Etymology Etymology

Etymology is characterized by the complex nature of the study. The essence of the procedure of etymology, analysis: the genetic identification of the word in question or its stem with another word or its stem as the original, producing, as well as the identification of others structural elements words with historically known structural elements and reconstruction of the primary form and meaning of a word with primary motivation; an indispensable stage of etymological analysis is the removal of later historical changes. The basis of the etymological technique is the study of various, which is based on the laws of change, patterns, patterns of change, etc., which are the subject of study of comparative grammar. Depending on the nature of the historical changes experienced by the word and its relationship with potential related lexemes, in some cases of etymological analysis, the analysis of various structural elements or the meaning of the word becomes dominant. So, the Russian “tormoshit”, the Ukrainian “thermocity” and the Polish tarmosić, termosić can be interpreted as formations derived from the verb stem ter- “rub, tear” (Russian “rub”), but the analysis of the phonetic differences of these verbs (especially the Russian “sh ” with Ukrainian “s” and Polish s') convinces that only Polish tarmosić can be a direct continuation of the ancient derivative verb, while Russian and Ukrainian verbs are from Polish. When etymologizing the Russian word “bosom”, in order to prove its derivation from the verb “lay down”, the most significant is the possibility of highlighting in the word “log-” and the suffix “-sno”, as evidenced by the structure of the word “lozhesna” 'womb' with the root "log-" and the suffix "-sno".

Particular difficulties in etymological analysis are the explanation of the connection of meanings, the development of meanings, and the reconstruction of the primary semantics of the word. This is due to the diversity and significance of semantic changes (cf. Russian "ditch" and Novosibirsk "ditch" 'fence made of dung', literary "ardent" and dialectal Vologda "ardently cold" 'very cold', Russian "transparent" and Czech prozračno 'cloudy'), their connection with extralinguistic realities and insufficient knowledge of the types of semantic changes and principles. The basis for semantic analysis in etymological studies is the method of semantic parallels: as evidence of the alleged development of meanings (or the possibility of combining meanings), cases of a similar development (or combination) of meanings are given. So, in confirmation of the belonging of the verb "goggle" (in the combination 'goggle') to the nest "rub" (where meanings like 'tear, tear, peel' are regular), one can indicate the close development of the meaning 'tear' → 'goggle' in reißen ( cf. die Augen reißen 'to goggle'). Semantic changes and combinations of meanings are only partly explained by the general patterns of human thinking (such are the changes ‘abyss’ → ‘ a large number of something', 'close' → 'soon', 'strong' → 'quick' → 'impudent'). Most of the semantic transitions and combinations of meanings are due to the correlation of realities, the natural and social environment, the material and spiritual culture of native speakers, since the meanings of words reflect the world of realities. The interpretation of semantic changes and the application of the method of semantic parallels should be based on the totality of knowledge about the world around man, about man and human society in their historical development, accumulated by various branches of science, taking into account the historical development of this knowledge. For example, the establishment of the relationship of the Russian “move” with the German Zweig “branch” and its derivative from “two” was carried out thanks to the reconstruction of the verb “move” of the primary meaning of “lift” and the involvement of information from the history of technology about the use of a stick as a lever for lifting weights , branches with a forked end (which could be designated as a derivative of "two" - as 'double'). The explanation of the relationship of the Latin rex ‘king’, regere ‘to rule’ with the Slavic rězati was possible thanks to the understanding of the priestly functions of the king in ancient society and their connection with sacred, cosmological dimensions, which were carried out, in particular, by features, incisions.

A necessary working technique in etymology is the reconstruction of the form and / or meaning that historically preceded the attested ones, i.e., the restoration on the basis of the attested lexemes of their original, primary forms and meanings. The time interval between the fixed word and the reconstruction can be different; chronological characteristics of reconstructions for different lexemes are also different, different languages(many words are the result of word formation in the 20th century). The presence of this interval makes the results of etymological analysis hypothetical even with the strictest observance of all the requirements of the methodology, but the hypothetical nature, which brings etymology closer to many historical disciplines, does not reduce the cognitive significance of its achievements.

Etymology is closely related to: dialect data are important for resolving the issue of the origin of many words of the literary language. So, the formation of the word “joint” from the verb “put” is argued by the dialectal usage “put out (arm, leg or finger)” ‘dislocate’. The dialect vocabulary retains many ancient lexemes that have been lost literary language(cf. Russian dialect “bagno” ‘mud, swamp’, ‘nav’ ‘dead man’, ‘vir’ ‘whirlpool’, which have correspondences in other Slavic languages ​​and in Indo-European languages, but have not been preserved in literary Russian).

The etymology has great importance for the development of historical in general and for comparative historical grammar, for which etymology plays the role of the basis and source of new materials that confirm already established patterns and reveal unexplored phenomena in the history of the language. Since etymology is available at chronological levels unattainable for written history, it serves, along with archeology, as an important tool for studying the history of human society.

The etymology originated in ancient Greece (Plato, dialogue "Cratylus"). Here the term itself appeared, attributed to. But ancient etymology was alien to the scientific understanding of the patterns of changes in the language and the symbolic nature of the language. The anti-historicity and arbitrariness of interpretations bring this stage in the history of etymology closer to the so-called folk etymology - the transformation of words in the direction of their convergence with other words that seem (due to the similarity of meanings, or form, or various associations) related (for example, "myopic" arose from "near-sighted", cf. among the Stoics, the convergence of the Latin crux ' cross' with crus 'foot'). The principles of ancient etymology were preserved in the Middle Ages. Scientific etymology arose simultaneously with. The establishment of sound correspondences between the Indo-European languages ​​and the corresponding ones that underlie comparative historical linguistics was the result of a comparison of the lexemes of these languages ​​and the development of a hypothesis about their relationship, i.e., a consequence of etymological operations. In turn, phonetic and other laws and regularities became the methodological foundation for etymology. The first theoretical presentation of etymology as a science belongs to A.F. Pott (“Etymological studies in the field of Indo-Germanic languages”, vols. 1-2, 1833-36). Important stages in the history of etymology are the recognition of the significance of dialects and the mastery of methods (J. Gillieron), the study of the specifics of changes in meanings and the analysis of vocabulary by semantic fields (J. Trier), attention to the connection of semantics with realities (the direction “Words and things”, which put forward the principles of studying vocabulary in connection with the culture and history of the people; R. Mehringer, W. Meyer-Lübke, G. Schuchardt, W. von Wartburg), an appeal to the historical changes experienced by the primary form and meaning of the word, i.e. to the history of the word (etymology as a biography of the word as opposed to understanding the etymology as the origin of the word; Schuhardt, Gillieron). The development of etymology in the 20th century. marked by the use of structural principles in etymological studies (analysis of vocabulary by groups - semantic, root, affixal, lexico-grammatical, taking into account various principles of organizing systems - oppositions, associations, etc.; E. Benveniste, G. Jacobsson, V. V. Martynov, A. S. Melnichuk), the desire to reconstruct the original words (and not just the roots), attention to irregular language changes, especially relevant for etymology due to the individual history of each word (V. Mahek, S. Ondrush and other representatives of the Czechoslovak etymological school ; however, the recognition of irregular changes in etymology remained subordinate to the concept of the determining role of phonetic laws - O. Semerenya, J. Malkiel, O. N. Trubachev), the development of problems of the relationship of etymology and other areas of linguistics, especially comparative grammar, as well as the orientation of etymological studies to grammatical problems (Malkiel, F. Slavsky), deepening the sociological aspect of etymological research, i.e., the connection between the study of the origin of vocabulary and the history of society, its spiritual and material culture (Benveniste, Trubachev, V. N. Toporov, Vyach. Vs. Ivanov, V. I. Abaev).

Second half of the 20th century characterized by the expansion of etymological research, the development of new methodological principles and new lexical materials, which resulted in the creation of numerous etymological dictionaries. An important milestone in the development of etymology as a science is the creation of etymological dictionaries of the Slavic languages, focused on the reconstruction and etymologization of the Proto-Slavic lexical fund (Slavsky, Trubachev) and served as the basis for the emergence of lexicology and the Proto-Slavic language.

