciousness.
The mass consciousness has features that are inherent in the mass itself - amorphousness, uncertainty and heterogeneity of composition. It is formed in the process of interpersonal and intergroup communication about the perceived actual information, it is formed mainly by the means of mass communication. The mass consciousness reflects the interests of the masses. Interacting with mass culture, mass consciousness forms mass behavioral stereotypes.
Mass consciousness can be progressive and reactionary, critical and conformist.
Public opinion and public mood correspond to mass consciousness, acting as direct regulators of mass forms of behavior.
Public opinion is a state of mass consciousness caused by the attitude of various social strata of society to certain events. Its content is due to the heightened interest in topical problems. Legal psychology. With the basics of general and social psychology. - Textbook for universities. - M .: NORMA, 2005, S. 265
The adequacy of public opinion depends on the development of democratic freedoms in a society, its political culture. In a democratic society, public opinion is a permanent factor of social management. Specialized bodies constantly reveal public opinion, in every possible way promoting its development and free expression (referendums, selective polls, etc.).
By its structure, public opinion can be monistic and pluralistic, adequate and inadequate.
Public mood is an emotional characteristic of the state of social psychology, influencing the impulsive behavior of the masses, a certain state of feelings and minds in large social groups, a prerequisite for socio-political shifts. Ibid, p. 266
Customs are a stable form of normative regulation based on the past experience of an ethnic group. Customs precede state and legal regulation. They act both as a norm of behavior and as a form of social control.
Customs are one of the main forms of social regulation in the everyday sphere, civil rituals.
Customs in society are formed as a result of repeated repetition of the same actions by members of society, which contribute to the emergence of stable social relations. On the basis of these relationships, rules of behavior are formed, which become a habit and become a custom. They are generated by the very way of life of a particular social stratum or social group.
Traditions are elements of social and cultural experience that are passed down from generation to generation in different groups, and they determine the general direction of the activities of groups in specific conditions.
Traditions carry out the continuity of certain socially significant forms of behavior in typical situations, in different areas activities that consciously consolidate certain relationships.
By their nature of regulation of social relations, traditions are similar to customs, but differ in that they do not regulate relations in detail, but only determine the general line of behavior.
Customs and traditions have a number of common features- this is continuity, stability, protection from violations by the force of public opinion.
Attitude - the readiness to perform them adequately to the given situation, preceding any mental or behavioral acts of a person. Attitudes and stereotypes of mass consciousness, 2007
The very concept of "attitude" first appeared in G. Spencer's book "First Principles"; this concept was introduced into Russian psychology by D.N. Uznadze.
Thanks to the attitude, a person does not need to redefine every time what his needs are at a given moment, and to choose better ways their satisfaction is already fixed in the attitude on the basis of past experience. Most attitudes are acquired by a person ready-made from social experience and culture.
In addition to a person's own social experience, an attitude can be a product of spontaneous or purposeful communication, especially those types of mass communication that involve a high degree of empathy with the events taking place.
The stereotype has a more complex structure in comparison with the attitude. The term "stereotype" was introduced into science in the 1920s. XX century, when it became necessary to study and explain the laws of the functioning of mass consciousness.
Stereotypes are stable, little dependent on empirical knowledge, images of surrounding objects or phenomena. Evgenieva T.V. Attitudes and stereotypes of mass consciousness, 2007 Formation of an image of an object in consciousness always includes an element of stereotyping, i.e. a certain degree of simplification, highlighting significant and displacing elements and characteristics that are unimportant for the subject.
Attitudes and stereotypes of mass consciousness play a significant role in the formation of the image of the world, both of an individual person and of large social and cultural communities. Psychological research of social stereotypes // Questions of psychology, No. 1, 1986, p. 96
Values are attitudes that determine the personality structure. They are perceived as "standards", norms that are the basis for the choice made by a person. This choice is seen as the core of the personality organization. The values of a particular culture in aggregate represent the ethos of culture. HR-Community and Publications. Formation of the value approach, 2005
Within the framework of social psychology, values are associated, on the one hand, with attitudes, and on the other, with norms.
Olshansky V.B. compares values with a kind of "beacons" that help "to notice in the flow of information what is most important (in a positive or negative sense) for a person's life; these are such guidelines, adhering to which a person retains his certainty, the internal consistency of his behavior." B. Personality and social values. Sociology in the USSR: Collection of scientific works. In 2 T. - M .: "Thought", 1965, T. 1, S. 188
Behavior regulators are an integral part of everyday consciousness. Social regulators are relatively easy to form because our own upbringing and culture generates in us a series of expectations about the behavior and traits of other people.
