The smallest constituent particles of matter. The smallest lizard in the world

The answer to the ongoing question: what is the smallest particle in the universe has evolved with humanity.

People once thought that grains of sand were the building blocks of what we see around us. Then the atom was discovered and it was considered indivisible until it was split to reveal the protons, neutrons and electrons within. They didn't turn out to be the smallest particles in the universe either, as scientists discovered that protons and neutrons are made up of three quarks each.

So far, scientists have not been able to see any evidence that there is something inside quarks and that the most fundamental layer of matter or the smallest particle in the universe has been reached.

And even if quarks and electrons are indivisible, scientists don't know if they are the smallest bits of matter in existence or if the universe contains objects that are even smaller.

The smallest particles in the universe

They come in different flavors and sizes, some have an amazing bond, others essentially vaporize each other, many of them have fantastic names: baryons and mesons quarks, neutrons and protons, nucleons, hyperons, mesons, baryons, nucleons, photons, etc. .d.

The Higgs boson is a particle so important to science that it is called the "God particle". It is believed that it determines the mass of all others. The element was first theorized in 1964 when scientists wondered why some particles are more massive than others.

The Higgs boson is associated with the so-called Higgs field which is believed to fill the universe. Two elements (the Higgs field quantum and the Higgs boson) are responsible for giving others mass. Named after the Scottish scientist Peter Higgs. On March 14, 2013, the confirmation of the existence of the Higgs Boson was officially announced.

Many scientists argue that the Higgs mechanism has solved the missing piece of the puzzle to complete the existing "standard model" of physics, which describes known particles.

The Higgs boson fundamentally determined the mass of everything that exists in the universe.

Quarks

Quarks (translated as crazy) are the building blocks of protons and neutrons. They are never alone, existing only in groups. Apparently, the force that binds quarks together increases with distance, so the farther away, the harder it will be to separate them. Therefore, free quarks never exist in nature.

Quarks fundamental particles are structureless, dotted about 10-16 cm in size.

For example, protons and neutrons are made up of three quarks, with protons having two identical quarks while neutrons have two different ones.

Supersymmetry

It is known that the fundamental "bricks" of matter - fermions - are quarks and leptons, and the keepers of the force of bosons are photons, gluons. The theory of supersymmetry says that fermions and bosons can turn into each other.

The predictive theory says that for every particle known to us, there is a sister particle that we have not yet discovered. For example, for an electron it is a selekron, for a quark it is a squark, for a photon it is a photino, and for a higgs it is a higgsino.

Why don't we observe this supersymmetry in the Universe now? Scientists believe that they are much heavier than their conventional cousins, and the heavier they are, the shorter their lifespan. In fact, they begin to break down as soon as they arise. The creation of supersymmetry requires a very a large number energy that only existed shortly after the big bang and could possibly be created in large accelerators like the Large Hadron Collider.

As to why the symmetry arose, physicists speculate that the symmetry may have been broken in some hidden sector of the universe that we cannot see or touch, but can only feel gravitationally.

Neutrino

Neutrinos are light subatomic particles that whistle everywhere at the close speed of light. In fact, trillions of neutrinos are streaming through your body at any given moment, although they rarely interact with normal matter.

Some come from the sun, while others come from cosmic rays interacting with Earth's atmosphere and astronomical sources such as exploding stars on milky way and other distant galaxies.

Antimatter

It is believed that all normal particles have antimatter with the same mass but opposite charge. When matter and meet, they destroy each other. For example, the antimatter particle of a proton is an antiproton, while the antimatter partner of an electron is called a positron. Antimatter is one of the most expensive substances in the world that people have been able to identify.

Gravitons

In the field of quantum mechanics, all fundamental forces are transmitted by particles. For example, light is made up of massless particles called photons that carry electromagnetic force. Similarly, the graviton is a theoretical particle that carries the force of gravity. Scientists have yet to discover gravitons, which are hard to find because they interact so weakly with matter.

Threads of energy

In experiments, tiny particles such as quarks and electrons act as single points of matter with no spatial distribution. But point objects complicate the laws of physics. Since it is impossible to approach infinitely close to the point, since the acting forces can become infinitely large.

An idea called superstring theory can solve this problem. The theory states that all particles, instead of being pointlike, are actually small filaments of energy. That is, all objects of our world consist of vibrating threads and membranes of energy. Nothing can be infinitely close to the thread because one part will always be slightly closer than the other. This "loophole" seems to solve some of the problems of infinity, making the idea attractive to physicists. However, scientists still have no experimental evidence that string theory is correct.

Another way of solving the point problem is to say that space itself is not continuous and smooth, but is actually made up of discrete pixels or grains, sometimes called the spatiotemporal structure. In this case, two particles cannot approach each other indefinitely, because they must always be separated by the minimum grain size of space.

black hole point

Another contender for the title of the smallest particle in the universe is a singularity (a single point) at the center of a black hole. Black holes form when matter condenses into enough small space, which is captured by gravity, causing matter to be pulled inward, eventually condensing into a single point of infinite density. At least by current laws physics.

But most experts don't consider black holes to be truly infinitely dense. They believe that this infinity is the result of an internal conflict between two current theories - general relativity and quantum mechanics. They suggest that when the theory of quantum gravity can be formulated, the true nature of black holes will be revealed.

Planck length

Threads of energy and even the smallest particle in the universe can be the size of a “plank length”.

The length of the bar is 1.6 x 10 -35 meters (the number 16 preceded by 34 zeros and a decimal point) - an incomprehensibly small scale that is associated with various aspects of physics.

The Planck length is the "natural unit" for measuring length, which was proposed by the German physicist Max Planck.

The Planck length is too small for any instrument to measure, but beyond that, it is believed to represent the theoretical limit of the shortest measurable length. According to the uncertainty principle, no instrument should ever be able to measure anything less than this, because in this range the universe is probabilistic and uncertain.

This scale is also considered the dividing line between general relativity and quantum mechanics.

The Planck length corresponds to the distance where the gravitational field is so strong that it can start making black holes out of the field's energy.

Apparently now, the smallest particle in the universe is about the size of a plank length: 1.6 10 −35 meters

conclusions

From the school bench it was known that the smallest particle in the Universe, the electron, has a negative charge and a very small mass, equal to 9.109 x 10 - 31 kg, and the classical radius of the electron is 2.82 x 10 -15 m.

However, physicists are already working with the smallest particles in the universe, the Planck size, which is about 1.6 x 10 −35 meters.