The most important etymological dictionaries:

• Abaev V. I., Historical and etymological dictionary of the Ossetian language, vol. 1-3, M.-L., 1958-79;
• Bulgarian etymological riverman, vol. 1-3, Sofia, 1962-86(ed. ongoing);
• Klimov G. A., Etymological dictionary of Kartvelian languages, M., 1964;
• Lytkin IN AND., Gulyaev E. S., Brief etymological dictionary of the Komi language, M., 1970;
• Acharyan R., Etymological Root Dictionary of the Armenian Language, vols. 1-4, Er., 1971-79 (in Armenian);
• Illich-Svitych V. M., Experience in comparing Nostratic languages, [vol. 1-3], M., 1971-1984;
• Etymological dictionary of Slavic languages, ed. O. N. Trubacheva, vol. 1-15, M., 1974-88;
• Sevortyan E. V., Etymological dictionary of Turkic languages, vols. 1-3, M., 1974-80 (ed. continues);
• Comparative dictionary of the Tungus-Manchu languages ​​(materials for the etymological dictionary), otv. ed. V. I. Tsintsius, vol. 1-2, L., 1975-77;
• Axes V.N., Prussian language. Dictionary, [i.e. 1-4]. M., 1975-84 (ed. continues);
• Shagirov A. K., Etymological dictionary of the Adyghe (Circassian) languages, vol. 1-2, M., 1977;
• Etymalagіchny sloўnik of the Belarusian language, ed. V. Ў. Martynaў, vol. 1-4. Minsk, 1978-88(ed. ongoing);
• Etymological Dictionary of Ukrainian Language, ch. ed. O. S. Melnichuk, vol. 1-2, Kiev, 1982-85(ed. ongoing);
• Vasmer M., Etymological dictionary of the Russian language, trans. with him. and additions by O. N. Trubachev, 2nd ed., vols. 1-4. M., 1986-1987;
• Miklosich F., Etymologisches Wörterbuch der slavischen Sprachen, W., 1886(reprinted, Amst., 1970);
• Meyer G., Etymologisches Wörterbuch der albanesischen Sprache, Straßburg, 1891;
• Stokes W., Bezzenberger A., Wortschatz der keltischen Spracheinheit, 4 Aufl., Gött., 1894;
• Falk H., Torp A., Wortschatz der germanischen Spracheinheit, Gott., 1909;
• their own, Norwegisch-Dänisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, v. 1-2, Hdlb., 1910-11;
• Meyer-Lubke W., Romanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 3 Aufl., Hdlb., 1935;
• hellquist E., Svensk etymologisk ordbok, v. 1-2, Lund, 1948;
• Bloch Oh, Wartburg W., Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue française, 2 ed., P., 1950;
• Slawski F., Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego, t. 1-5, Krakow, 1952-77(ed. ongoing);
• Skeat W. W., An etymological dictionary of the English language, Oxf., 1953;
• Mayrhofer M., Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen, Bd 1-4, Hdlb., 1956-80;
• Pokorny J., Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1-2, Bern-Münch., 1959-65;
• Frisk H., Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1-3, Hdlb., 1954-72;
• Fraenkel E., Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1-2, Hdlb. - Gott., 1955-1965;
• Kluge F., Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache, 19 Aufl., B., 1963;
• Walde A., Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1-3, 4 Aufl., Hdlb., 1965;
• Machek V., Etymologický slovník jazyka českého, 2 vyd., Praha, 1968;
• Rasanen M., Versuch eines etymologischen Wörterbuchs der Türksprachen, Hels., 1969;
• Skok P., Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga or srpskoga jezika, t. 1-4. Zagreb, 1971-74;
• Etymologický slovník slovanských jazyků. Slova grammarka a zajmena, Sest. F. Kopečny, V. Šaur, V. Polák, t. 1-2, Prague, 1973-80;
• Słownik prasłowianski, pod red. F. Sławskiego, t. 1-5, Wrocław-, 1974-84;
• windekens A.J. van, Le tokharien confronté avec les autres langues indo-européennes, v. 1, Louvain, 1976;
• Bezlaj F., Etimološki slovar slovenskega jezika, t. 1-2, Ljubljana, 1976-82(ed. ongoing);
• Tischler J., Hethitisches etymologisches Glossar, Bd 1-2, Innsbruck, 1977-79(ed. continues).

• Pisani V., Etymology, trans. from Italian, M., 1956;
• Etymological studies on the Russian language, c. 1-9, M., 1960-81 (ed. ongoing);
• Etymology (yearbook), M., 1963-;
• Malkiel Y., Etymological dictionaries. A tentative typology, Chi., 1976;
• Etymology, hrsg. von R. Schmitt, Darmstadt, 1977;
• Pfister M., Einführung in die romanische Etymologie, Darmstadt, 1980;
• Erhart A., Vecerka R., Úvod do etymologie, Praha, .

J. J. Warbot.

Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. 1990 .

Synonyms:

See what "Etymology" is in other dictionaries:

ETYMOLOGY- (Greek etymos correct, logos speech). The part of grammar that deals with word production. Vocabulary foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. ETYMOLOGY [gr. etymologia Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

The section is very easy to use. In the proposed field, just enter the desired word, and we will give you a list of its meanings. I would like to note that our site provides data from various sources - encyclopedic, explanatory, word-building dictionaries. Here you can also get acquainted with examples of the use of the word you entered.

To find

The meaning of the word etymology

etymology in the crossword dictionary

Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Vladimir Dal

etymology

well. Greek word production, corneology, the doctrine of the formation of one word from another. -gical dictionary indicating the roots, origin of words, derivational. Etymologist, scholar in this field. Etymology is a conversation with the past, with the thoughts of past generations minted by them from sounds, Khomyakov.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

etymology

etymology, g. (from Greek etymos - true and logos - teaching) (lingu.).

only ed. Department of linguistics that studies the origin of words. Etudes on Russian etymology.

The very origin of a word. This word has an unclear etymology. Establish the etymology of some. the words. The etymology of the word "telephone" is Greek.

only ed. Grammar without syntax (i.e., the doctrine of sounds, parts of speech and word forms), advantages. as a subject of school teaching (obsolete). Folk etymology (lingu.) - alteration of an incomprehensible (for example, borrowed) word, explained by the need to bring it closer in sound likeness to some kind of. from familiar words and thus comprehend it, for example. "buyer" vm. "speculator" under the influence of "buy"; it's just a modified word.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova.

etymology

The origin of a particular word or expression. Determine the etymology of the word. * Folk etymology (special) - alteration of a borrowed word according to the model of a similar-sounding word mother tongue based on the association of meanings (eg Leskov: small scope instead of microscope).

adj. etymological, -th, -th. E. dictionary.

New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

etymology

The branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words.

The origin of a word or expression in terms of its relationship with other words or expressions in the given and other languages.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

etymology

ETYMOLOGY (from the Greek etymon - truth, the true meaning of the word and ... logic)

the origin of a word or morpheme.

A branch of linguistics that deals with the study of the original word-formation structure of a word and the identification of elements of its ancient meaning.

Etymology

(Greek etymología, from étymon ≈ the true meaning of the word, etymon and lógos ≈ word, doctrine), a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words, their initial structure and semantic connections. Term introduced ancient philosophers more than 2 thousand years ago. E. in broad sense words ≈ reconstruction of the sound and word-formation composition of the word; in addition to the relationship of sounds and the identity of morphemes, it reveals the selectivity of the combination of morphemes in certain word-formation models. E. is also called the result of disclosing the origin of the word. Etymological research is characterized by a multiplicity of possible solutions; problematic, hypothetical. E. is a special case of the manifestation of the hypothetical nature of the constructions of an explanatory science, in contrast to the descriptive sciences. The foundations of scientific linguistics are connected with comparative historical linguistics. The E. of those languages ​​that have been more fully studied in comparative historical terms (Indo-European, Finno-Ugric) has reached the greatest development. Folk (or false) E. refers to cases of secondary etymological comprehension, the attraction of words that originally had a different origin.

Lit .: Pisani V., Etymology, trans. from Italian, M., 1956; Toporov V.N., On some theoretical foundations of etymological analysis, "Issues of Linguistics", 1960, ╧3; Trubachev O. N., The task of etymological research in the field of Slavic languages, "Brief reports of the Institute of Slavic Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR", 1961, c, 33≈34; Etymology, Hrsg. von R. Schmitt, Darmstadt, 1977.

