The reign of Catherine II: domestic and foreign policy. Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II briefly

Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Siberian Federal University"

Humanitarian Institute

Faculty of History and Philosophy

Department of Philosophy

History summary:

Foreign and domestic policy of CatherineII

Completed:

1st year student, Department of Philosophy

Kirienko Pavel Andreevich

Checked:

M.G. Tarasov

Krasnoyarsk 2010

1. Introduction

2.1 South direction

2.2 Western direction

2.3 Other directions

3.1 Enlightened absolutism

3.2 Protective absolutism

3.3 Enlightened despotism

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. Introduction

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent judge of people; she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine’s time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists and musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine II was, as a rule, restrained, patient, and tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist and knew how to listen carefully to everyone.

During the entire reign of Catherine II, there were practically no noisy resignations; none of the nobles were disgraced, exiled, much less executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​Catherine’s reign as the “golden age” of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else in the world.

The method of her reign can be characterized in one expression: Catherine ruled “with carrots and sticks.”

For myself, in my work, I set the following tasks:

ü Study and demonstrate the foreign policy of Catherine II;

ü Study and demonstrate the internal policies of Catherine II.

2. Foreign policy of Catherine II

Following Peter I, Catherine believed that Russia should take an active position on the world stage and pursue an offensive policy.

Catherine II began her foreign policy activities by returning home the Russian troops who were abroad, confirming peace with Prussia, but rejecting the one concluded with her Peter III military alliance.

Catherine II successfully continued and triumphantly completed the creation of the Russian Empire as a great world power, begun by Peter I. The foreign policy results of Catherine's 34-year stay on the throne were significant territorial acquisitions and the final consolidation of Russia's status as a great power.

The country began to play one of the leading roles in world politics, allowing it to influence the resolution of almost any international issue in its own interests.

2.1 South direction

On south direction Since ancient times, the dream of the rulers of Russia was access to the shores of the warm Black Sea.

For such a dream, the first war was the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774.

In 1768, Turkey declared war on Russia; the campaign of 1769 did not bring success to Russia. However, in 1770 Rumyantsev launched an offensive towards the Danube. In the battle on the Largi River, the Russian army put Turkish troops to flight. On the Katu River, Rumyantsev, with only 27 thousand soldiers, defeated the 150 thousand strong Turkish army. And the Baltic fleet under the command of Admiral Sviridov defeated the superior forces of the Turks in Chesme Bay. In 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia received access to the Black Sea and the right to have a Black Sea fleet. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Russia also received lands between the Dnieper and the Bug, and from the North Caucasus to the Kuban. However, in 1783 Crimea was included in Russia, and fortress cities began to be built there. In the same year, the Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, according to which Georgia came under the protectorate (patronage) of Russia. Therefore, the second Russian-Turkish war begins.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Kerch naval battle(1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). Eventually Ottoman Empire in 1791, she was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also moved the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The Russian Empire, in need of access to the Black Sea, solved this problem through two Russian-Turkish wars.

2.2 Western direction

Here we observe Russia’s desire to unite, into the Empire, all lands inhabited by closely related Russian peoples - Ukrainians and Belarusians. In the second half of the 18th century. Poland is a weak state, with many internal problems, which experienced approximately the same difficult times as the Ottoman Empire. Catherine II wanted to have a weak state in Poland with her protege. However, Russia's allies, Austria and Prussia, were in favor of the division of Poland. As a result, three divisions of Poland occur:

1) 1772 - Russia received eastern Belarus and Latvian lands.

2) 1793 - Russia receives the center of Belarus, with Minsk and right-bank Ukraine.

3) 1795 - Russia receives western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland, Volyn.

On October 13, 1795, a conference of three powers was held on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

2.3 Other directions

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, as a result of which an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the “Northern System” - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

One of Catherine’s grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel the Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. According to the plans, a buffer state of Dacia is created on the site of Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia, and the western part Balkan Peninsula transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and Russia’s independent conquest of significant Turkish territories.

In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the USA. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country).