The world and science never stand still. More recently, in physics textbooks, they confidently wrote that the electron is the smallest particle. Then mesons became the smallest particles, then bosons. And now science has discovered a new the smallest particle in the universe is a Planck black hole. True, it is open so far only in theory. This particle belongs to the category of black holes because its gravitational radius is greater than or equal to the wavelength. Of all the existing black holes, the Planckian is the smallest.

The too short lifetime of these particles cannot make their practical detection possible. At least for now. And they are formed, as is commonly believed, as a result of nuclear reactions. But it is not only the lifetime of Planck black holes that prevents them from being detected. Now, unfortunately, this is not possible from a technical point of view. In order to synthesize Planck black holes, an energy accelerator of more than a thousand electron volts is needed.

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Despite such a hypothetical existence of this smallest particle in the Universe, its practical discovery in the future is quite possible. After all, not so long ago, the legendary Higgs boson also could not be detected. It was to detect it that an installation was created that only the laziest inhabitant on Earth had not heard of - the Large Hadron Collider. The confidence of scientists in the success of these studies helped to achieve a sensational result. The Higgs boson is currently the smallest particle of those whose existence has been practically proven. Its discovery is very important for science, it allowed all particles to acquire mass. And if particles didn't have mass, the universe couldn't exist. Not a single substance could be formed in it.

Despite the practical proven existence of this particle, the Higgs boson, practical applications for it have not yet been invented. So far, this is just theoretical knowledge. But everything is possible in the future. Not all discoveries in the field of physics immediately had practical application. Nobody knows what will happen in a hundred years. After all, as mentioned earlier, the world and science never stand still.

Incredible Facts

People tend to pay attention to large objects that grab our attention right away.

On the contrary, small things can go unnoticed, although this does not make them less important.

Some of them we can see with the naked eye, others only with a microscope, and there are those that can only be imagined theoretically.

Here is a collection of the smallest things in the world, ranging from tiny toys, miniature animals and people to a hypothetical subatomic particle.

The smallest pistol in the world

The smallest revolver in the world SwissMiniGun looks no bigger than a door key. However, appearances are deceiving, and a pistol with a length of only 5.5 cm and a weight of just under 20 grams can shoot at a speed of 122 m per second. This is enough to kill at close range.

The smallest bodybuilder in the world

According to the Guinness Book of Records Aditya "Romeo" Dev(Aditya "Romeo" Dev) from India was the smallest bodybuilder in the world. With a height of only 84 cm and a weight of 9 kg, he could lift 1.5 kg dumbbells and spent a lot of time perfecting his body. Unfortunately, he died in September 2012 due to a ruptured brain aneurysm.

The smallest lizard in the world

Kharaguan sphero ( Sphaerodactylus ariasae) is the smallest reptile in the world. Its length is only 16-18 mm, and its weight is 0.2 grams. He lives in national park Jaragua in the Dominican Republic.

The smallest car in the world

The Peel 50 weighing 59 kg is the smallest production car in the world. In the early 1960s, about 50 of these cars were produced, and now only a few models remain. The car has two wheels in front and one in the back, and it reaches a speed of 16 km per hour.

The smallest horse in the world

The smallest horse in the world named Einstein was born in 2010 in Barnstead, New Hampshire, UK. At birth, she weighed less than a newborn baby (2.7 kg). Her height was 35 cm. Einstein does not suffer from dwarfism, but belongs to the breed of pinto horses.

The smallest country in the world

The Vatican is the smallest country in the world. This is a small state with an area of ​​​​only 0.44 square meters. km and a population of 836 people who are not permanent residents. Tiny country surrounds St. Peter's Basilica - spiritual center Roman Catholics. The Vatican itself is surrounded by Rome, Italy.

The smallest school in the world

The Kalou School in Iran has been recognized by UNESCO as the smallest school in the world. In the village where the school is located, only 7 families live, where there are four children: two boys and two girls, who attend the school.

The smallest kettle in the world

The smallest teapot in the world was created by a famous ceramics master Wu Ruishen(Wu Ruishen) and it only weighs 1.4 grams.

The smallest mobile phone in the world

The Modu phone is considered the smallest mobile phone in the world according to the Guinness Book of Records. With a thickness of 76 millimeters, it weighs only 39 grams. Its dimensions are 72mm x 37mm x 7.8mm. Despite its tiny size, you can make calls, send SMS messages, play MP3s and take photos.

The smallest prison in the world

Sark Prison in the Channel Islands was built in 1856 and holds one cell for 2 prisoners.

The smallest monkey in the world

Dwarf marmosets that live in tropical moist forests South America, are considered the smallest monkeys in the world. The weight of an adult monkey is 110-140 grams, and the length reaches 15 cm. Although they have rather sharp teeth and claws, they are relatively docile and are popular as exotic pets.

The smallest post office in the world

The smallest postal service WSPS (World's Smallest Postal Service) in San Francisco, USA converts your letters into miniature form, so the recipient will have to read it with a magnifying glass.

The smallest frog in the world

species frog Paedophryne amauensis with a length of 7.7 millimeters, it lives only in Papua New Guinea, and is the tiniest frog and smallest vertebrate in the world.

The smallest house in the world

Most little house in the world American company Tumbleweed architect Jay Shafer is smaller than some people's toilets. Although this house is only 9 sq. meters looks tiny, it holds everything you need: workplace, bedroom, bathroom with shower and toilet.

The smallest dog in the world

In terms of height, the smallest dog in the world according to the Guinness Book of Records is a dog. Boo Boo- Chihuahua with a height of 10.16 cm and a weight of 900 grams. She lives in Kentucky, USA.

In addition, the title of the smallest dog in the world claims Macy- a terrier from Poland is only 7 cm high and 12 cm long.

The smallest park in the world

Mill Ends Park in the city of Portland, Oregon, USA - this is the smallest park in the world with a diameter of only 60 cm. On a small circle located at the intersection of roads there is a butterfly pool, a small Ferris wheel and miniature statues.

The smallest fish in the world

species fish Paedocypris progenetica from the carp family, found in peat bogs, grows only up to 7.9 millimeters in length.

The smallest person in the world

72 year old Nepalese Chandra Bahadur Dangi(Chandra Bahadur Dangi), with a height of 54.6 cm, was recognized as the shortest man and man in the world.

The smallest woman in the world

The shortest woman in the world is Yoti Amge(Jyoti Amge) from India. On her 18th birthday, the girl, with a height of 62.8 cm, became the smallest woman in the world.

The smallest police station

This small phone station in the city of Carabella, Florida, USA is considered the smallest working police station.