O. N. Trubachev.

Wikipedia

Etymology

Etymology- a section of linguistics (comparative historical linguistics) that studies the origin of words (and less often morphemes). And also - the research methodology used in identifying the history of the origin of the word and the very result of such discovery. Also, etymology can be understood as the very origin of the word (for example, “at the word notebook Greek etymology", "offer a more convincing etymology", that is, the version of origin - directly etymon).

The term "etymology" originated among the ancient Greek Stoic philosophers and, according to the later testimonies of Diogenes Laertes, is attributed to Chrysippus (281/278-208/205 BC). Until the 19th century, the term "etymology" in linguistics could be used in the sense of "grammar". Initially, among the ancients - the doctrine of the "true" meaning of the word (see Isidore of Seville (c. 560-636) - encyclopedia "Etymology": en: Etymologiae).

Examples of the use of the word etymology in literature.

Days devoted to wasted labor - forget about the age of one of the many poets southern mainland to whom fate or the constellations sent flesh that did not give offspring, and blindness - prison and twilight, and old age, the morning of approaching death, and glory that does not cost a penny, and the ability to weave all the same pentameter, and ingrained tenderness for dictionaries, miniature painstaking maps, chiseled bones, childish yearning for centuries-old Latin and fragments of the landscapes of Edinburgh and Geneva, and forgetting names and dates, and the cult of a single East, alien to the peoples of the many-sided East, and the expectation of hopes that have come true, and false moves etymology, and the steel of Saxon forged consonances, and every evening new moon and this city a bad habit, and the taste of raisins and plain water and chocolate and Mexican sweets, coins and hourglasses, so that tonight he was one of many to put up with a handful of those words again.

And all her nasty, weak, unstable character - she always gives in at the decisive moment, and she is not able to seriously get carried away by conchology, etymology, botany, archaeology, cut into pieces potato tubers and monitor its fruitfulness, like Mary Dennis, like Violet Searle.

Vostokov owns the preparation of the theoretical and material base for subsequent research in the field of historical word formation, lexicology, etymology and even morphology.

The heartbroken can be saved by a trifle - the slightest distraction of memory or attention: the taste of the fruit, the taste of plain water, the face returned by sleep, the first November jasmine, the compass that does not know weary, the book, the loss of which has already come to terms, the heartbeat of a hexameter, a small key to front door, the smell of books and sandalwood, the old name of the lane, the colors of the geographical map, - a flashing etymology, a neatly trimmed nail, a forgotten date, a midnight chime, or a sudden pain.

Wise etymology in the word itself captured the transience and unreality of the concept.

The contribution of David the Grammar to the classification of principles is especially noticeable. etymology.

Apparently, the meaning of the use of this name, given its etymology, lies in a kind of chosenness, in the exclusivity of the role that Ford's son is trying to take on.

There were a dozen hand-colored illustrations and a dictionary of several hundred names with their meanings, etymology and an explanation of the merits and demerits of each name.

Once he willingly attended meetings where the dictionary was discussed, showed interest in etymology words and to the mysteries of the subjunctive mood.

MBOU Kochunovskaya school

Project

Etymology is the science of the origin of words.

Connection of etymology and toponymy»

I've done the work:

5th grade student

MBOU Kochunovskaya school

Barakhov Maxim.

Supervisor:

teacher of Russian language and literature

Nikishina Elena Petrovna

Kochunovo, 2014.

Content.

1. Introduction.

1) What is etymology.

2) Tasks of etymology.

3) The word is a monument of history.

7) Relationship between etymology and toponymy. Toponyms of the village of Kenshevo.

3. Conclusion. Findings.

4. Resources.

1. Introduction.

The theme of my work: “Etymology is the science of the origin of words. Relationship between etymology and toponymy.

I chose the topic of work on my own, as it seems to me very interesting. In addition, it is little studied in the classroom, and I decided to study it more deeply. Goals of my project:

– Show the significance and relevance of etymology.

Consider the relationship of etymology with other sciences: with vocabulary, word formation, spelling, grammar and toponymy.

Knowledge of etymology helps to develop spelling literacy, expands the vocabulary, and contributes to the development of skills for correct, competent oral and written speech.

I also traced the connection between etymology and toponymy on the examples of toponyms in the village of Kenshevo. This work is very exciting and relevant, has a patriotic character. It was interesting for me to observe how different sciences are interconnected.

2. The science of etymology and its connection with toponymy.

What etymology.

Etymology is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words. Sometimes the very origin of the word is also called: for example, “the word notebook has Greek etymology”, “propose a new etymology”, that is, a version of the origin.

2) Tasks of etymology.

Usually a word etymologyused in two meanings that should not be confused.

When we say, for example, that the etymology of a wordharedoes not cause any particular difficulties, then we mean etymology as establishing the origin of a word. In addition to this, the termetymologyis also used in the sense of "a department of the science of language that studies the origin of words." In practice, this double word usage usually does not cause much difficulty.

ancient greek wordetymologia[etyumology:] is first found in the writings of the ancient Stoic philosophers. The origin of this word, its etymology can be established without any difficulty: Greeketymos[etyumos] means "true, true", andlogos[logos] - "meaning, meaning". Thus, etymology seeks to find the "true meaning" of the word - why we call something this way and not otherwise. The famous Italian linguist V. Pisani in his book "Etymology" wrote that the main task of the etymologist is "to find the meaning of the word at the time of its initial creation." Sometimes in works on etymology this "true meaning" of the word is called the "original" or "original" meaning.

Has every person ever thought about why everything around is called that way and not otherwise? How are words born, when and by whom are they created? Where did fixed expressions come to us in the language, in which you can no longer rearrange and replace a word with another. Etymology is engaged in the search for answers to these questions (translated from Greek, the science of the meaning and origin of words). If you do not know the names, the knowledge of things also disappears. This wisdom has survived the ages. Having become acquainted with the word closer, recognizing it, according to K. Paustovsky “to the touch, taste and smell”, a person will never use it inopportunely. How pleasant it is to talk with a person whose speech is rich, figurative, each word is used both in place and in time. “A lame word is a lame speech,” says a Russian proverb. In order to understand well what is read or seen, so that the speech is not “lame”, but beautiful and expressive, you need to know a lot of words and expressions, constantly expand your vocabulary.

3) The word is a monument of history.

Where does the Motherland begin?.. From the study of the native land, history, native language. How would we know about the past, if the names of what has long sunk into oblivion, the river of oblivion, had not been preserved?

But that which is forever enshrined in the word, the most powerful monument of history, never dies. Is it enough for a person to know the meaning of a word, or is it still useful to look into its history? These are the questions I want to answer. And also consider the history of the emergence of some words of our rich Russian language. And also to show the connection between etymology and toponymy on the example of the toponyms of the native land.

4) The process of changing the meaning of words. Relationship with vocabulary.

Over time, not only the sound appearance often changes, but also its meaning, its meaning. So, the words “shame” and “shame” in the Old Russian language had the meaning of “spectacle”, that is, literally: “what is presented to the eye.” We find the same ancient meaning in such ancient Russian words as “shameful” - “witness , eyewitness ", etc. The outdated meaning of the word "shame", that is, "spectacle", is also found among poets of the 19th century:

Majestic and sad was a disgrace

Desert waters, forests, valleys and mountains.

The key to understanding how the ancient meaning of “spectacle” of the word “shame” develops into its modern meaning can be the ancient custom of putting the criminal at the pillory, that is, on public display.

There were also cave etymologies. One must think that even in that remote era that dates back to the childhood of mankind, in the era when our ancestors still lived in caves and hunted mammoths, in the mind primitive people the first glimpses of interest in etymology were already appearing. After all, already at the very dawn of the history of human society, people used language. No matter how primitive the language was at the first stages of its development, it was still a language in which there were certain connections between words. And this language had to gradually develop, and it was constantly replenished with new words. And in the process of word creation, a person involuntarily relied on those patterns that were characteristic of the language. In other words, ancient man he was practically forced to resort to some kind of methods of etymological analysis, to establish etymological connections between words on the basis of available samples.