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular opinion, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

3. Domestic policy of Catherine II

Catherine II ascended the throne with a well-defined political program, based, on the one hand, on the ideas of the Enlightenment and, on the other, taking into account the peculiarities of the historical development of Russia. The most important principles of the implementation of this program were gradualism, consistency, and consideration of public sentiment.

Under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. Their main idea was a critique of the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms government controlled.

In domestic policy Catherine II can distinguish the following three periods: enlightened absolutism, protective absolutism, enlightened despotism.

3.1 Enlightened absolutism

Enlightened absolutism is the period of Catherine II’s passion for the ideas of enlightenment (all people are naturally free and equal). This is a period of reforms driven by concern for the “public good” and attempts to improve legislation. At this time, in order to improve central government, in 1763 the Senate was divided into 6 departments. Each of them had a strictly defined range of responsibilities and powers. In 1764, Catherine II appointed a governor general (Rumyantsev) to Ukraine instead of the hetman, finally destroying Ukrainian autonomy. 1763-1764 - secularization was carried out. Catherine II considered herself a student of European enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot) and was in correspondence with them. Catherine II dreamed of a state capable of ensuring the well-being of its subjects. In Russia, what was adopted in 1649 continues to apply “ Cathedral Code».

Then Catherine II decided to convene elections, representatives from each class and instruct them to develop a new position, taking into account the interests of the population. The empress drew up an order for the deputies (to condemn the cruelty of punishments; to proclaim responsibility for subjects and non-subjects; to condemn excessive taxes from peasants, etc.). In 1767, the “Laid Commission” was convened. The Statutory Commission included more than 500 deputies. However, the Commission did not live up to Catherine’s hopes, because each class thought only of its own interests, and as a result the commission was dissolved.

3.2 Protective absolutism

Protective absolutism is a period of prolonged internal reforms, but in a different way. At this time, state control over order and “maintenance of silence” in the state were strengthened (from the Pugachev era to the French Revolution).

After Pugachev's uprising, Catherine II came to the idea that it was necessary to strengthen local government. In 1775, there was a provincial reform, according to which the number of provinces increased from 8 to 50. The provinces were divided into districts. Under the governor, there was a provincial department that supervised activities and officials.

And the treasury chamber was in charge of finances and economic affairs. Judicial institutions were separated from administrative ones.

Thus, there is an official separation of the judicial and financial areas.

In 1785, the “Charter of Nobility” appeared - it finally consolidated the rights of the nobility (exemption from compulsory service; exemption from corporal punishment; exemption from poll tax; the right to property over peasants; the right to own land; to engage in business and trade). In 1785, the “Charter of Grant to Cities” also appeared (divided all citizens into 6 categories, their rights and privileges depended on belonging to the category and on their property status).

3.3 Enlightened despotism

Enlightened despotism is a period of strict censorship. Punitive measures against freethinking. Confiscation of French literature (after the French Revolution). The 1783 decree on free printing houses was, without a doubt, a progressive document for those times. In Russia there were different conditions compared to England, France, and the American states. The decree provided society with new opportunities, which were immediately used: big number new printing houses and publications. Events in France significantly influenced Catherine II. She was frightened by the possible spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in the Russian state. May 20, 1792 Prince A.A. Prozorovsky wrote to her about the need to “put limits on booksellers of foreign books and take away the ability to import similar books at the borders and ports, and even more so from the now disorganized France, which only serve to mislead and debauch people who are not based on the rules of honesty.”

To limit the import of foreign literature from abroad, Catherine II issues a decree on the creation of “censorship... in each place of three persons: spiritual, civil and scholarly.” We can say that from this time on the official “formalization” of censorship began.

Conclusion

In my opinion, the reign of Catherine II in the 18th century is the brightest for the Russian Empire. Even before ascending the throne, being the wife of Emperor Peter III, Catherine had already become interested in the writings of the French enlightenment philosopher Voltaire, which in the future, in my opinion, greatly influenced her way of ruling. Her reign cannot be underestimated. The expansion of borders begun by Peter I and securing the title of “Great Power” for Russia was completed brilliantly by Catherine II. It was during her reign that the much-needed access to the Black Sea was obtained as a result of two Russian-Turkish wars. As a result of the division of Poland, Russia regains the territories of Ukraine and Belarus. With such a foreign policy, as it would seem at first glance, lawlessness and devastation should reign in the state. But even here the merits of Catherine II do not end. She carried out many reforms in the state, such as a charter to nobles and cities, a decree on free printing houses and the introduction of censorship, etc. She was able to systematize the authorities, dividing the Senate into 6 departments, and perfectly differentiate the territory of the Russian Empire, as a result of the provincial reform. In my opinion, Catherine II is the most outstanding empress in the history of our state. At least, history does not know the name of the woman who did just as much and necessary things during her reign.