The smallest baby in the world

In 2004 Rumaisa Rahman(Rumaisa Rahman) became the smallest newborn child. She was born at 25 weeks and weighed only 244 grams, and her height was 24 cm. Her twin sister Hiba weighed almost twice as much - 566 grams with a height of 30 cm. Their mother suffered from a severe form of pre-eclampsia, which can lead to having smaller children.

The smallest sculptures in the world

British sculptor Ullard Wigan(Willard Wigan), who suffered from dyslexia, did not excel academically and found solace in creating miniature works of art that are not visible to the naked eye. His sculptures are placed in the eye of a needle, reaching a size of 0.05 mm. His recent works, which are called only "the eighth wonder of the world" do not exceed the size of a human blood cell.

The smallest teddy bear in the world

Teddy Bear Mini Pooh created by a German sculptor Bettina Kaminsky(Bettina Kaminski) is the tiniest hand-sewn teddy bear with movable legs, measuring just 5mm.

The smallest bacterium

The smallest virus

Although there is still debate among scientists about what is considered "alive" and what is not, most biologists do not classify viruses as a living organism, since they cannot reproduce and are not capable of exchange outside the cell. However, a virus can be smaller than any living organism, including bacteria. The smallest single-stranded DNA virus is porcine chirocovirus ( Porcine circovirus). The diameter of its shell is only 17 nanometers.

The smallest objects visible to the naked eye

The size of the small object visible to the naked eye is 1 mm. This means that under the right conditions, you can see the common amoeba, the shoe ciliate, and even the human egg.

The smallest particle in the universe

Per last century science has taken a huge step towards understanding the vastness of the universe and its microscopic building materials. However, when it comes to the smallest observable particle in the universe, there are some difficulties.

At one time, the atom was considered the smallest particle. Then scientists discovered the proton, neutron and electron. Now we know that by pushing particles together (as in the Large Hadron Collider, for example), they can be broken up into even more particles, such as quarks, leptons and even antimatter. The problem is only in determining what is less.

But at the quantum level, size becomes irrelevant, as the laws of physics we're used to don't apply. So some particles have no mass, some have negative mass. The solution to this question is the same as dividing by zero, that is, impossible.

The smallest hypothetical object in the universe

Considering what was said above that the concept of size is inapplicable at the quantum level, we can turn to the well-known string theory in physics.

Although this is a rather controversial theory, it suggests that subatomic particles are composed of vibrating strings, which interact to create things like mass and energy. And although such strings have no physical parameters, the human tendency to justify everything leads us to the conclusion that these are the smallest objects in the Universe.

What do we know about particles smaller than an atom? And what is the smallest particle in the universe?

The world around us... Who among us has not admired its enchanting beauty? His bottomless night sky, strewn with billions of twinkling mysterious stars and the warmth of his affectionate sunlight. Emerald fields and forests, stormy rivers and boundless sea expanses. Sparkling peaks of majestic mountains and luscious alpine meadows. Morning dew and nightingale trill at dawn. A fragrant rose and a quiet murmur of a stream. A blazing sunset and the gentle rustle of a birch grove...

Is it possible to think of anything more beautiful than the world around us?! More powerful and impressive? And, at the same time, more fragile and tender? All this is the world where we breathe, love, rejoice, rejoice, suffer and mourn... All this is our world. The world in which we live, which we feel, which we see and which we at least somehow understand.

However, it is much more diverse and complex than it might seem at first glance. We know that luscious meadows would not have appeared without the fantastic riot of an endless dance of flexible green blades of grass, lush trees dressed in emerald robes without a great many leaves on their branches, and golden beaches without numerous sparkling grains of sand crunching under bare feet in the rays of the gentle summer sun. The big always consists of the small. Small - from even more small. And this sequence, probably, has no limit.

Therefore, blades of grass and grains of sand, in turn, consist of molecules that are formed from atoms. Atoms are known to have elementary particles- electrons, protons and neutrons. But they, as it is believed, are not the final authority. Modern science claims that protons and neutrons, for example, consist of hypothetical energy clusters - quarks. There is an assumption that there is an even smaller particle - the preon, which is still invisible, unknown, but supposed.

The world of molecules, atoms, electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, etc. called microworld. He is the basis macrocosm- the world of man and the magnitudes commensurate with it on our planet and mega world- the world of stars, galaxies, the Universe and Cosmos. All these worlds are interconnected and do not exist one without the other.

We have already met the mega world in the report on our first expedition. "Breath of the Universe. Journey first" and we already have an idea about distant galaxies and the Universe. On that perilous journey, we discovered the world of dark matter and dark energy, explored the depths of black holes, reached the tops of glittering quasars, and miraculously avoided the Big Bang and no less Big Crunch. The universe appeared before us in all its beauty and grandeur. During our journey, we realized that stars and galaxies did not appear on their own, but were painstakingly, over billions of years, formed from particles and atoms.

It is particles and atoms that make up the whole world around us. It is they, in their countless and diverse combinations, that can appear before us either in the form of a beautiful Dutch rose, or in the form of a severe heap of Tibetan rocks. Everything we see consists of these mysterious representatives of the mysterious microworld. Why "mysterious" and why "mysterious"? Because humanity, unfortunately, still knows very little about this world and about its representatives.

It is impossible to imagine the modern science of the microcosm without mentioning the electron, proton or neutron. In any reference material on physics or chemistry, we will find their mass to the ninth decimal place, their electric charge, lifetime, and so on. For example, in accordance with these reference books, an electron has a mass of 9.10938291 (40) x 10 -31 kg, an electric charge - minus 1.602176565 (35) x 10 -19 C, a lifetime - infinity or at least 4.6 x 10 26 years old (Wikipedia).

The accuracy of determining the parameters of an electron is impressive, and pride in scientific achievements civilization fills our hearts! True, at the same time some doubts creep in, which, with all the desire, cannot be completely driven away. Determining the mass of an electron equal to one billion - billion - billionth of a kilogram, and even weighing it to the ninth decimal place, is, I believe, not an easy task, just like measuring the lifetime of an electron at 4,600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 000 years.

Moreover, no one has ever seen this very electron. The most modern microscopes make it possible to see only an electron cloud around the nucleus of an atom, within which, as scientists believe, an electron moves with great speed (Fig. 1). We do not yet know for sure neither the size of the electron, nor its shape, nor the speed of its rotation. In reality, we know very little about the electron, as well as about the proton and the neutron. We can only speculate and guess. Unfortunately, for today it while all our possibilities.

Rice. 1. Photograph of electron clouds taken by physicists of the Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology in September 2009

But an electron or a proton is the smallest elementary particles that make up an atom of any substance. And if our technical means studies of the microworld do not yet allow us to see particles and atoms, maybe we will start with something O more and more known? For example, from a molecule! It is made up of atoms. A molecule is a larger and more understandable object, which, quite possibly, is more deeply studied.