Probably, already in ancient times, people thought about the origin of individual words, as they thought about the origin of the Sun and Moon, the Earth and man. We do not have direct evidence of this, since in that distant era people did not write etymological dictionaries, and indeed did not write anything at all. But we have indirect evidence that people from ancient times tried to etymologize words they did not understand. These proofs have been preserved for us by mythology.

Etymology is closely related to vocabulary.The object of study of vocabulary is the word. It is also studied in and . However, if in them words turn out to be a means for studying the grammatical structure and word-formation models and rules of the language, then in lexicology words are studied for the knowledge of the words themselves, as well as the vocabulary of the language (lexicon). As is not just a sum of words, but a certain system of mutually relative and interconnected facts, then lexicology appears as a science not about individual words, but about the lexical system of the language as a whole.

The vocabulary of the language is the most open and mobile area of ​​the language. New words constantly enter it and old ones gradually leave. The growing sphere of human knowledge is primarily fixed in words and their meanings, due to which there are more and more lexical acquisitions in the language. Education, science, Newest technologies, information from other cultures - all this forms a new type modern society(informational), in which a new language style is formed - the style of the era of information development.

The science of etymology tells us about how these lexical acquisitions occur, from where and in what way new words appear. Thanks to this science, we can trace how one word was obtained from several words by merging and in this form it came to us in the Russian language.

For example, in the 19th century, the phrase "NATURA MORTE" was taken from the French language, which meant "Nature is dead." It came into the Russian language as the familiar word "Still Life".

And from Italian came the expression "POMI DORO" - which means "Golden Apple". Us this word is known as "Tomato". It appeared by merging two roots.

5) Etymological dictionaries. Max Vasmer.

There are special dictionaries. They are called etymological dictionaries.Etymological dictionaryis a dictionary containing information about the history of individual words, and sometimes morphemes, that is, information about the phonetic and semantic changes that they have undergone. The most famous etymological dictionary is M. Vasmer's dictionary.Max Julius Friedrich Vasmer (1886-1962) - scientist - linguist, lexicographer, Slavicist Russian origin. Better known as the compiler of the "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language"

6) The origin of some words.

Consider the origin of some words.

The word "stomach"

For example, the word "stomach". This word has two origin stories. The first story tells that the stomach is like ae lunatic in shape. And the second story is that the word stomach came from OEge lim"swallow".

Horizon.

The word "Horizon"borrowed from Greek.ho rizon- "limit".Horizonliterally - "limited" (space).

Dog.

It is an ancient word, borrowed from Turkic. lang. -kö bak.( dog)

ATa rut

Borrowed from German. from the wordWa gene(wagon, trolley)

Road

To pave the road, you need to clear a strip of land from trees, shrubs, turf. Apparently therefore the wordd about horns formed fromd about rg , which meant "cleared place".

Ma lina

There are several explanations for the origin of the wordraspberry . According to one version, the name was based on the sign of a berry fruit, consisting of small parts. Yes, the wordraspberry derived from the wordm a ly - "little".

Pe cash

In the old days, they wrote with goose quills, later with metal ones. To store pens and pencils, people came up with a special box. The name was given to him from the wordfeather . In Latin, the pen is calledP e nna . Therefore, the box was calledpencil case.

To a reta

This word came to us from the Polish language in the middle of the 17th century. In Polish, this word has a Tatin root.CA RRUS(meaning "cart on four wheels")

Nightingale.

The bird is named for the color of its plumage. It came from the common Slavic word "solv" - "gray, yellowish." Then they called it "nightingale".

Conversation.

The word "conversation" in the old meaning "outside, outside" and "seda" - "sitting". That is, its original meaning is "sitting outside in front of the house." It is formed by merging words.

Sofa

The word "sofa" first came to French from Iran. In Persian, "divan" is "an elevated floor covered with a carpet."

A week

The word "week", it turns out, is formed on the basis of the phrase "do not do", and originally "week" meant "a day of rest."

Maybe.

The word "maybe" has been found since the 16th century. in the form of "avose". It arose, most likely, from the indicative particle ose, which meant "here."

String bag.

The word "string bag" appeared in the Russian literary language in the 30s of the XX century. Literally, “string bag” is “a shopping bag that is taken with you in the calculation “maybe you can buy something”. But in some Russian dialects, "string bag" still means "happiness and good luck."

Teacher.

The word "teacher" comes from ancient Greece and literally means "leading the child." But it was not called the teacher, but the slave who took the child to school and brought him back. Usually, slaves were chosen as teachers, unsuitable for any other work, but distinguished by their loyalty to the house.

Conciseness.

The term "conciseness" was formed from the name of the ancient Greek region of Laconia, whose inhabitants were distinguished by laconicism and brevity. The city of Sparta was also located in Laconia.

Leggings.

Leggings used to be worn exclusively by men, it was part of the formal wear. They were originally made from elk skin, hence the name.

Turnip.

Turnip is the most ancient vegetable in Russia. Our ancestors loved both raw, and boiled, and steamed turnips. The turnip dish was quick and very easy to prepare. Since then, the expression "Easier than a steamed turnip" has gone. So they say that it is easy to do.

Mitten.

The word "mitten" is composed of 2 roots: the first root is easy to determine - this is a hand, the second one is known to us in the verb to twist. It turns out that a mitten means "wrapping a hand". Interestingly, in many Slavic languages ​​there is the word "nogavitsa" - the name for special clothing on the leg, that is, "wrap around the leg." And in the monuments of ancient Russian writing, both words are often found - leggings and mittens.

Marry.

Everyone understands the expression "get married." It means "behind the husband's back." But with the bride a little more difficult. This word has such linguistic relatives as "ignoramus". This speaks of an ancient custom: the bride was brought to the matchmaker's house, the groom's relatives did not know anything about her before, they did not know. Often, the groom himself has never seen the chosen one before the matchmaking. The bride is a stranger, unknown. "Bride" - who knows who and who knows where... Such an echo in the language was left by ancient traditions, forgotten almost everywhere today. But the word remains.

School.

The word "school" originally originated in ancient Greece, but its meaning was completely different - "leisure, recreation." However, this leisure was not idle - it meant philosophical conversations in his spare time.
time.

7) Relationship between etymology and toponymy. Toponymy of the village of Kenshevo.

The science of etymology is very closely related to another science - toponymy. Toponymy studies the names of settlements, streets, mountains, forests, etc.

I collected a small amount of material on the toponymy of the village of Kenshevo, and on this material I traced the connection between two sciences: etymology and toponymy. So, let's start with the origin of the streets of the village of Kenshevo.

Streets of the village of Kenshevo.

Nagornaya - located on a mountain. It's always been called that.

Podgornaya - located under the mountain. It's always been called that.

Dam - located behind the pond. It used to be called that.

Green glade - there is a glade near each house. It used to be called that.

Karabakh - probably from the name "Nagorno-Karabakh" (a village in the eastern part of the Armenian Highlands, in Transcaucasia). Previously, the street was called Youth. And now Molodezhnaya is written in passports, and the villagers call it Karabakh. Probably due to the fact that this street is located at the top, as if on a highland.

The arrow is at the crossroads. It's always been called that.

Novaya Sloboda - this street appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, which is why it was called Novaya Sloboda. In the "Explanatory Dictionary" of Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl, the word "sloboda" means "village of free people"

The next object of my research is forests.

Forests.

Straight forest - the forest is located on a straight terrain, without meanders and turns.
Maidan - this forest is located towards Inkin, on a hill. In the dictionary of Vladimir Ivanovich Dal, the words “maidan” means “a square, a place where swindlers gather to play dice, grain, toss, cards.
Goose - this forest includes several forests located one after another. If you look at the forest from afar, then a picture is created that looks like a flock of geese following each other, that is, “in single file”.

I will say a few words about the ponds, wells and springs of our village.

Ponds.

"Under the store" - the name itself speaks for itself. This pond is located under the store, but not literally, but figuratively - not far from the store, just below it. There are expressions in Russian: “near Moscow”, “near Nizhny Novgorod”. They mean "to be near something".

"New ravine" - this pond was created artificially and relatively recently, in the 20th century. That is why it is called New ravine. And the word "ravine" means "depression dug in the ground"

Wells.

Novikov well - the well was located next to the Novikovs' house.

3 more wells are named after the names of the families: Bezzubov Well, Ponin's Well, Pyshkin's Well. They operate even now.