Over the long decades of her reign, Catherine II carried out a series of important reforms and internal transformations states. Many call the ruler the mother of the modern Enlightenment, but this is far from the only area in which reforms were carried out. The activities of Catherine II concerned both changes in the life of the peasantry and the improvement of the rights and freedoms of the nobility. What internal reforms of Catherine II can be called the most important for the further history of the state?

Domestic policy of Catherine the Great

The results of Catherine the Great's internal political reforms

Now, reviewing all the reforms of the empress, we can safely say that her policy was not perfect and ideal. Favoritism flourished during the reign of Catherine the Great. Increasingly, leading positions in economic and political spheres occupied by people pleasing to Catherine, who understood little about the responsibilities assigned to them.

Similar policies of favoritism were evident in the arts. Since the creativity of Radishchev, Krechetov and Novikov was displeasing to the empress, these prominent artists were subjected to persecution and restrictions. Despite this shortsightedness, Catherine the Great was literally blinded by the thought of becoming a leading figure in the Enlightenment in Europe.

It was with the aim of raising her own authority in the international arena that the ruler carried out various reforms, created the Statutory Commissions and the Academies of Sciences. The fact that Catherine spoke several languages ​​and maintained contact with international artists helped the ruler achieve her goal. Now, despite all the mistakes and shortcomings of her own domestic political activities, Catherine the Great is called among the best rulers of the 18th century.

The policy of elevating the nobility and further enslaving the peasants also could not lead to any good. Despite her innovative views and desire to make the Russian Empire similar to European states, Catherine II did not want to give up slavery. Rather, on the contrary, during the era of her reign, the life of serfs became even more unbearable. The Peasant War of 1773-1774 is only the first sign of public discontent, which will still be reflected in the further history of Russia.

Catherine the Great born on May 2, 1729 in the Prussian city of Stettin, in 1745 she married Peter III, and on July 9, 1762 she herself became the reigning empress as a result palace coup, Peter abdicated the throne and was taken into custody. A week later he died (most likely he was strangled by his jailers, who played cards with him).

In fact it turned out that Catherine II made a double seizure of power - she took it away from her husband, but did not give it to her son Paul (according to the rules, she was supposed to become regent under the young emperor). However, from the height of history it can be argued that she was worthy of the title of empress.

Catherine became the first empress of non-Russian origin (since she was German), but still the Romanov dynasty was not interrupted by Peter III, since after Catherine came to the throne Pavel Romanov, her son. It should be noted here that the direct male line of the Romanovs was interrupted Peter II Alekseevich, and later the Romanovs went through the female line, and officially the dynasty began to be called the Romanovs-Holstein-Gottorp.

Domestic policy of Catherine II.

In domestic policy, Catherine largely continued the line of Peter I. Just like Peter, the Empress paid a lot of attention to foreign policy and the image of Russia in the world, which is why she also had failures in internal reforms of the state.

Catherine had a good understanding of people and knew how to select close people (assistants and consultants), found talents and supported them in every possible way (and in all spheres - military, artistic, architecture and culture). The only problem was that the vast majority of these advisers and talented artists were invited foreigners, most often Germans and French. This was explained by the desire to bring the Enlightenment of Europe to Russia. As a result of this, much less attention was paid to the education of one’s own minds and talents in the Russian Empire than one would like.