Unfortunately, I have to disappoint you again. Molecules are understandable to us only on paper in the form of abstract formulas and drawings of their supposed structure. We still cannot get a clear image of a molecule with pronounced bonds between atoms.

In August 2009, using the technology of atomic force microscopy, European researchers for the first time managed to obtain an image of the structure of a fairly large molecule of pentacene (C 22 H 14). The most modern technology has made it possible to see only five rings that determine the structure of this hydrocarbon, as well as spots of individual carbon and hydrogen atoms (Fig. 2). And that's all we can do for now...

Rice. 2. Structural representation of the pentacene molecule (top)

and her photo (below)

On the one hand, the photographs obtained allow us to assert that the path chosen by chemists, describing the composition and structure of molecules, is no longer in doubt, but, on the other hand, we can only guess that

How, after all, does the combination of atoms occur in a molecule, and elementary particles - in an atom? Why are these atomic and molecular bonds stable? How are they formed, what forces support them? What does an electron, proton or neutron look like? What is their structure? What is an atomic nucleus? How do proton and neutron coexist in the same space and why do they reject an electron from it?

There are a lot of questions of this kind. Answers too. True, many answers are based only on assumptions that give rise to new questions.

My very first attempts to penetrate the secrets of the microworld came across a rather superficial idea modern science many fundamental knowledge about the structure of microworld objects, about the principles of their functioning, about the systems of their interconnections and relationships. It turned out that humanity still does not clearly understand how the nucleus of an atom and its constituent particles - electrons, protons and neutrons - are arranged. We have only general ideas about what actually happens in the process of fission of the atomic nucleus, what events can occur during the long course of this process.

The study of nuclear reactions was limited to observing the processes and ascertaining certain cause-and-effect relationships, derived experimentally. Researchers have learned to determine only behavior certain particles under one or another impact. That's all! Without understanding their structure, without revealing the mechanisms of interaction! Only behavior! Based on this behavior, the dependences of certain parameters were determined and, for greater importance, these experimental data were clothed in multi-level mathematical formulas. That's the whole theory!

Unfortunately, this was enough to bravely set about building nuclear power plants, various accelerators, colliders and the creation of nuclear bombs. Having received primary knowledge about nuclear processes, mankind immediately joined in an unprecedented race for the possession of powerful energy subject to it.

By leaps and bounds, the number of countries with nuclear capabilities in service has grown. Nuclear missiles in huge numbers looked menacingly towards unfriendly neighbors. Nuclear power plants began to appear, continuously generating cheap electrical energy. Enormous funds were spent on nuclear development of more and more new designs. Science, trying to look inside the atomic nucleus, intensively erected super-modern particle accelerators.

However, the matter did not reach the structure of the atom and its nucleus. The fascination with the search for more and more new particles and the pursuit of Nobel regalia relegated to the background a deep study of the structure of the atomic nucleus and its constituent particles.

But superficial knowledge of nuclear processes immediately manifested itself negatively during the operation of nuclear reactors and provoked the emergence of spontaneous nuclear chain reactions in a number of situations.

This list provides dates and locations for the occurrence of spontaneous nuclear reactions:

08/21/1945. USA, Los Alamos National Laboratory.

May 21, 1946. USA, Los Alamos National Laboratory.

03/15/1953. USSR, Chelyabinsk-65, Mayak Production Association.

04/21/1953. USSR, Chelyabinsk-65, Mayak Production Association.

06/16/1958. USA, Oak Ridge, Y-12 Radiochemical Plant.

10/15/1958. Yugoslavia, B. Kidrich Institute.

December 30, 1958 USA, Los Alamos National Laboratory.

01/03/1963. USSR, Tomsk-7, Siberian Chemical Combine.

07/23/1964. USA, Woodryver, Radiochemical plant.

December 30, 1965 Belgium, Mol.

03/05/1968. USSR, Chelyabinsk-70, VNIITF.

December 10, 1968 USSR, Chelyabinsk-65, Mayak Production Association.

May 26, 1971 USSR, Moscow, Institute of Atomic Energy.

December 13, 1978. USSR, Tomsk-7, Siberian Chemical Combine.

09/23/1983. Argentina, Reactor RA-2.

May 15, 1997 Russia, Novosibirsk, plant of chemical concentrates.

06/17/1997. Russia, Sarov, VNIIEF.

09/30/1999 Japan, Tokaimura, Plant for the production of nuclear fuel.

Numerous accidents with air and underwater carriers must be added to this list. nuclear weapons, incidents at nuclear fuel cycle enterprises, emergencies at nuclear power plants, emergencies during testing of nuclear and thermonuclear bombs. The tragedy of Chernobyl and Fukushima will forever remain in our memory. Behind these catastrophes and emergencies, thousands dead people. And it makes you think very seriously.

Just the thought of working nuclear power plants that can instantly turn the whole world into a continuous radioactive zone is horrifying. Unfortunately, these concerns are well founded. First of all, the fact that the creators of nuclear reactors in their work used not fundamental knowledge, but a statement of certain mathematical dependencies and behavior of particles, on the basis of which a dangerous nuclear structure was built. For scientists, until now, nuclear reactions are a kind of "black box" that works, subject to the fulfillment of certain actions and requirements.

However, if something begins to happen in this “box” and this “something” is not described by the instructions and goes beyond the scope of the knowledge gained, then we, apart from our own heroism and non-intellectual labor, cannot oppose anything to the nuclear element that has broken out. Masses of people are forced to simply humbly wait for the impending danger, prepare for terrible and incomprehensible consequences, moving to a safe, in their opinion, distance. Nuclear specialists in most cases just shrug their shoulders, praying and waiting for help from higher powers.

Japanese nuclear scientists, armed with the most modern technology, still cannot curb the long-deenergized nuclear power plant in Fukushima. They can only state that on October 18, 2013, the level of radiation in groundwater exceeded the norm by more than 2,500 times. A day later, the level of radioactive substances in the water increased by almost 12,000 times! Why?! Japanese specialists cannot yet answer this question or stop these processes.

Creation risk atomic bomb somehow justified. The tense military-political situation on the planet demanded unprecedented measures of defense and attack from the opposing countries. Submitting to the situation, atomic researchers took risks, not delving into the subtleties of the structure and functioning of elementary particles and atomic nuclei.