Springs .

"Under the red clay" - the name speaks for itself.

"Barsky meadow" - the spring is located on a green meadow. The word "Barsky" comes from the word "master". This gentleman lived above the spring, on a hill. As the elderly residents of the village say, “this place was especially revered by the people. People came here to pray, to thank God for the pure wonderful water. Also, mass festivities were held here, where people had fun, played, danced, arranged fisticuffs.

Thus, I tried to conduct a small study on the relationship between two sciences: etymology and toponymy. Worked with local history and linguistic material. Learned a lot of new and interesting things.

3. Conclusion. Findings.

Etymology is a very interesting and important science. It helps to better understand the lexical meaning of the word, its structure, and most importantly, teaches the correct spelling of the word. After allwriting words with unchecked vowels and consonants is difficult for many, since they need to be mostly memorized. But you can find interesting way checking these words. It turns out that not all unverifiable unstressed vowels are unverifiable. You can not memorize the spelling of dictionary words, but use the method of selecting test words by looking into the etymological dictionary. It's much more interesting.

In addition, etymology is closely related to another very fascinating science - toponymy. In my work, I tried to trace this connection using the toponyms of my native village of Kenshevo as an example.

The work done on the project gave me a lot. I learned to use various dictionaries, scientific style books more correctly and efficiently, learned new terms and concepts, new local history material. The work on collecting and designing the toponymy of the village of Kenshevo gave me the opportunity to learn more about the history of my native land, taught me to compare sciences, and conduct a research analysis of linguistic phenomena.

I chose the theme of my project myself, as it is very interesting to me.

4. Resources.

1. Vasmer Max. Etymological dictionary of the Russian languagehttp

5th grade student project review

MBOU Kochunovskaya secondary school Barakhov Maxim.

The theme of Maxim Barakhov's project is: “Etymology is the science of the origin of words. Relationship between etymology and toponymy. This topic is fully disclosed by the author on a rich illustrative linguistic and local history material.

Maxim gave an explanation of the concept of "etymology", which she studies, how it is connected with other sciences: vocabulary, spelling, grammar, word formation and toponymy. The author of the project gave many examples demonstrating the process of the origin of words. He showed how this material can be applied in the classroom when completing assignments in the Russian language.

In addition, Maxim expanded the scope of the topic being studied. He drew a parallel between etymology and toponymy. To do this, he collected local history material and skillfully examined it in his work.

In the work done, he showed independence and great personal interest. The topic is close and understandable to the author, he independently made observations on linguistic and local history material, proved the connection of several sciences. This is especially commendable in this project.

The work is written in the correct literary language. Logically completed and thought out. The project reflects all the themes and micro-themes stated in the content of the project.

The composition of the work is logically built correctly, one problem follows from another. All topics are related to each other.

This is the relevance and significance of the work done by the author for himself, as well as for the audience.

I think that the work of the 5th grade student Maksim Barakhov deserves praise and can be rated as "excellent".

internal form of the word.

A.A. Potebnya highlights in the word three constituent elements:

1) external form(sound);

2) value;

3) the internal form of the word (its image)

Internal word form- this is a semantic and structural motivation by another word or basis on the basis of which it arose; hallmark, which is the basis of the nomination in the formation of a word or its new lexical meaning; the sign that prevailed over all other signs of the object when it was named.

The word is characterized by the inseparable connection of its external form (sound shell) and internal (meaning).

The motivation of a word is the preservation in its semantic structure of the connection between sound and meaning, i.e. a kind of substantiation of the sound image of the word, realized by native speakers, a visual "image" of the meaning of the word (words - window sill, Friday, snowdrop)

The unmotivated word is the absence in the semantic structure of the word of the connection between sound and meaning, i.e. this connection is “erased” over time and is no longer felt by the speaker (house, table, window)

Motivational signs:

Onomatopoeic (karkusha)

Descriptive (janitor, carpenter)

The internal form of the word, i.e. a distinctive, conspicuous sign that becomes, as it were, a “representative of an object” (tailor from “ports” - clothes)

Two classes of words have an internal form in the language:

1) Derivative words that retain in their word-formation structure an indication of correlation with other words or morphemes from which they are formed (she-wolf, thrush)

2) Words used in a figurative sense (oak - about a stupid person, green - about a young man)

Over time, the word may lose its inner form. Reasons for loss:

Loss in the language of a motivating word or feature that was previously characteristic of the subject;

Phonetic changes that the word has undergone in the process of the historical development of the language;

borrowing processes;

Redundancy, uselessness of his motivation from the moment when the word became familiar.

Etymology is a science that studies the origin of words, reconstructing their primary form and meaning.

Etymology is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words.

Etymology can also be defined as a set of research methods aimed at revealing the origin of a word, as well as the very result of this disclosure.

Principles of etymology.

The subject of etymology as a branch of linguistics is the study of the sources and the process of forming the vocabulary of a language, as well as the reconstruction of the vocabulary of the language of the most ancient period (usually pre-written). In the vocabulary of each language there is a significant fund of words, the relationship of the form of which with the meaning is incomprehensible to native speakers, since the structure of the word cannot be explained on the basis of the word formation models operating in the language. Historical changes in words usually obscure the primary form and meaning of the word, and the symbolic nature of the word determines the difficulty of reconstructing the primary motivation, that is, the connection between the primary form and meaning of the word. The purpose of the etymological analysis of the word is to determine when, in what language, according to what word-formation model, on the basis of what language material, in what form and with what meaning the word arose, as well as what historical changes in its primary form and meaning determined the present form and meaning. .
Reconstruction of the primary form and meaning of the word - in fact, is the subject of etymological analysis.

Etymology is characterized by the complex nature of research methods. The essence of the etymological analysis procedure is the genetic identification of the word in question or its stem with another word or its stem as the original generator, as well as the identification of other structural elements of the word with historically known structural elements and the reconstruction of the primary form and meaning of the word with primary motivation. An indispensable stage of etymological analysis is the removal of later historical changes. The basis of the etymological technique is the comparative historical method of studying various units of the language, which is based on the laws of phonetic changes, morphological changes, etc., which are the subject of study of comparative grammar.

It should be noted that special difficulties in etymological analysis, they provide an explanation of the meanings, their development and the reconstruction of their primary semantics. The basis for semantic analysis in etymological studies is the method of semantic parallels: cases of similar development or combination of meanings are given as proof of the supposed development of meanings. A necessary working technique in etymology is the reconstruction of the form and meaning, historically preceding the attested ones, that is, the restoration on its basis of the attested lexemes and their primary forms and meanings.

Relationship of etymology with other sciences

Etymology is closely related to dialectology, since dialect data are important for resolving the issue of the origin of many words of the literary language. Also, etymology is of great importance for the development of historical lexicology in general and for comparative historical grammar, for which it plays the role of the basis and source of new materials that confirm already established patterns and reveal unexplored phenomena in the history of the language. Since etymology is available at chronological levels unattainable for written history, it serves, along with archeology, as an important tool for studying the history of human society.

Etymological dictionaries

The material of etymological dictionaries not only gives an idea of ​​how, in what language this or that word arose, what path it went in its development, in what languages ​​it is recorded, in what form and with what meaning, but also allows you to determine which words are more common. of all have an indisputable, the only true etymology, and some are hypothetical.
Etymological dictionaries differ not only in purpose, but also in vocabulary. As a rule, the work of tens or even hundreds of scientists is invested in them.

Folk etymology- a false etymology, a lexical association arising under the influence of vernacular, but later also perceived by the classical literary language.

1. Alteration and rethinking of a borrowed (rarely native) word following the model of a word close to it in sound in the native language, but which differs from it in origin. For example: “semi-clinic” instead of “polyclinic”, “melkoskop” instead of “microscope”, “mukhlyazh” instead of “dummy”, “gulvar” instead of “boulevard” (comparison with the verb “to walk”), “semi-garden” instead of “front garden”, "palisade" (French) palissade- palisade, wooden fence, fence, hedge), “buyer” instead of “speculator” (comparison with the verb “buy up”), etc. An example of rethinking is the combination “raspberry ringing” (meaning “pleasant, harmonious ringing of bells”), associated with the name of the berry. In fact, it goes back to the name of the Belgian city of Malin (Mechelen), where the old cathedral is located, in which there is a special school of ringers, a kind of "Malin" musicians on the bells. "Prihvatization" (from privatization + grab), "my crook" (from the program "my housing").