Regarding religious issues, Empress Catherine II carried out a number of successful reforms. The Russian Orthodox Church was actively supported by the ruler, the Old Believers were returned to Russia, and their persecution ceased (except for a couple of incidents). On Far East Buddhists received many privileges, and the Jewish community, which appeared after the annexation of part of the lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (and a considerable one - about 1 million people) could preach Judaism and lead their national way of life outside the permanent Jewish Pale of Settlement, which provided the Jews with the territories of modern Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania. If a Jew wanted to live in Moscow, he had to convert to Orthodoxy. It must be said that for all the anti-Semitism of this decree, the reform was still quite liberal in that era.

Talking about national policy, it is also necessary to mention the manifesto, according to which Catherine invited foreigners to Russia for permanent residence, granting them benefits and privileges. As a result, in the Volga region, for example, German settlements arose (Volga Germans). Five years after the publication of the manifesto (1767), their number already exceeded 23 thousand people.

In 1763, Catherine II carried out a reform of the Senate. In 1764, the Zaporozhye Cossacks (Hetmanate) were liquidated; the first prerequisite was, ten years earlier, the liquidation of customs between Russia and the Hetmanate (in essence, the abolition of autonomy).

The main goal of the abolition of the Cossacks is the centralization of power and the unification of the country, the secondary goal is the removal of such an unstable class as the Cossacks from Moscow (to the Kuban).

Catherine's liberal policies sometimes let her down. In 1766, Catherine published Order- her vision of government, and convened Stacked commission to carry out reform Code, which was adopted back in 1649. Representatives of the nobility, townspeople and free peasants were convened, as well as one deputy from Synod.

Obviously, the “Order” was not enough to guide the activities, and a firm hand was needed, since the inter-class differences of the deputies prevented them from quickly conducting legislative activities. The first few meetings they only chose a title for the empress (the “Great” was chosen). After working for about a year and a half, the Statutory Commission was dissolved, although the initiative was good.

The same liberalism in relation to the nobility (not a single person was executed or even seriously repressed during all this time) gave its representatives a reason to become insolent and bribery to flourish. By the way, immediately after coming to power, Catherine issued a Manifesto on preventing “extortion,” but no concrete actions followed, and many took bribes.

After suppression uprising of Emelyan Pugachev Catherine II carried out administrative reform. Instead of 23 provinces, the country was divided into 53 governorships. The reform was not bad in that for the same number of square kilometers, there were more local government bodies, which made it possible to more closely monitor the local population in order to more effectively prevent possible conflicts. The disadvantage of the reform was the increased bureaucracy, which required three (if not five) times more budget funds than before. Naturally, this affected the economy.

On April 21, 1785, a Charter on the rights and liberties of the noble nobility was adopted. This document secured the rights of the nobles, most of which has already been published previously. The charter increased support for Catherine from the nobility, but did not have a particularly good effect on the peasants. The publication of a letter to the peasants was planned, but was not implemented due to the wars with the Turks and the Swedes.

The export of grain, prohibited by Elizabeth, was opened, and duties on export goods were reduced. international trade immediately revived, although sometimes grain exports exceeded the norm and there was a shortage within the country. We are, of course, not talking about famines (as some researchers of Polish and Ukrainian origin, as well as other non-authoritative sources claim), but still it would be worth creating a body that controls the export of grain and other goods.

New credit institutions were established - the loan office and the state bank, and such a function as deposits appeared. In addition, Insurance Expedition was established - the first insurance company in Russia.

The role of the Russian Empire in the world economy has grown significantly. Russian ships began to ply the Baltic, Mediterranean and Atlantic, delivering goods from and to England, France, Spain, etc.

The only negative point here is that Russia sold mainly raw materials (metals, flour, wood) or semi-finished products (meat, for example). At this time, the industrial revolution was in full swing in Europe, plants and factories with machine tools were being created, but Catherine was in no hurry to bring “machines” (as she put it) to Russia, fearing that they would deprive people of jobs and cause unemployment. This purely female shortsightedness set back the development of Russian industry and economic growth for several decades.

With all this, the empress carried out a number of extremely successful reforms in education, as well as in science and healthcare (Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens, a network of city schools, Academy of Sciences, and the best in Europe, various schools, a library, an observatory, botanical gardens, etc.).

Catherine the Great introduced compulsory vaccination against smallpox, and, by the way, she herself was the first to be vaccinated. In addition, there was a struggle with other infectious diseases, medical schools and specialized hospitals (psychiatric, venereological, etc.) were created.