However, in peacetime, the construction of nuclear power plants and colliders of all types had to begin only on condition, what science has completely figured out the structure of the atomic nucleus, and with the electron, and with the neutron, and with the proton, and with their interrelations. Moreover, nuclear reactions at nuclear power plants must be strictly controlled. But you can really and effectively manage only what you know thoroughly. Especially if it concerns the most powerful type of energy today, which is not at all easy to curb. This, of course, does not happen. Not only during the construction of nuclear power plants.

Currently, there are 6 different colliders in Russia, China, the USA and Europe - powerful accelerators of oncoming particle flows, which accelerate them to great speed, giving the particles high kinetic energy, in order to then push them into each other. The purpose of the collision is to study the products of particle collisions in the hope that in the process of their decay it will be possible to see something new and still unknown.

It is clear that researchers are very interested to see what will come of all this. The speed of particle collisions and the level of funding for scientific research are increasing, but knowledge about the structure of what collides has remained the same for many, many years. There are still no substantiated predictions about the results of the planned studies, and there cannot be. Not by chance. We are well aware that it is possible to predict scientifically only on the condition of accurate and verified knowledge of at least the details of the predicted process. Modern science does not yet have such knowledge about elementary particles. In this case, it can be assumed that the main principle of existing research methods is the position: "Let's try to do it - let's see what happens." Unfortunately.

Therefore, it is quite natural that today issues related to the danger of ongoing experiments are being discussed more and more often. It's not even about the possibility of microscopic black holes appearing in the course of experiments, which, growing, can devour our planet. I do not really believe in such a possibility, at least at the current level and stage of my intellectual development.

But there is a more serious and more real danger. For example, at the Large Hadron Collider, streams of protons or lead ions collide in various configurations. It would seem, what kind of threat can come from a microscopic particle, and even underground, in a tunnel clad in a powerful metal and concrete protection? A particle weighing 1.672 621 777 (74) x 10 -27 kg and a solid multi-ton tunnel of more than 26 kilometers in the thickness of heavy soil are clearly incomparable categories.

However, the threat exists. In experiments, uncontrolled release is likely huge amount energy that will appear not only as a result of the breakup of intranuclear forces, but also the energy located inside protons or lead ions. A nuclear explosion of a modern ballistic missile, based on the release of the intranuclear energy of an atom, will seem no worse than a New Year's cracker compared to that powerful energy, which can be released during the destruction of elementary particles. We can suddenly let the fabulous genie out of the bottle. But not that complaisant good-natured and jack-of-all-trades who only obeys and obeys, but an uncontrollable, all-powerful and ruthless monster who knows no mercy and mercy. And it will not be fabulous, but quite real.

But the worst thing is that, as in a nuclear bomb, a chain reaction can begin in a collider, releasing more and more portions of energy and destroying all other elementary particles. At the same time, it does not matter at all what they will consist of - metal constructions tunnel, concrete walls or rocks. Energy will be released everywhere, tearing apart everything that is connected not only with our civilization, but with the entire planet. In an instant, only pitiful shapeless shreds can remain from our sweet blue beauty, flying across the great and vast expanses of the Universe.

This, of course, is a terrible, but quite real scenario, and many Europeans today understand this very well and actively oppose dangerous unpredictable experiments, demanding the security of the planet and civilization. Each time these speeches are more and more organized and increase the internal anxiety about the current situation.

I am not against experiments, because I understand very well that the path to new knowledge is always thorny and difficult. Without experimentation, it is almost impossible to overcome it. However, I am deeply convinced that each experiment should be carried out only if it is safe for people and the surrounding world. Today we have no such security. No, because there is no knowledge about those particles with which we are already experimenting today.

The situation turned out to be much more alarming than I had imagined before. Seriously worried, I plunged headlong into the world of knowledge about the microworld. I confess that this did not give me much pleasure, since in the developed theories of the microcosm it was difficult to catch a clear relationship between natural phenomena and the conclusions on which some scientists based themselves, using theoretical positions as a research apparatus. quantum physics, quantum mechanics and the theory of elementary particles.

Imagine my amazement when I suddenly discovered that knowledge about the microcosm is based more on assumptions that do not have clear logical justifications. Having saturated mathematical models with certain conventions in the form of Planck's constant with a constant exceeding thirty zeros after the decimal point, various prohibitions and postulates, theorists, however, describe in sufficient detail and accurately a whether practical situations that answer the question: "What happens if ...?". However, the main question: “Why is this happening?”, unfortunately, remained unanswered.

It seemed to me that to know the boundless Universe and its so distant galaxies, spread over a fantastically vast distance, is a much more difficult matter than to find the path of knowledge to what, in fact, "lies under our feet." Based on the foundation of my secondary and higher education, I sincerely believed that our civilization no longer has questions either about the structure of the atom and its nucleus, or about elementary particles and their structure, or about the forces that hold the electron in orbit and maintain a stable connection of protons. and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Until that moment, I had not had to study the basics of quantum physics, but I was confident and naively assumed that this new physics is what will really lead us out of the darkness of misunderstanding of the microworld.

But, to my deep chagrin, I was mistaken. Modern quantum physics, the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, and indeed the entire physics of the microcosm, in my opinion, are not just in a deplorable state. They are stuck in an intellectual impasse for a long time, which cannot allow them to develop and improve, moving along the path of cognition of the atom and elementary particles.

Researchers of the microcosm, rigidly limited by the established steadfastness of the opinions of the great theoreticians of the 19th and 20th centuries, have not dared to return to their roots for more than a hundred years and again begin the difficult path of research into the depths of our surrounding world. My critical view of the current situation around the study of the microworld is far from being the only one. Many progressive researchers and theorists have repeatedly expressed their point of view on the problems that arise in the course of understanding the foundations of the theory of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, quantum physics and quantum mechanics.

An analysis of modern theoretical quantum physics allows us to draw a quite definite conclusion that the essence of the theory lies in the mathematical representation of certain averaged values ​​of particles and atoms, based on the indicators of some mechanistic statistics. The main thing in the theory is not the study of elementary particles, their structure, their connections and interactions during the manifestation of certain natural phenomena, but simplified probabilistic mathematical models based on the dependences obtained during the experiments.

Unfortunately, here, as well as in the development of the theory of relativity, the derived mathematical dependences were put in the first place, which overshadowed the nature of phenomena, their interconnection and causes of occurrence.

The study of the structure of elementary particles was limited to the assumption of the presence of three hypothetical quarks in protons and neutrons, the varieties of which, as this theoretical assumption developed, changed from two, then three, four, six, twelve ... Science simply adjusted to the results of experiments, forced to invent new elements, the existence of which has not yet been proven. Here we can also hear about preons and gravitons that have not yet been found. One can be sure that the number of hypothetical particles will continue to grow, as the science of the microworld goes deeper and deeper into a dead end.