2. An explanation of the origin of words that does not correspond to their actual history. Unlike scientific etymology, folk etymology is based not on the laws of language development, but on the random similarity of words. An example is the word “kipish”, often used in youth slang, meaning vanity, disorder, scandal. It comes from Hebrew and, accordingly, has nothing to do with boiling from an etymological point of view.

3. Interest in etymology is manifested both in adults and in children, and etymologization is a favorite pastime of people who have little understanding of the laws of language development. On the contrary, linguists, understanding the complexity of finding out the correct etymologies, approach this very carefully. For an unprepared person, any accidental consonance can be a reason for the convergence of words and an explanation of their origin, while words that are not very consonant are left without attention by such "etymologists". On the contrary, a linguist can rely only on the regular sound correspondences of different languages ​​and different stages the development of one language (for which you need to know the phonetic laws, the grammatical structure of words and its changes) and the regular correlation of meanings. What seems obvious to a non-specialist is often questioned by a linguist, and, conversely, an incredible comparison from the point of view of a non-linguist, a representative of linguistic science can convincingly prove and explain.

4. 1 Etymology - from Greek etymologia from etymon-"truth" and logos-"word", "teaching"; in Russian the word etymology has two meanings: "the very origin of words" and "the study of the origin of words."

6. N. Ya. Marr tried to explain the origin of the Russian word dust from tribal name Sumerian 1 , decomposing Russian word on the twilight (Sumerian) and -ki; everything here is unbelievable and contradicts reality: the word dust morphologically divided into prefix su - (from the ancient hedgehog with a nasal vowel [o%], cf. spouse, snowdrift, confusion, sandy loam etc.), root -merk- (cf. fade) and flexion -and; Marr's part -ki- - nonsense, impossible historically, because to belongs to the root; Russian with never out w did not happen (on the contrary, w in some cases came from with + j, cf. bite - bitten, wear - a burden etc.); in addition, the Sumerians never had anything to do with the Slavs and their language, and the word dust the meaning is quite clear: "the state of the day, close to fading" (su- means "position near, near"; judge -"lateral flow of water in the river", sandy loam -"soil next to sand", etc.).

7. 1 Sumerians - ancient population between the Tigris and Euphrates.

9. It seems to any Russian speaker that the word umbrella came from the word umbrella, as table - from table, mouth from mouth etc. You can build the following proportion: mouth: mouth = umbrella: umbrella. However, the word umbrella does not come from the word umbrella, but, on the contrary, umbrella derived from umbrella. Word umbrella appeared under Peter I, and umbrella - later, because umbrella - is a learned Dutch word zonnedeck- literally "sun cover", where in the Russian transmission h, o, n, k match the original, but weak e Germanic languages ​​(murmel- e 1) disappeared, in place d original in Russian t (which is quite understandable if you know the ratio of Germanic and Slavic voiced consonants), and e in the last syllable was replaced by and, which is again understandable, given that unstressed e and and in the Russian literary language coincide, and, for example, what is in the word knife you have to write e, but in the word boy - and, we define by what e in the declension "falls out": knife(fluent vowel), and and saved: boy; in a new word umbrella the vowel did not drop out, and then, therefore, this and, and the end of the word was rethought by analogy with the words table, mouth etc. as a diminutive suffix -ik. Then the stem without this suffix is ​​a non-diminutive form, from which the “fantastic word” arose. umbrella in proportion: table: table = umbrella: X, a X = umbrella.

10. 1 See Ch. III - "Phonetics", § 31

12. To those who do not know the sound correspondences of related languages, it seems that the Russian word Chief and Polish naczelnik-“boss” is the same word in origin, but this is not true. If these were words from the same root, then in the Polish word after cz should be a nasal vowel, since Russian Chief the same root as Start, and had a root cha- with a nasal vowel [e%]; the Polish word comes from the same root as czolo-"forehead", cf. Old Russian and Church Slavonic forehead 1 .

13. 1 See: Bulakhovsky L. A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1953. Part II. S. 163.

15. On the other hand, the comparison of the German word, which seems impossible to a non-linguist elephant[elephant] - "elephant" and Russian camel, where it is difficult to talk about “consonance”, the linguist undertakes to reduce it to one source and prove that it is the same word in origin.

16. German elephant from French elephant[elephã], which goes back to the Latin elephantus[elephanthus] with the same meaning, in Latin - from Greek elephas, in oblique cases stem elephant= modern Russian camel, from an earlier camel, and even earlier wellblood(cf. Polish wielblqd), in which the second l arose under the influence bloody- “wander”, i.e. once there was a velbad, which2 comes from the Gothic ulbandus with the same meaning; gothic ulbandus from Latin elephantus, which comes from the Greek elephantos, in Greek, this word is obviously from Arabic alephas, which, perhaps, in turn comes from ancient Egyptian 1 . Thus, the later absence of "consonance" is reduced in accordance with the laws of sound changes to the former not only consonance, but also sound identity. There remains one more difficulty - meaning; but, knowing the transitions by function, one can simply explain that initially this word meant “elephant”, later “camel” appeared in the same function (“heavy truck”), and the old name was transferred to it; with the meaning of “elephant”, this word was preserved in late Latin and from there it entered the Western European languages, and with the meaning of “camel”, having survived the indicated phonetic changes, it came to Slavic languages ​​through the ready.

17. 1 See: Preobrazhensky A. G. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language.

19. To understand the etymology of the exclamation guard! you need to match it with the name of the guard guard 1 , what came from the Turkic languages, where it was a combination imperative mood and direct object with the meaning "protect the village" - kara avyl. Word trolleybus borrowed from in English, where trolley means "wire", a -bus- end of word omnibus-"omnibus" from Latin pronoun omnes-"all" in the dative case; This -bus“broke off” and became, as it were, a suffix in the names of modes of transport: omnibus, bus, trolleybus 2 .

20.1 Wed. guard of honor, commander of the guard etc.

21. 2 Wed . comic toptobus -"method of walking", where is it -bus attached to a native root.

23. But for correct etymologization, only linguistic knowledge is often not enough, especially when metonymy is involved in the changes, based not on the connection of concepts, but on the connection of things. Then the historian comes to the aid of the linguist. The linguist can explain what the word shabby comes from the word meal -"lunch", "meal", derived from the Greek trapedza-"table", but why it means "mean", "second-rate", when they change into a clean dress for dinner, remains incomprehensible. The historian explains that shabby does not come directly from the word meal, but from the word shabby or shabby -"cheap mottled fabric", made by a manufacturer named Zatrapeznov 1 .

24. 1 See: Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language; Ed. D. N. Ushakova. T. 1. S. 1957.

26. Or another example: a linguist can explain that verbs cheat and podkuzmit - synonyms, both meaning "to cheat" and are formed from proper names Egor and Kuzma, which come from the Greek Georgios from a common noun georgos-"farmer" and Kosma from the verb kosmeo-"I decorate" (of the same root as space, cosmetics). However, why is it cheat and bite mean "cheat" remains unclear, and the linguist is powerless to explain anything further. A historian comes to the rescue and explains that the point is not in the names themselves, but in Egoriev and Kuzmina day, when, before the introduction of serfdom in Russia, peasants could move from master to master and dressed up in the spring Egoria, and the calculation was received on Kuzma(in autumn), the headman strove to cheat them twice: on April 23 at Egory cheat, and on November 1 to Kuzma and bite 1 .

27. 1 On the ways and methods of correct etymology, see: Bulakhovsky L. A. Introduction to linguistics, 1953. Part II. Ch. IV - "Etymology". S. 160, especially p. 166–167 (etymology of the word millet).

29. Etymologization according to the first consonance that comes across, without taking into account phonetic laws, ways of transferring meanings and grammatical composition and its changes, and rethinking an unknown or obscure word by chance resemblance to a more well-known and understandable one (often associated with the alteration of the sound form of the word) is called folklore in linguistics etymology2.