Homes for street minors and even social assistance for widows were created.

Thus, in the domestic policy of Catherine II there were both positive and negative aspects, and the latter were useful in that they provided invaluable experience for future generations.

V. Eriksen "Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great"

“Catherine made a double takeover: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Having thus ascended to Russian throne, Catherine II began her reign by formulating the primary tasks for her activities:

1. The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

Let us now consider how Catherine II implemented these tasks.

The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine II. Yes, under her rule the autocracy strengthened and the bureaucratic apparatus became stronger. But the ideas of Diderot and Voltaire that every person is born free, that all people are equal, that despotic forms of government should be destroyed - this did not correspond to its internal policy. Under Catherine, the situation of the peasants worsened, and the nobles received more and more privileges.

Domestic policy

Senate Conversion and Stalled Commission

According to the project statesman N.I. Panin in 1763 the Senate was transformed. It was divided into six departments: the first was headed by the Prosecutor General, who was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, sciences, education, art, the fourth - military-land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department.

As for the Statutory Commission, it was created to systematize laws. But the meetings were held for only six months, after which the commission was dissolved. The main result of her activities was the approval of the title “Great” for the empress (others were also proposed: “The Wise One,” “Mother of the Fatherland” and others). Thus, she did not receive such a title as a result of merit - it was ordinary court flattery.

D. Levitsky "Portrait of Catherine II"

Provincial reform

In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Its essence was that three levels of administrative division were eliminated: province, province, district, and two were introduced: province and district. 50 provinces were formed (instead of 23). The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts. Governor General(governor) were subordinate to 2-3 provinces. He had administrative, financial and judicial powers. Governor ruled the province and reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. Treasury Chamber headed by the vice-governor, she dealt with finances in the province. Land management - provincial land surveyor. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. Order of public charity supervised schools, hospitals and shelters, as well as class judicial institutions: Upper Zemsky Court for nobles, Provincial magistrate, who considered litigation between townspeople, and Upper reprisal for the trial of state peasants. Criminal and Civil Chamber judged all classes; they were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

The head of the county was captain police officer, leader of the nobility, elected for three years.

Was created Conscientious court, called upon to reconcile those who argue and quarrel, he was classless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

216 new cities were formed (mostly large rural settlements renamed cities). The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants. The city became the main administrative unit. It was headed by mayor, he was endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under supervision private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled quarterly supervisor.

According to historians, provincial reform led to a significant increase in the cost of maintaining the bureaucratic apparatus.

Founding of Kuban and annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

In 1771, Catherine II issued a decree liquidating the Kalmyk Khanate and annexing the Kalmyk state to Russia. At the office of the Astrakhan governor, a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs was established, which began to manage the affairs of the Kalmyks. But this annexation did not happen immediately: Catherine, from the 60s, consistently limited the khan’s power, until a conspiracy matured within the khanate to leave for their historical homeland - Dzungaria (a region of Central Asia in northwestern China. A region with a semi-desert and steppe landscape) . This turned out to be a great disaster for the people, who lost about 100 thousand people.

Other provincial reforms

The territory of Estonia and Livonia was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel. Three provinces were created in Siberia: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Economy

A state bank was established and the issue of paper money- banknotes.

State regulation of prices for salt was introduced - it was one of the most valuable goods. But a state monopoly was not introduced, so the price of salt increased.

Exports have increased: sailing cloth, cast iron, iron, timber, hemp, bristles, bread - mainly raw materials and semi-finished products. And industrial products accounted for 80% of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail into the Mediterranean Sea.

Catherine II did not understand the importance of industrial development, because believed that this would reduce the number of employees.

Industry and Agriculture developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land). During her reign, there were frequent cases of famine in the countryside, which was explained by crop failures, but some historians believe that this was the result of massive grain exports.

During the reign of Catherine II, bribery and other forms of arbitrariness by officials flourished (what we now call corruption), she knew about it herself and tried to fight, but to no avail. As the historian V. Bilbasov writes, “Catherine soon became convinced for herself that “bribery in state affairs” cannot be eradicated by decrees and manifestos, that this requires a radical reform of everything political system- a task... that turned out to be beyond the capabilities of either that time or the later.”

