There is equipment and devices that are not only powered from the electrical network, but also in which the electrical network serves as a source of such impulses necessary for the operation of the device circuit. When such devices are powered from a power supply with a different frequency or from an autonomous source, the problem arises of where to get the clock frequency from.

The clock frequency in such devices is usually either equal to the mains frequency (60 or 50 Hz) or equal to twice the mains frequency, when the source of clock pulses in the device circuit is a circuit based on a bridge rectifier without a smoothing capacitor.

Below are four circuits of pulse generators with frequencies of 50 Hz, 60 Hz, 100 Hz and 120 Hz, built on the basis of the CD4060B microcircuit and a 32768 Hz quartz clock resonator.

50 Hz generator circuit

Rice. 1. Schematic diagram of a signal generator with a frequency of 50 Hz.

Figure 1 shows the circuit of a 50 Hz frequency generator. The frequency is stabilized by quartz resonator Q1 at 32768 Hz; from its output inside the D1 chip, pulses are sent to a binary counter. The frequency division coefficient is set by diodes VD1-VD3 and resistor R1, which reset the counter every time its state reaches 656. In this case, 32768 / 656 = 49.9512195.

It's not quite 50Hz, but it's very close. In addition, by selecting the capacitances of capacitors C1 and C2, you can slightly change the frequency of the quartz oscillator and get a result closer to 50 Hz.

60 Hz generator circuit

Figure 2 shows the circuit of a 60 Hz frequency generator. The frequency is stabilized by quartz resonator Q1 at 32768 Hz; from its output inside the D1 chip, pulses are sent to a binary counter.

Rice. 2. Schematic diagram of a signal generator with a frequency of 60 Hz.

The frequency division coefficient is set by diodes VD1-VD2 and resistor R1, which reset the counter every time its state reaches 544. In this case, 32768 / 544 = 60.2352941. It's not quite 60Hz, but close.

In addition, by selecting the capacitances of capacitors C1 and C2, you can slightly change the frequency of the quartz oscillator and get a result closer to 60 Hz.

100 Hz generator circuit

Figure 3 shows the circuit of a 100 Hz frequency generator. The frequency is stabilized by quartz resonator Q1 at 32768 Hz; from its output inside the D1 chip, pulses are sent to a binary counter. The frequency division coefficient is set by diodes VD1-VD3 and resistor R1, which reset the counter every time its state reaches 328. In this case, 32768 / 328 = 99.902439.

Rice. 3. Schematic diagram of a signal generator with a frequency of 100 Hz.

It's not quite 100 Hz, but close. In addition, by selecting the capacitances of capacitors C1 and C2, you can slightly change the frequency of the quartz oscillator and get a result closer to 100 Hz.

120 Hz generator

Figure 4 shows the circuit of a 120 Hz frequency generator. The frequency is stabilized by quartz resonator Q1 at 32768 Hz; from its output inside the D1 chip, pulses are sent to a binary counter. The frequency division coefficient is set by diodes VD1-VD2 and resistor R1, which reset the counter every time its state reaches 272. In this case, 32768 / 272 = 120.470588.

It's not quite 120Hz, but close. In addition, by selecting the capacitances of capacitors C1 and C2, you can slightly change the frequency of the quartz oscillator and get a result closer to 120 Hz.

Rice. 4. Schematic diagram of a signal generator with a frequency of 120 Hz.

The power supply voltage can be from 3 to 15V, depending on the supply voltage of the circuit, or rather, on the required value of the logic level. The output pulses in all circuits are asymmetrical; this must be taken into account for their specific application.

Pulse former with a period of one minute

Figure 5 shows a circuit of a pulse shaper with a period of one minute, for example, for an electronic digital watch. The input receives a 50 Hz signal from the mains through a transformer, voltage divider or optocoupler, or from another 50 Hz source.

Resistors R1 and R2, together with the inverters of the D1 chip, intended for the clock generator circuit, form a Schmitt trigger, so you don’t have to worry about the shape of the input signal; it can also be a sine wave.

Fig.5. Circuit of a pulse shaper with a period of one minute.

By diodes VD1-VD7, the counter division coefficient is limited to the value 2048+512+256+128+32+16+8=3000, which at an input frequency of 50 Hz at pin 1 of the microcircuit gives pulses with a period of one minute.

Additionally, pulses with a frequency of 0.781 Hz can be removed from pin 4, for example, to set the hour and minute counters to the current time. The power supply voltage can be from 3 to 15V, depending on the supply voltage of the electronic clock circuit, or rather, on the required value of the logic level.

Snegirev I. RK-11-16.

Low Harmonic Test Signal Generator on a Wien Bridge

When you don't have it at hand high quality sine wave generator- how to debug the amplifier you are developing? We have to make do with improvised means.