30. So, one who thinks that village because it's called that village houses are built of wood (and urban ones are made of stone), produces a folk etymology. Actually village to tree has nothing to do with it. In the meaning of "village" the word village it began to be used late, earlier it meant “yard”, even earlier - “arable field” (cf. in “Domostroy”, XVI century “plow the village”) and, finally, in the most ancient monuments - “cleared from the forest (i.e. i.e. just from the trees!) a place for a field”; this is compared with the Lithuanian dirva1-"field" and Sanskrit durva-“kind of millet”, which, obviously, is the most ancient meaning of this root (“cornfield” is already a metonymy). Russian word wood compared with Lithuanian derva1-"pine", with Breton deruenn-"oak", etc. (Russian wood - synecdoche: genus by species).

31. Folk etymologies are most often obtained by borrowing foreign words. So, roast beef from English roast beef-"fried meat" is colloquially reinterpreted as smashing from smash; Workbench from German Werkstatt(in line with make up, make out); german Schraubzwinge-"screw clamp" becomes clamp(in line with trumpet); Schaumlo#ffel(literally: "foam spoon"; cf. French e2cumier from e2site -"foam") - in slotted spoon(in line with noise, make noise since the soup is noisy when it boils 1); French sale-"dirty" was the source for the formation of the adjective sebaceous(rethought through consonance with the word salo); native Russian Morovei (cf. discordant Church Slavonic ant) in tune with ant turned into ant; the words cooperative and capital earlier in the village were rethought as cupirative(where buy possible) and capital (to save money) 2 .

32.1 Wed. in Ukrainian noise -"foam on the soup".

33.2 The correct etymology of these words leads to Latin opus, operas"case", cooperare -"to do together" (of the same root and the word opera literally: "delá") and carut, capitis -"head", capitalis-"principal, main" (cf. overhaul); comes from the same source jump down where with inserted in consonance with the word cabbage(cf. kaput -"end", "dead").

35. During the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945 colloquially called a trip card rail(“it is given when rails you are going"); at the same time, a milkmaid told me that her husband soloist, and to the question “What ensemble is he in?” answered in bewilderment: “No, I have it for cabbage, but before it was for cucumbers” (according to the consonance soloist from Italian solista, in turn from Latin solus-"one" and the Russian verb salt). But there can be rethinking of words from their roots, if their meaning is obscured; for example, we now understand the words witness, humility as formed from roots view(s) and the world(s), but this is the same rethinking according to the consonance of unstressed e and and, since etymologically these words go back to the roots lead (at) and measure).

36. The last example shows that in those cases when one or another folk etymology wins and becomes generally accepted, the word breaks with the former "legitimate" etymology and begins to live new life in the circle of "new relatives", and then only the researcher may be interested in true etymology, since in practice it contradicts modern understanding. On this basis, sometimes one word can split into two parallel ones, for example, the word ordinary(from Latin ordinarius-"ordinary", "ordinary" ordo, ordinis -"row") in relation to matter has become single(in line with one): "single matter" (as opposed to double), a word ordinary remained in the meaning of "ordinary": ordinary happening, ordinary professor (before the revolution) as opposed to extraordinary.

37. Since the phenomenon of folk etymology is especially common among people who have not mastered literary speech enough, such words rethought by accidental consonance and semantic convergence can be a vivid sign of vernacular; cf. from N. S. Leskov: governess (governess) and nanny), gulvar (boulevard and walk), beliefs (variations and probable), melkoscope (microscope and small): sometimes such folk etymologies acquire great satirical expressiveness, for example: tugament (document and tight, grieve), slander (feuilleton and slander), as well as mimonoska, multiplication doll etc.

Etymology is characterized by the complex nature of research methods. The essence of the procedure of etymology, analysis: the genetic identification of the considered word or its stem with another word or its stem as the original, producing, as well as the identification of other structural elements of the word with historically known structural elements and the reconstruction of the primary form and meaning of the word with primary motivation; an indispensable stage of etymological analysis is the removal of later historical changes. The basis of the etymological methodology is the comparative historical method of studying various units of the language, which is based on the laws of phonetic changes, morphonological patterns, patterns of morphological changes, etc., which are the subject of study of comparative grammar. Depending on the nature of the historical changes experienced by the word and its relationship with potential related lexemes, in some cases of etymological analysis, the analysis of various structural elements or the meaning of the word becomes dominant. So, the Russian “tormoshit”, the Ukrainian “thermocity” and the Polish tarmosić, termosić can be interpreted as formations derived from the verb stem ter- “rub, tear” (Russian “rub”), but the analysis of the phonetic differences of these verbs (especially the Russian “sh ” with Ukrainian “s” and Polish s') convinces that only Polish tarmosić can be a direct continuation of the ancient derivative verb, while Russian and Ukrainian verbs are borrowed from Polish. When etymologizing the Russian word “bosom”, in order to prove its derivation from the verb “lay down”, the most significant is the possibility of highlighting the root “log-” and the suffix “‑sno” in the word, as evidenced by the structure of the word “lozhesna” 'womb' with the root "log-" and the suffix "-sno".

Particular difficulties in etymological analysis are the explanation of the connection of meanings, the development of meanings, and the reconstruction of the primary semantics of the word. This is due to the diversity and significance of semantic changes (cf. the Russian literary "ditch" and the dialectal Novosibirsk "ditch" 'fence made of dung', the literary "ardent" and the dialectal Vologda "ardently cold" 'very cold', the Russian "transparent" and Czech prozračno 'cloudy'), their connection with extralinguistic realities and the lack of knowledge of the types of semantic changes and the principles of nomination. The basis for semantic analysis in etymological studies is the method of semantic parallels: as evidence of the alleged development of meanings (or the possibility of combining meanings), cases of a similar development (or combination) of meanings are given. So, in confirmation of the belonging of the verb "goggle" (in the combination 'goggle') to the nest "rub" (where meanings like 'tear, tear, peel' are regular), one can indicate the close development of the meaning 'tear' → 'goggle' in German reißen (cf. die Augen reißen 'goggle'). Semantic changes and combinations of meanings are only partly explained by the general patterns of human thinking (such are the changes 'abyss' → 'a lot of something', 'close' → 'soon', 'strong' → 'fast' → 'impudent'). Most of the semantic transitions and combinations of meanings are due to the correlation of realities, the natural and social environment, the material and spiritual culture of native speakers, since the meanings of words reflect the world of realities. The interpretation of semantic changes and the application of the method of semantic parallels should be based on the totality of knowledge about the world around man, about man and human society in their historical development, accumulated by various branches of science, taking into account the historical development of this knowledge. For example, the establishment of the relationship of the Russian “move” with the German Zweig “branch” and its derivative from “two” was carried out thanks to the reconstruction of the verb “move” of the primary meaning of “lift” and the involvement of information from the history of technology about the use of a stick as a lever for lifting weights , branches with a forked end (which could be designated as a derivative of "two" - as 'double'). The explanation of the relationship of the Latin rex ‘king’, regere ‘to rule’ with the Slavic rězati was possible thanks to the understanding of the priestly functions of the king in ancient society and their connection with sacred, cosmological dimensions, which were carried out, in particular, by features, incisions.

A necessary working technique in etymology is the reconstruction of the form and / or meaning that historically preceded the attested ones, i.e., the restoration on the basis of the attested lexemes of their original, primary forms and meanings. The time interval between the fixed word and the reconstruction can be different; the chronological characteristics of reconstructions for different lexemes and different languages ​​are also different (many words are the result of word formation in the 20th century). The presence of this interval makes the results of etymological analysis hypothetical even with the strictest observance of all the requirements of the methodology, but the hypothetical nature, which brings etymology closer to many historical disciplines, does not reduce the cognitive significance of its achievements.

Etymology is closely related to dialectology: dialect data are important for resolving the issue of the origin of many words of the literary language. So, the formation of the word “joint” from the verb “put” is argued by the dialectal usage “put out (arm, leg or finger)” ‘dislocate’. The dialect vocabulary retains many ancient lexemes lost in the literary language (cf. the Russian dialect bagno 'mud, swamp', nav 'dead man', vir 'whirlpool', which have correspondences in other Slavic languages ​​and Indo-European languages, but not preserved in the literary Russian language).

Etymology is of great importance for the development of historical lexicology in general and for comparative historical grammar, for which etymology plays the role of the basis and source of new materials that confirm already established patterns and reveal unexplored phenomena in the history of the language. Since etymology is available at chronological levels unattainable for written history, it serves, along with archeology, as an important tool for studying the history of human society.