Historians note the exorbitant growth of favoritism under Catherine II, which did not contribute to the well-being of the state, but increased expenses. They also received rewards without any measure. For example, her favorite Platon Zubov had so many awards that he looked like “a seller of ribbons and hardware.” During her reign, she gave gifts to a total of more than 800 thousand peasants. She gave out about 100 thousand rubles annually for the maintenance of Grigory Potemkin’s niece, and gave her and her fiancé 1 million rubles for their wedding. Near her was a crowd of French courtiers, whom she generously presented with gifts. Large sums were paid to representatives of the Polish aristocracy, including King Stanislaw Poniatowski (formerly her favorite).

Education and science

Catherine II Special attention devoted to women's education. In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened.

Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens

Hood. Galaktionov "Smolny Institute"

This is the first women's educational institution in Russia. It was founded on the initiative of I. I. Betsky and in accordance with the decree of Catherine the Second in 1764 and was originally called the “Imperial Educational Society of Noble Maidens.” It was created to "provide the state with educated women, good mothers, useful members of the family and society."

Catherine, a fan of the progressive ideas of the French Enlightenment, wanted to establish an educational institution that had no equal in Europe at that time. According to the charter, children entered the institution no older than six years of age and remained there for 12 years. Parents had to give a signature that before the expiration of this period they would not take their children out of the educational institution. The Empress hoped that the children would be removed from an ignorant environment and molded into educated people, thus further creating a “new breed of people.” The decree provided for the education of two hundred noble maidens in the newly built Novodevichy Convent. At first it was a closed institution for noble children, and in 1765 a department “for bourgeois girls” (non-noble classes, except serfs) was opened at the institute. The building for the Bourgeois School was erected by the architect J. Felten.

K.D. Ushinsky

In 1859-1862. The institute’s class inspector was K.D. Ushinsky, who carried out a number of progressive reforms in it (a new seven-year syllabus with a large number of hours devoted to the Russian language, geography, history, natural science, etc.). After Ushinsky's forced departure from the institute, all of his major reforms were eliminated.

The students of the institute wore uniform dresses of a certain color: in younger age- coffee, in the second - dark blue, in the third - blue and in older age - white. Lighter colors symbolized increasing education and neatness.

The program included training in Russian literature, geography, arithmetic, history, foreign languages, music, dancing, drawing, social manners, various types of housekeeping, etc.

The final public examination was attended by the emperor and members of his family. At the end of the institute, the six best graduates received a “cipher” - a gold monogram in the form of the initial of Empress Catherine II, which was worn on a white bow with gold stripes.

Some students of the institute became ladies-in-waiting at the court (maids-in-waiting formed the retinue of empresses and grand duchesses).

The institute's training course was equivalent to that of women's gymnasiums.

In October 1917, the institute, headed by Princess V.V. Golitsyna, moved to Novocherkassk.

The last Russian graduation took place in February 1919 in Novocherkassk. Already in the summer of 1919, the institute left Russia and continued work in Serbia.

"Code" of the best graduates of the Smolny Institute

Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences became one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. In 1783 the Russian Academy was founded. Russian Academy(Also Imperial Russian Academy, Russian Academy) was created by Catherine II and Princess E. R. Dashkova on the model of the French Academy for the Study of Russian Language and Literature in St. Petersburg. The main result of the activities of this product of the Russian Enlightenment was the publication of the Russian Academic Dictionary. In 1841, the academy was transformed into the 2nd Branch of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

But historians do not rate highly the successes in the field of education and science under Catherine II: educational establishments There was always a shortage of students, many students could not pass exams, and studies were not organized well enough.

Under Catherine, educational homes for street children were organized, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created. During her reign, the fight against epidemics began to take on the character of state events.

National politics

Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement for Jews: in the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. The Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in the provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them.” There was a list of benefits for immigrants. This is how they arose German settlements in the Volga region, reserved for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was very large; already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. During the reign of Catherine, Russia included Northern Black Sea region, Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, lands between the Dniester and Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

Monument to Catherine II in the city of Marks, Saratov region

But this seemingly positive phenomenon turned out to be incidental - the “difference of interests” intensified when worse situation it turned out indigenous people and when some Russian nobles at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “register as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.