The source of the formation of regulators of behavior is both a person's personal experience and the norms developed by society that a person receives during training, exposure to the media and direct contacts with significant and authoritative people.
The personality is included in a complex system of social relations.All types of relations: industrial, moral, legal, political, religious, ideological determine the real, objective, due and dependent relations of people and groups in society.To implement these relations, there are various types of regulators.
A wide class of external regulators is occupied by all social phenomena with the definition of "social", "public". These include:
: Social Psychology personality _____________________________ \\\
social production, social relations (broad ". social context of the individual's life), social movements, public opinion, social needs, public interests, public sentiments, public consciousness, social tension, socio-economic situation. To general factors of universal human determination include lifestyle, lifestyle, level of well-being, social context.
In the sphere of the spiritual life of society, the regulators of personality behavior are morality, ethics, mentality, culture, subculture, archetype, ideal, values, education, ideology, mass media, worldview, religion. In the sphere of politics - power, bureaucracy, social movements. In the field of legal relations - law, law.
Common human regulators are: sign, language, symbol, traditions, rituals, customs, habits, prejudices, stereotypes, mass media, standards, labor, sport, social values, ecological situation, ethnos, social attitudes, way of life, family
A narrower scope of external regulators is made up of socio-psychological phenomena. First of all, such regulators are: large social groups (eshos, classes, strata, professions, cohorts); small social groups (community, group, community, collective, organization, opponent circle); group phenomena - socio-psychological climate, collective perceptions, group opinion, conflict, mood, tension, intergroup and intragroup relationships, traditions, group behavior, group cohesion, group reference, level of development of the team
The general socio-psychological phenomena that regulate social behavior include symbols, traditions, prejudices, they say, tastes, communication, rumors, advertising, stereotypes.
The personal components of social and psychological regulators include; social prestige, position, status, authority, conviction, attitude, social desirability.
Social norms are a universal form of expression of social factors that regulate behavior. Their detailed analysis is contained in the works of M. I. Bobneva (Bobnev. 1978). Social norms are a guiding principle, a rule, a model, standards of behavior adopted in a given community that regulate relations between people. Social norms differ in their content, in spheres of action, in the form of authorization, in the mechanisms of distribution, in socio-psychological
112 _____________________________________________________________ Chapter 2
gic mechanisms of action. For example, legal norms are developed, formulated, approved by special government agencies, are established by a special legislative means, supported by the state. They are always verbalized, reflected in verbal constructions, objectified in statutes, codes, statutes, and reflected in normative acts. In addition to written and unwritten universal norms that allow us to evaluate behavior, regulate it, there are norms adopted in a particular community. This community can be both formal and informal, sometimes quite narrow in composition. Often these norms regulate negative, from the point of view of the majority and the state, asocial forms of behavior. These are group norms that govern the behavior of individual groups and individuals. Based on this, for example, unlawful, criminal behavior belongs to the category of normative behavior, i.e. regulated by certain norms.
Ethical norms - the norms of morality and ethics - are formed historically, regulate the behavior of people, correlating it with absolute principles (good and evil), standards, ideals (justice). The main criterion of morality of certain norms is the manifestation in them of a person's attitude to others.
to a person and to himself as a truly human being-
! stu - personality. Moral norms are usually unwritten
| norms of behavior Moral norms regulate public
I "new behavior, group and personal.
1 Close in their psychological content, method
! origin and mechanism of action to ethical standards I'm in-
the norms are religious. They are distinguished from universal moral norms by their confessional affiliation, a narrower community that defines norms and accepts them as establishments and rules of behavior (commandments different religions). These norms differ in the degree of their normativity (rigidity), the actions of religious norms are recorded in the church canons, sacred writings and commandments, in the unwritten rules of attitude to divine, spiritual values. Sometimes religious norms have a narrowly localized area of distribution (norms of behavior of individual religious sects and their representatives). Sometimes the norm is valid within one locality (“each parish has its own charter”).