The etymology originated in ancient Greece (Plato, dialogue "Cratylus"). Here the term itself, attributed to the Stoics, appeared. But ancient etymology was alien to the scientific understanding of the patterns of changes in the language and the symbolic nature of the language. The anti-historicity and arbitrariness of interpretations bring this stage in the history of etymology closer to the so-called folk etymology - the transformation of words in the direction of their convergence with other words that seem (due to the similarity of meanings, or form, or various associations) related (for example, "myopic" arose from "near-sighted", cf. among the Stoics, the convergence of the Latin crux ' cross' with crus 'foot'). The principles of ancient etymology were preserved in the Middle Ages. Scientific etymology arose simultaneously with comparative historical linguistics. The establishment of sound correspondences of the Indo-European languages ​​and the corresponding phonetic laws underlying comparative historical linguistics was the result of a comparison of the lexemes of these languages ​​and the development of a hypothesis about their relationship, i.e., a consequence of etymological operations. In turn, phonetic and other laws and regularities became the methodological foundation for etymology. The first theoretical presentation of etymology as a science belongs to A.F. Pott (“Etymological studies in the field of Indo-Germanic languages”, vols. 1-2, 1833-36). Important stages in the history of etymology are the recognition of the importance of dialects and the mastery of the methods of linguistic geography (J. Gillieron), the study of the specifics of changes in meanings and the analysis of vocabulary by semantic fields (J. Trier), attention to the connection of semantics with realities (the direction "Words and Things", which put forward principles of studying vocabulary in connection with the culture and history of the people; R. Mehringer, W. Meyer-Lübke, G. Schuchardt, W. von Wartburg), an appeal to historical changes experienced by the primary form and meaning of the word, i.e. to the history of the word (etymology as a biography of a word as opposed to understanding etymology as the origin of a word; Schuhardt, Gillieron). The development of etymology in the 20th century. marked by the use of structural principles in etymological studies (analysis of vocabulary by groups - semantic, root, affixal, lexico-grammatical, taking into account various principles of organizing systems - oppositions, associations, etc.; E. Benveniste, G. Jacobsson, V. V. Martynov, A. S. Melnichuk), the desire to reconstruct the original words (and not just the roots), attention to irregular language changes, especially relevant for etymology due to the individual history of each word (V. Mahek, S. Ondrush and other representatives of the Czechoslovak etymological school However, the recognition of irregular changes remained in etymology subordinate to the concept of the determining role of phonetic laws - O. Semerenya, Ya. Malkiel, O. N. Trubachev), the development of problems of the relationship between etymology and other areas of linguistics, especially comparative grammar, as well as the orientation of etymological studies on grammatical problems (Malkiel, F. Slavsky), the deepening of the sociological aspect of etymological studies, i.e., the connection of study the origin of vocabulary with the history of society, its spiritual and material culture (Benveniste, Trubachev, V. N. Toporov, Vyach. Vs. Ivanov, V. I. Abaev).

Second half of the 20th century characterized by the expansion of etymological research, the development of new methodological principles and new lexical materials, which resulted in the creation of numerous etymological dictionaries. An important stage in the development of etymology as a science is the creation of etymological dictionaries of the Slavic languages, focused on the reconstruction and etymologization of the Proto-Slavic lexical fund (Slavsky, Trubachev) and served as the basis for the emergence of lexicology and lexicography of the Proto-Slavic language.

The most important etymological dictionaries:

• Abaev V. I., Historical and etymological dictionary of the Ossetian language, vol. 1-3, M.-L., 1958-79;
• Bulgarian etymological riverman, vol. 1-3, Sofia, 1962-86(ed. ongoing);
• Klimov G. A., Etymological dictionary of Kartvelian languages, M., 1964;
• Lytkin IN AND., Gulyaev E. S., Brief etymological dictionary of the Komi language, M., 1970;
• Acharyan R., Etymological Root Dictionary of the Armenian Language, vols. 1-4, Er., 1971-79 (in Armenian);
• Illich-Svitych V. M., Experience in comparing Nostratic languages, [vol. 1-3], M., 1971-1984;
• Etymological dictionary of Slavic languages, ed. O. N. Trubacheva, vol. 1-15, M., 1974-88;
• Sevortyan E. V., Etymological dictionary of Turkic languages, vols. 1-3, M., 1974-80 (ed. continues);
• Comparative dictionary of the Tungus-Manchu languages ​​(materials for the etymological dictionary), otv. ed. V. I. Tsintsius, vol. 1-2, L., 1975-77;
• Axes V.N., Prussian language. Dictionary, [i.e. 1-4]. M., 1975-84 (ed. continues);
• Shagirov A. K., Etymological dictionary of the Adyghe (Circassian) languages, vol. 1-2, M., 1977;
• Etymalagіchny sloўnik of the Belarusian language, ed. V. Ў. Martynaў, vol. 1-4. Minsk, 1978-88(ed. ongoing);
• Etymological Dictionary of Ukrainian Language, ch. ed. O. S. Melnichuk, vol. 1-2, Kiev, 1982-85(ed. ongoing);
• Vasmer M., Etymological dictionary of the Russian language, trans. with him. and additions by O. N. Trubachev, 2nd ed., vols. 1-4. M., 1986-1987;
• Miklosich F., Etymologisches Wörterbuch der slavischen Sprachen, W., 1886(reprinted, Amst., 1970);
• Meyer G., Etymologisches Wörterbuch der albanesischen Sprache, Straßburg, 1891;
• Stokes W., Bezzenberger A., Wortschatz der keltischen Spracheinheit, 4 Aufl., Gött., 1894;
• Falk H., Torp A., Wortschatz der germanischen Spracheinheit, Gott., 1909;
• their own, Norwegisch-Dänisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, v. 1-2, Hdlb., 1910-11;
• Meyer-Lubke W., Romanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 3 Aufl., Hdlb., 1935;
• hellquist E., Svensk etymologisk ordbok, v. 1-2, Lund, 1948;
• Bloch Oh, Wartburg W., Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue française, 2 ed., P., 1950;
• Slawski F., Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego, t. 1-5, Krakow, 1952-77(ed. ongoing);
• Skeat W. W., An etymological dictionary of the English language, Oxf., 1953;
• Mayrhofer M., Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen, Bd 1-4, Hdlb., 1956-80;
• Pokorny J., Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1-2, Bern-Münch., 1959-65;
• Frisk H., Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1-3, Hdlb., 1954-72;
• Fraenkel E., Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1-2, Hdlb. - Gott., 1955-1965;
• Kluge F., Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache, 19 Aufl., B., 1963;
• Walde A., Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1-3, 4 Aufl., Hdlb., 1965;
• Machek V., Etymologický slovník jazyka českého, 2 vyd., Praha, 1968;
• Rasanen M., Versuch eines etymologischen Wörterbuchs der Türksprachen, Hels., 1969;
• Skok P., Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga or srpskoga jezika, t. 1-4. Zagreb, 1971-74;
• Etymologický slovník slovanských jazyků. Slova grammarka a zajmena, Sest. F. Kopečny, V. Šaur, V. Polák, t. 1-2, Prague, 1973-80;
• Słownik prasłowianski, pod red. F. Sławskiego, t. 1-5, Wrocław-, 1974-84;
• windekens A.J. van, Le tokharien confronté avec les autres langues indo-européennes, v. 1, Louvain, 1976;
• Bezlaj F., Etimološki slovar slovenskega jezika, t. 1-2, Ljubljana, 1976-82(ed. ongoing);
• Tischler J., Hethitisches etymologisches Glossar, Bd 1-2, Innsbruck, 1977-79(ed. continues).

• Pisani V., Etymology, trans. from Italian, M., 1956;
• Etymological studies on the Russian language, c. 1-9, M., 1960-81 (ed. ongoing);
• Etymology (yearbook), M., 1963-;
• Malkiel Y., Etymological dictionaries. A tentative typology, Chi., 1976;
• Etymology, hrsg. von R. Schmitt, Darmstadt, 1977;
• Pfister M., Einführung in die romanische Etymologie, Darmstadt, 1980;
• Erhart A., Vecerka R., Úvod do etymologie, Praha, .