The lack of understanding of the physical processes occurring inside elementary particles and nuclei of atoms, the mechanism of interaction between systems and elements of the microcosm brought hypothetical elements - carriers of interaction - such as gauge and vector bosons, gluons, virtual photons, to the arena of modern science. It was they who topped the list of entities responsible for the processes of interaction of some particles with others. And it does not matter that even their indirect signs have not been found. It is important that they can somehow be held responsible for the fact that the nucleus of an atom does not fall apart into its components, that the Moon does not fall to the Earth, that the electrons still rotate in their orbit, and the planet's magnetic field still protects us from cosmic influence .

From all this it became sad, because the more I delved into the theory of the microcosm, the more my understanding of the dead-end development of the most important component of the theory of the structure of the world grew. The position of today's science of the microcosm is not accidental, but natural. The fact is that the foundations of quantum physics were laid by Nobel Prize winners Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, Wolfgang Pauli and Paul Dirac in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Physicists at that time had only the results of some initial experiments aimed at studying atoms and elementary particles. However, it must be admitted that these studies were also carried out on imperfect equipment corresponding to that time, and the experimental database was just beginning to fill up.

Therefore, it is not surprising that classical physics could not always answer the numerous questions that arose in the course of the study of the microworld. Therefore, at the beginning of the twentieth century in the scientific world they started talking about the crisis of physics and the need for revolutionary changes in the system of microworld research. This provision definitely pushed progressive theoretical scientists to search for new ways and new methods of cognition of the microworld.

The problem, we must pay tribute, was not in the outdated provisions of classical physics, but in the underdeveloped technical base, which at that time, which is quite understandable, could not provide the necessary research results and give food for deeper theoretical developments. The gap had to be filled. And it was filled. A new theory - quantum physics, based primarily on probabilistic mathematical concepts. There was nothing wrong with this, except that, in doing so, they forgot philosophy and broke away from the real world.

Classical ideas about the atom, electron, proton, neutron, etc. were replaced by their probabilistic models, which corresponded to a certain level of development of science and even made it possible to solve very complex applied engineering problems. The absence of the necessary technical base and some successes in the theoretical and experimental representation of the elements and systems of the microcosm created the conditions for a certain cooling of the scientific world towards a deep study of the structure of elementary particles, atoms and their nuclei. Especially since the crisis in the physics of the microcosm seemed to have been extinguished, a revolution had taken place. Science community enthusiastically rushed to the study of quantum physics, not bothering to understand the basics of elementary and fundamental particles.

Naturally, such a situation in the modern science of the microworld could not but excite me, and I immediately began to prepare for a new expedition, for a new journey. Journey into the microcosm. We have already made a similar journey. It was the first trip to the world of galaxies, stars and quasars, to the world of dark matter and dark energy, to the world where our Universe is born and lives a full life. In his report "Breath of the Universe. Journey first» We tried to understand the structure of the Universe and the processes that take place in it.

Realizing that the second journey would also not be easy and would require billions of trillions of times to reduce the scale of space in which I would have to study the world around me, I began to prepare to penetrate not only into the structure of an atom or molecule, but also into the depths of the electron and proton, neutron and photon, and in volumes millions of times smaller than the volumes of these particles. This required special training, new knowledge and advanced equipment.

The upcoming journey assumed a start from the very beginning of the creation of our world, and it was this beginning that was the most dangerous and with the most unpredictable outcome. But it depended on our expedition whether we would find a way out of the current situation in the science of the microworld or whether we would remain balancing on the shaky rope bridge of modern nuclear energy, every second exposing the life and existence of civilization on the planet to mortal danger.

The thing is that in order to get to know the initial results of our research, it was necessary to get to the black hole of the Universe and, neglecting the sense of self-preservation, rush into the flaming hell of the universal tunnel. Only there, in conditions of ultra-high temperatures and fantastic pressure, carefully moving in rapidly rotating streams material particles, we could see how the annihilation of particles and antiparticles takes place and how the great and mighty ancestor of all things, Ether, is reborn, to understand all the ongoing processes, including the formation of particles, atoms and molecules.

Believe me, there are not so many daredevils on Earth who can decide on this. Moreover, the result is not guaranteed by anyone and no one is ready to take responsibility for happy outcome this journey. During the existence of civilization, no one has even visited the black hole of the galaxy, but here - UNIVERSE! Everything here is grown-up, grandiose and cosmic scale. There are no jokes here. Here, in an instant, they can turn the human body into a microscopic red-hot energy clot or scatter it across the endless cold expanses of space without the right to restore and reunite. This is the Universe! Huge and majestic, cold and red-hot, boundless and mysterious…

Therefore, inviting everyone to join our expedition, I have to warn you that if someone has doubts, it is not too late to refuse. Any reason is accepted. We are fully aware of the magnitude of the danger, but we are ready to courageously confront it at all costs! We are preparing to dive into the depths of the Universe.

It is clear that to protect ourselves and stay alive, plunging into a hot universal tunnel filled with powerful explosions and nuclear reactions, is far from an easy task, and our equipment must correspond to the conditions in which we will have to work. Therefore, it is essential to prepare the best equipment and carefully think over the equipment for all the participants of this dangerous expedition.

First of all, on the second trip we will take what allowed us to overcome a very difficult path through the expanses of the Universe when we were working on a report on our expedition. "Breath of the Universe. Journey first. Of course, this laws of the world. Without their application, our first trip could hardly have ended successfully. It was the laws that made it possible to find the right path among the heaps of incomprehensible phenomena and the dubious conclusions of researchers in their explanation.

If you remember, law of balance of opposites, predetermining that in the world any manifestation of reality, any system has its own opposite essence and is or strives to be in balance with it, allowed us to understand and accept the presence in the world around us, in addition to ordinary energy, also dark energy, as well as in addition to ordinary matter - dark matter. The law of the balance of opposites made it possible to assume that the world not only consists of ether, but also the ether consists of its two types - positive and negative.

The law of universal interconnection, implying a stable, repeating connection between all objects, processes and systems in the Universe, regardless of their scale, and law of hierarchy, ordering the levels of any system in the Universe from the lowest to the highest, made it possible to build a logical "ladder of beings" from the ether, particles, atoms, substances, stars and galaxies to the Universe. And, then, find ways to transform an incredibly huge number of galaxies, stars, planets and other material objects, first into particles, and then into streams of hot ether.

We found confirmation of these views in action. law of development, which determines the evolutionary movement in all spheres of the world around us. Through the analysis of the action of these laws, we came to a description of the form and understanding of the structure of the Universe, we learned the evolution of galaxies, saw the mechanisms of formation of particles and atoms, stars and planets. It became completely clear to us how the big is formed from the small, and the small is formed from the big.