Under Catherine, the privileges of the nobles were further strengthened. Peasants made up about 95% of the population, and serfs made up more than 50% of the population. According to the general opinion of historians, the situation of this largest group of the population in the era of Catherine was the worst in the entire history of Russia. Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage. She adopted a number of laws that worsened the situation of the peasants. During her reign, she gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to landowners and nobles. The result of this policy was the Peasants' War of 1773-1775.

Catherine pursued a policy of religious tolerance; in the first years of her reign, the persecution of Old Believers ceased. She even supported the initiative of Peter III to return Old Believers from abroad. But the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) increased due to the massive resettlement of Germans to Russia.

Pretenders to the throne

Catherine's rise to power through illegal means gave birth to a series of pretenders to the Russian throne: from 1764 to 1773. Seven False Peters III appeared in the country (claiming that they were the “resurrected Peter”), the eighth was Emelyan Pugachev. And in 1774-1775. the “case of Princess Tarakanova” was added, posing as the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.

During her reign, 3 conspiracies against her were uncovered, two of them were associated with the name of Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI), who at the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.

Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. Catherine II tried to control Freemasonry and allow only such activities that did not contradict her interests.

Literature

Russian literature in the era of Catherine, as in general in the 18th century, according to a number of historians, was mainly engaged in the “processing of foreign elements.” The “official” literature of the era of Catherine is represented by several famous names: Fonvizin (read about him on our website:, Sumarokov, Derzhavin (read about him on our website:). There was also “unofficial” literature: Radishchev, Novikov, Krechetov - which was was subjected to a ban, and the authors were subjected to severe repression. For example, Knyazhnin, whose historical drama (“Vadim Novgorodsky”) was banned, and the entire print run was burned.

Novikov’s journal “Truten” was closed by the authorities in 1770 due to the fact that it raised sensitive social issues - the arbitrariness of landowners against peasants, corruption among officials, etc. The “St. Petersburg Bulletin” suffered the same fate, which only existed a little over two years, and other magazines. In A. Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” there are no calls for the overthrow of the existing system and for the abolition of serfdom. But the author was sentenced to death penalty quartered (after pardon, replaced by a 10-year exile to Tobolsk) for the fact that his book “is filled with harmful speculation that destroys public peace, detracting from the respect due to authority...”. Catherine loved flattery and could not stand people who dared to express their critical judgments that ran counter to her own.

Culture and art under Catherine

Foundation of the Hermitage

Hermitage Hall

State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg - the largest art, cultural and historical museum in Russia and one of the largest in the world. The history of the museum begins in 1764, with collections of works of art that Catherine II began to acquire privately. Initially, this collection was housed in a special palace wing - the Small Hermitage (from the French. ermitage- a place of solitude), hence it stuck common name future museum. In 1852, the greatly expanded collection was formed and opened to the public. Imperial Hermitage.

Today, the museum's collection includes about three million works of art and monuments of world culture, from the Stone Age to the present day.

Founding of the Public Library

Old library building early XIX V.

In 1795, by the highest order of Empress Catherine II, it was founded Imperial Public Library. The basis of the Imperial Public Library is the Zaluski Library (400,000 volumes), which was declared the property of the Russian government as a war trophy after the suppression of the uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko in 1794 and the capture of Warsaw by A. Suvorov. Currently, it is a particularly valuable object of national heritage and constitutes the historical and cultural heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation. One of the largest libraries in the world.

Catherine II patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

The palaces of the era of Catherine II (Winter, Bolshoi Catherine, Catherine in Moscow) and the parks around them in their luxury and splendor were not inferior to the palaces and parks of the French kings and had no other equals in Europe. Everyone competes in the luxury of carriages, the thoroughbred horses, the splendor of teams, the main objective- seem no worse than others.

Catherine's foreign policyII

V. Borovikovsky "Catherine on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park"

Foreign policy under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “ You need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

Under Catherine, the growth of Russia was as follows: after the first Turkish war in 1744, Russia acquired Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale. Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Russia is already firmly on the Black Sea.