Rituals belong to the category of not absolutely directive norms of social behavior of a person. Rituals are conventional norms of behavior This is “primarily a visible action
Social psychology of personality ______________________________ CZ
the presence of a person or persons calling on everyone who is present to pay attention to some phenomena or facts, and not only to pay attention, but also to express a certain emotional attitude, to contribute to the public mood. In this case, certain principles are required: first, the generally accepted convention of action; secondly, the social significance of the phenomenon or fact on which the ritual is concentrated; third, its special purpose. The ritual is designed to create a single psychological mood in a group of people, to cause them to a single active empathy or recognition of the importance of a fact or phenomenon ”(Korolev,! 979, p. 36).
Along with the social norms of macrogroups, political, legal, ethnic, cultural, moral, moral norms, there are norms of numerous groups - both organized, real, formalized in a particular structure of society or community, and nominal, unorganized groups. These norms are not universal, they are derived from social norms, they are private, special, secondary formations. These are group, social and psychological norms. They reflect both the nature, content and form of more general forms and the specifics of the nature of the community, group, character, form, content of relations, interactions, dependencies between its members, its particular characteristics, the specifics of the condition and goals (Bobneva, 1978, p. 35).
Group norms of social behavior of an individual can be formalized and non-formalized. The formalized (formalized, manifested, fixed, externally presented) nature of the normative regulation of behavior is presented in the organization as the main form of social association of people. 8 there is a certain system of dependent and proper relationships. All organizations use a variety of norms: standards, models, patterns, patterns, rules, imperatives of behavior, actions, relationships. These norms regulate, authorize, evaluate, compel, induce people to carry out certain actions in the system of interactions and relationships between people, in the activities of an organization as an integral social entity.
Internal regulators of behavior. In the system of influences of external, objectively existing factors of determination of social behavior, the personality acts as an object of social regulation. But the main thing in the study of social behavior is the understanding that personality is not only the subject of social behavior, but also the subject of regulation of this behavior. All psychic phenomena act in their dual capacity, they are 1) re-
114 ____________________________________________________: ¦ Chapter 2
the result of the determination of external influences and 2) determine the behavior and activities of a person. These two planes are united in the main functions of the mental: reflection, relationship and regulation.
The regulatory function of the mental in behavior and activity is manifested with varying degrees of severity and intensity in different blocks of mental phenomena. The largest blocks are: mental processes, mental states and psychological qualities.
As part of mental processes, cognitive processes act as internal regulators through which a person receives, stores, transforms, and reproduces the information necessary for organizing behavior. A powerful regulator of interaction and mutual influence of people (in joint activities and communication as forms of social behavior) is oral and written speech (language acts as an external regulator of behavior). Inner speech is one of the psychological (intimate) regulators of personal behavior. As part of mental processes, specific regulatory loads are carried by such phenomena as insight, intuition, judgments, inferences, problem solving. Generalizing the cognitive block of regulators is the subjective semantic space.
Mental states constitute an important arsenal of internal regulators of behavior. These include - affective states, depression, expectations, relationships, moods, mood, obsessions, anxiety, frustration, alienation, relaxation
The psychological qualities of a person provide an internal subjective regulation of social behavior. These qualities exist in two forms - personal properties and socio-psychological qualities of a person. The first include - internal locus 1 .ill of control - internal causality, meaning of life, activity, ot-
1 "wearing, identity, personality orientation, self-determination
tion, self-awareness, needs, reflection, life strategies, life plans. Social and psychological personality phenomena as internal regulators of behavior include: dispositions, achievement motivation, social need, affiliation. attraction, targets, assessments, position in life, love, hate, doubts, sympathy, satisfaction, responsibility, attitude, status, fear, coldness, expectation, anxiety, attribution.
The actual regulatory block of mental phenomena includes the motivational-need and volitional spheres of the personality.Research (V.G. Aseev) showed that various features motivational system, such as its hierarchical, multilevel nature, bimodal (positive - negative)
Social psychology of personality __________________________ || 5
the structure, the unity of the actual and potential, procedural and discrete aspects, have a specific regulating effect on the social behavior of an individual. Motivation, motive, motivation is the trigger for the regulation of behavior. Human needs are the main source of motivation. In the emotional sphere of an individual (feelings, emotions, moods), a personal attitude to what is happening, to social behavior itself, an assessment of events, facts, interaction and relationships of people are carried out.
Volitional processes (desire, striving, struggle of motives, decision-making, the implementation of a volitional action, the commission of an act) serve as the final stage of social regulation of behavior.