Only understanding law of continuity of motion, which interprets the objective necessity of the process of constant movement in space for all objects and systems without exception, allowed us to become aware of the rotation of the core of the Universe and galaxies around the universal tunnel.

The laws of the structure of the world were a kind of map of our journey, which helped us move along the route and overcome its most difficult sections and obstacles encountered on the way to understanding the world. Therefore, the laws of the structure of the world will also be the most important attribute of our equipment on this journey into the depths of the Universe.

Second important condition success in penetrating the depths of the universe will certainly be experimental results scientists, which they held for more than a hundred years, and the whole stock of knowledge and information about phenomena microworld accumulated by modern science. During the first trip, we were convinced that many natural phenomena can be interpreted in different ways and draw completely opposite conclusions.

Wrong conclusions, supported by cumbersome mathematical formulas, as a rule, lead science into a dead end and do not provide the necessary development. They lay the foundation for further erroneous thinking, which, in turn, form the theoretical provisions of the developed erroneous theories. It's not about formulas. Formulas can be absolutely correct. But the decisions of researchers about how and on what path to move forward may not be entirely correct.

The situation can be compared with the desire to get from Paris to the Charles de Gaulle airport on two roads. The first is the shortest, which can be spent no more than half an hour using only a car, and the second is the opposite, around the world in a car, ship, special equipment, boats, dog sleds across France, the Atlantic, South America, Antarctica, Pacific Ocean, the Arctic and finally through the north-east of France directly to the airport. Both roads will lead us from one point to the same place. But for how long and with what effort? Yes, and to be accurate and reach the destination in the process of a long and difficult journey is very, very problematic. Therefore, not only the process of movement is important, but also the choice of the right path.

In our journey, just like in the first expedition, we will try to take a slightly different look at the conclusions about the microcosm that have already been made and accepted by the entire scientific world. First of all, in relation to the knowledge gained as a result of studying elementary particles, nuclear reactions and existing interactions. It is quite possible that as a result of our immersion in the depths of the Universe, the electron will appear before us not as a structureless particle, but as some more complex object of the microworld, and the atomic nucleus will reveal its diverse structure, living its unusual and active life.

Let's not forget to take logic with us. It allowed us to find our way through the most difficult places of our last journey. Logics was a kind of compass, indicating the direction of the right path on a journey through the expanses of the universe. It is clear that even now we cannot do without it.

However, one logic will obviously not be enough. In this expedition, we can not do without intuition. Intuition will allow us to find what we cannot even guess about yet, and where no one has looked for anything before us. It is intuition that is our wonderful assistant, whose voice we will carefully listen to. Intuition will make us move, regardless of rain and cold, snow and frost, without firm hope and clear information, but, it is she who will allow us to achieve our goal in spite of all the rules and guidelines that all mankind has become accustomed to from school.

Finally, we can't go anywhere without our unbridled imagination. Imagination- this is the tool of knowledge we need, which will allow us to see without the most modern microscopes what is much smaller than the smallest particles already discovered or only assumed by researchers. Imagination will show us all the processes that take place in a black hole and in a universal tunnel, provide mechanisms for the emergence of gravitational forces during the formation of particles and atoms, guide us through the galleries of the atom's nucleus and make it possible to make a fascinating flight on a light rotating electron around a solid but clumsy company of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus.

Unfortunately, on this journey into the depths of the Universe, we will not be able to take anything else - there is very little space and we have to limit ourselves even to the most necessary things. But that can't stop us! We understand the purpose! The depths of the universe are waiting for us!

In physics, elementary particles are physical objects on the scale of the nucleus of an atom, which cannot be divided into constituent parts. However, today, scientists still managed to split some of them. The structure and properties of these smallest objects are studied by elementary particle physics.

The smallest particles that make up all matter have been known since ancient times. However, the founders of the so-called "atomism" are considered to be the philosopher Ancient Greece Leucippus and his more famous student, Democritus. It is assumed that the latter introduced the term "atom". From the ancient Greek "atomos" is translated as "indivisible", which defines the views of ancient philosophers.

Later it became known that the atom can still be divided into two physical objects - the nucleus and the electron. The latter subsequently became the first elementary particle, when in 1897 the Englishman Joseph Thomson conducted an experiment with cathode rays and found that they are a stream of identical particles with the same mass and charge.

In parallel with the work of Thomson, Henri Becquerel, who is engaged in the study of X-rays, conducts experiments with uranium and discovers the new kind radiation. In 1898, a French physicist couple, Marie and Pierre Curie, study various radioactive substances, finding the same radioactive radiation. Later it will be established that it consists of alpha (2 protons and 2 neutrons) and beta particles (electrons), and Becquerel and Curie will receive the Nobel Prize. Carrying out her research with elements such as uranium, radium and polonium, Marie Sklodowska-Curie did not take any safety measures, including not even using gloves. As a result, in 1934 she was overtaken by leukemia. In memory of the achievements of the great scientist, the element discovered by the Curie couple, polonium, was named after Mary's homeland - Polonia, from Latin - Poland.

Photo from the 5th Solvay Congress, 1927. Try to find all the scientists from this article in this photo.

Beginning in 1905, Albert Einstein devoted his publications to the imperfection of the wave theory of light, the postulates of which diverged from the results of experiments. Which subsequently led the outstanding physicist to the idea of ​​a "light quantum" - a portion of light. Later, in 1926, it was named as "photon", translated from the Greek "phos" ("light"), by the American physiochemist Gilbert N. Lewis.

In 1913, Ernest Rutherford, a British physicist, based on the results of experiments already carried out at that time, noted that the masses of the nuclei of many chemical elements multiples of the mass of the hydrogen nucleus. Therefore, he suggested that the hydrogen nucleus is a component of the nuclei of other elements. In his experiment, Rutherford irradiated a nitrogen atom with alpha particles, which as a result emitted a certain particle, named by Ernest as a "proton", from other Greek "protos" (first, main). Later it was experimentally confirmed that the proton is the nucleus of hydrogen.

Obviously the proton is not the only one component nuclei of chemical elements. This idea is led by the fact that two protons in the nucleus would repel each other, and the atom would instantly decay. Therefore, Rutherford put forward a hypothesis about the presence of another particle, which has a mass equal to the mass of a proton, but is uncharged. Some experiments of scientists on the interaction of radioactive and lighter elements led them to the discovery of another new radiation. In 1932, James Chadwick determined that it consisted of the same neutral particles that he called neutrons.

Thus, the most famous particles were discovered: photon, electron, proton and neutron.