At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia: in 1773, Russia receives part of Belarus (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces); in 1793 - Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; in 1795-1797 - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.

An important direction of Catherine II’s foreign policy was also the annexation of the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and North Caucasus who were under Turkish rule. The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov.

The Werel Peace Treaty with Sweden was signed in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." But in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France.

During the reign of Catherine Russian empire gained status great power. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. During Catherine's reign, Russian colonization of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska began.

During the long reign of Catherine II (34 years), there was a lot of good and bad. But we agree with the words of Catherine’s contemporary, Russian historian and publicist Prince M.M. Shcherbatov, who wrote that the favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline of the morals of the nobility of that era.

Domestic policy of Catherine II

First of all, Catherine II carried out a reform of public administration. The Cabinet of Ministers, introduced by Anna Ivanovna, was liquidated. The Senate was weakened, divided into six departments, each of which had certain powers. The departments were supervised by Prosecutor General Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, known for his incorruptibility. The hetmanate in Left-Bank Ukraine was abolished, and the governor-general of Little Russia began to govern it.

Catherine carried out the second secularization of the monastery lands, taking them to the treasury. The clergy was losing economic power; it was finally turning into a special category of bureaucracy.

The Empress decided to create a Commission to draw up a new Code. 564 delegates were elected to it throughout Russia (nobles, townspeople, Cossacks, foreigners, state peasants, etc.). For two years (1764-1765), Catherine II worked on drawing up the “Nakaz,” a manual for deputies, which proclaimed that the purpose of power was to promote goodness, to introduce the best laws, and this could only be done by an enlightened, autocratic sovereign. However, the Legislative Commission, without fulfilling its task and without creating a new general law, was dissolved in 1769 (and abolished in 1774).

Administrative reform was carried out. The empire was divided into 50 provinces, the provinces were abolished, and the provinces were divided into counties. Power in the provinces belonged to the governor, appointed by the Senate. All financial affairs of the province were managed by the Treasury Chamber.

The judicial system, which was built on the class principle, has completely changed. The highest judicial body of the empire was the Senate.

The nobles actually received the right of local self-government. At their meetings they elected a district leader of the nobility, and in the province a provincial leader of the nobility was elected. In 1785, the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility” was published, which confirmed the class rights and privileges of the nobles - exemption from poll tax, corporal punishment, and compulsory service.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

The foreign policy of Catherine II was quite successful. Thanks to the empress's successes in this area, Russia acquired unprecedented authority in Europe.

Immediately after her accession to the throne, Catherine terminated the military alliance with Prussia concluded by Peter III. Under Catherine, a new foreign policy course for Russia was formed, which was to act in accordance with its own interests, without being in constant dependence on other states.

Catherine had to solve three problems that she inherited:

Return of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands that remained part of Poland;

Ensuring the security of the southern outskirts of Russia and access to the Black Sea;

Strengthening Russia on the shores of the Baltic Sea.

Matters with Courland and Poland were settled diplomatically, without war. The solution to the Black Sea problem required serious military efforts. The interests of Russia and Turkey collided not only in the Black Sea region, but also in Orthodox Moldova and in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, where a pro-Russian orientation has emerged in the ruling circles of Georgia and Armenia.

At the end of 1768, Türkiye declared war on Russia. Military operations unfolded on three fronts: in the Crimea, on the Danube and in Transcaucasia, where Russian troops entered at the request of Georgia. The war with Turkey ended with the signing of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace (1774), according to which significant territories were transferred to Russia. But in 1787 the second Russian-Turkish war began. In it A.V. showed his leadership talents. Suvorov. The war ended with Russian victory in 1791.

While the Russian-Turkish war was going on, Austria and Prussia, without Russian participation, began dividing Poland. Under these conditions, Russia, which benefited from a united but dependent Poland, was forced to engage in negotiations on the division of this country. As a result of an agreement between the three states, Poland ceased to exist as a independent state, after three partitions (1772, 1793, 1795), its entire territory was divided between Austria-Hungary, Prussia and Russia.