Further, the discovery of new subnuclear objects became an increasingly frequent event, and at the moment about 350 particles are known, which are considered to be "elementary". Those of them that have not yet been able to split are considered structureless and are called "fundamental".

What is spin?

Before proceeding to further innovations in the field of physics, it is necessary to determine the characteristics of all particles. To the most famous, not counting the mass and electric charge, also applies to spin. This value is called otherwise as "intrinsic angular momentum" and is in no way related to the displacement of the subnuclear object as a whole. Scientists have been able to detect particles with spins 0, ½, 1, 3/2 and 2. To visualize, albeit simplified, spin as a property of an object, consider the following example.

Let the object have a spin equal to 1. Then such an object, when rotated by 360 degrees, will return to its original position. On a plane, this object can be a pencil, which, after a 360-degree turn, will be in its original position. In the case of zero spin, with any rotation of the object, it will always look the same, for example, a one-color ball.

For spin ½, you will need an item that retains its appearance when turned 180 degrees. It can be the same pencil, only symmetrically ground on both sides. A spin of 2 will require shape to be maintained through a 720 degree rotation, while 3/2 will require 540.

This characteristic is very great importance for elementary particle physics.

Standard Model of Particles and Interactions

Having an impressive set of micro-objects that make up the surrounding world, scientists decided to structure them, so a well-known theoretical construction called the "Standard Model" was formed. She describes three interactions and 61 particles using 17 fundamental ones, some of which she predicted long before her discovery.

The three interactions are:

• Electromagnetic. It occurs between electrically charged particles. V simple case, known from school, - oppositely charged objects attract, and objects of the same name repel. This happens through the so-called carrier of electromagnetic interaction - a photon.
• Strong, otherwise - nuclear interaction. As the name implies, its action extends to objects of the order of the atomic nucleus, it is responsible for the attraction of protons, neutrons and other particles, also consisting of quarks. The strong force is carried by gluons.
• Weak. Operates at distances a thousand less than the size of the core. This interaction involves leptons and quarks, as well as their antiparticles. Moreover, in the case of weak interaction, they can transform into each other. The carriers are the bosons W+, W−, and Z0.

So the Standard Model was formed as follows. It includes six quarks that make up all hadrons (particles subject to strong interaction):

• Upper (u);
• Enchanted (c);
• true(t);
• lower (d);
• strange(s);
• Adorable (b).

It can be seen that physicists do not have epithets. The other 6 particles are leptons. These are fundamental particles with spin ½ that do not take part in the strong interaction.

• Electron;
• Electronic neutrino;
• Muon;
• Muon neutrino;
• Tau lepton;
• Tau neutrino.

And the third group of the Standard Model is the gauge bosons, which have a spin equal to 1 and are represented as carriers of interactions:

• Gluon is strong;
• Photon - electromagnetic;
• Z-boson is weak;
• W-boson is weak.

They also include the recently discovered particle with spin 0, which, to put it simply, endows all other subnuclear objects with inertial mass.

As a result, according to the Standard Model, our world looks like this: all matter consists of 6 quarks that form hadrons and 6 leptons; all these particles can participate in three interactions, the carriers of which are gauge bosons.

Disadvantages of the Standard Model

However, even before the discovery of the Higgs boson, the last particle predicted by the Standard Model, scientists had gone beyond it. A striking example of this is the so-called. "gravitational interaction", which today is on a par with others. Presumably, its carrier is a particle with spin 2, which has no mass, and which physicists have not yet been able to detect - the "graviton".

Moreover, the Standard Model describes 61 particles, and today more than 350 particles are known to mankind. This means that the work of theoretical physicists is not over.

Particle classification

To make life easier for themselves, physicists have grouped all the particles according to their structure and other characteristics. The classification is based on the following features:

• Lifetime.
  1. Stable. Among them are proton and antiproton, electron and positron, photon, and also graviton. The existence of stable particles is not limited by time, as long as they are in a free state, i.e. do not interact with anything.
  2. Unstable. All other particles after some time decay into their constituent parts, therefore they are called unstable. For example, a muon lives only 2.2 microseconds, and a proton lives 2.9 10*29 years, after which it can decay into a positron and a neutral pion.
• Weight.
  1. Massless elementary particles, of which there are only three: photon, gluon and graviton.
  2. Massive particles are everything else.
• Spin value.
  1. Whole spin, incl. zero, have particles called bosons.
  2. Particles with half-integer spin are fermions.
• Participation in interactions.
  1. Hadrons (structural particles) are subnuclear objects that take part in all four types of interactions. It was mentioned earlier that they are made up of quarks. Hadrons are divided into two subtypes: mesons (integer spin, are bosons) and baryons (half-integer spin - fermions).
  2. Fundamental (structureless particles). These include leptons, quarks and gauge bosons (read earlier - "Standard Model ..").

Having become acquainted with the classification of all particles, it is possible, for example, to accurately determine some of them. So the neutron is a fermion, a hadron, or rather a baryon, and a nucleon, that is, it has a half-integer spin, consists of quarks and participates in 4 interactions. Nucleon is the common name for protons and neutrons.

• Interestingly, the opponents of the atomism of Democritus, who predicted the existence of atoms, stated that any substance in the world is divisible to infinity. To some extent, they may turn out to be right, since scientists have already managed to divide the atom into a nucleus and an electron, the nucleus into a proton and a neutron, and these, in turn, into quarks.
• Democritus assumed that the atoms have a clear geometric shape, and therefore the “sharp” atoms of fire burn, the rough atoms of solids are firmly held together by their protrusions, and the smooth atoms of water slip during interaction, otherwise they flow.
• Joseph Thomson made his own model of the atom, which he imagined as a positively charged body, into which electrons are, as it were, "stuck". His model was called "pudding with raisins" (Plum pudding model).
• Quarks got their name from the American physicist Murray Gell-Mann. The scientist wanted to use a word similar to the sound of a duck quacking (kwork). But in James Joyce's novel Finnegans Wake, I encountered the word "quark" in the line "Three quarks for Mr. Mark!", the meaning of which is not exactly defined and it is possible that Joyce used it simply for rhyme. Murray decided to name the particles with this word, since at that time only three quarks were known.
• Although photons, particles of light, are massless, near a black hole, they seem to change their trajectory, being attracted to it with the help of gravitational interaction. In fact, a supermassive body bends space-time, due to which any particles, including those without mass, change their trajectory towards a black hole (see).
• The Large Hadron Collider is “hadron” precisely because it collides two directed beams of hadrons, particles with dimensions of the order of the nucleus of an atom, which participate in all interactions.