In this article:

• High linearity when using a budget op-amp
• Accurate AGC system with minimal distortion
• Battery operated: minimal interference

Background

At the beginning of the millennium, our whole family moved to live in distant countries. Some of my electronic supplies followed us, but, alas, not all of them. So I found myself alone with large monoblocks that I had assembled, but not yet debugged, without an oscilloscope, without a signal generator, with a great desire to complete that project and finally listen to music. I managed to get an oscilloscope from a friend for temporary use. With the generator, I urgently had to invent something myself. At that time, I had not yet gotten used to the component suppliers available here. Among the opamps that happened to be at hand were several indigestible products of the ancient Soviet electronics industry, and an LM324 soldered from a burnt computer power supply.
LM324 datasheet: National/TI, Fairchild, OnSemi... I love reading datasheets from National - they usually have a lot of interesting examples of using parts. OnSemi also helped in this case. But “Gypsy Little” deprived its followers of something :)

Classics of the genre

Help the author!

This article showed several simple techniques that allow you to achieve very high-quality generation and amplification of a sinusoidal signal, using a widely available inexpensive operational amplifier and a p-n junction field-effect transistor:

• Limiting the range of automatic level control and reducing the influence of nonlinearity of the control element;
• Shifting the op-amp output stage to linear operating mode;
• Selecting the optimal virtual ground level for battery-powered operation.

Was everything clear? Did you find anything new or original in this article? I will be pleased if you leave a comment or ask a question, and also share the article with your friends on a social network by “clicking” the corresponding icon below.

Addendum (October 2017) Found it on the Internet: http://www.linear.com/solutions/1623. I made two conclusions:

1. There is nothing new under the sun.
2. Don't chase after cheap prices, priest! If I had taken a normal op-amp then, I would have gotten an exemplary low Kg.

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In amateur radio practice there is often a need to use a sinusoidal oscillation generator. You can find a wide variety of applications for it. Let's look at how to create a sinusoidal signal generator on a Wien bridge with a stable amplitude and frequency.

The article describes the development of a sinusoidal signal generator circuit. You can also generate the desired frequency programmatically:

The most convenient, from the point of view of assembly and adjustment, version of a sinusoidal signal generator is a generator built on a Wien bridge, using a modern Operational Amplifier (OP-Amp).

Bridge of Wine

The Wien bridge itself is a bandpass filter consisting of two. It emphasizes the central frequency and suppresses other frequencies.

The bridge was invented by Max Wien back in 1891. On a schematic diagram, the Wien bridge itself is usually depicted as follows:

Picture borrowed from Wikipedia

The Wien bridge has an output voltage to input voltage ratio b=1/3 . This is an important point, because this coefficient determines the conditions for stable generation. But more on that later

How to calculate frequency

Autogenerators and inductance meters are often built on the Wien Bridge. In order not to complicate your life, they usually use R1=R2=R And C1=C2=C . Thanks to this, the formula can be simplified. The fundamental frequency of the bridge is calculated from the ratio:

f=1/2πRC

Almost any filter can be thought of as a frequency-dependent voltage divider. Therefore, when choosing the values ​​of the resistor and capacitor, it is desirable that at the resonant frequency the complex resistance of the capacitor (Z) is equal to, or at least of the same order of magnitude as, the resistance of the resistor.

Zc=1/ωC=1/2πνC

Where ω (omega) - cyclic frequency, ν (nu) - linear frequency, ω=2πν

Wien bridge and operational amplifier

The Wien bridge itself is not a signal generator. For generation to occur, it must be placed in the positive feedback circuit of the operational amplifier. Such a self-oscillator can also be built using a transistor. But using an op-amp will clearly simplify life and give better performance.

Gain factor of three

The Wien bridge has a transmittance b=1/3 . Therefore, the condition for generation is that the op-amp must provide a gain of three. In this case, the product of the transmission coefficients of the Wien bridge and the gain of the op-amp will give 1. And stable generation of the given frequency will occur.

If the world were ideal, then by setting the required gain with resistors in the negative feedback circuit, we would get a ready-made generator.

This is a non-inverting amplifier and its gain is determined by the relation:K=1+R2/R1

But alas, the world is not ideal. ... In practice, it turns out that to start generation it is necessary that at the very initial moment the coefficient. the gain was slightly more than 3, and then for stable generation it was maintained at 3.

If the gain is less than 3, the generator will stall; if it is more, then the signal, upon reaching the supply voltage, will begin to distort and saturation will occur.

When saturated, the output will maintain a voltage close to one of the supply voltages. And random chaotic switching between supply voltages will occur.

Therefore, when building a generator on a Wien bridge, they resort to using a nonlinear element in the negative feedback circuit that regulates the gain. In this case, the generator will balance itself and maintain generation at the same level.

Amplitude stabilization on an incandescent lamp

In the most classic version of the generator on the Wien bridge at the op-amp, a miniature low-voltage incandescent lamp is used, which is installed instead of a resistor.

When such a generator is turned on, at the first moment, the lamp spiral is cold and its resistance is low. This helps to start the generator (K>3). Then, as it heats up, the resistance of the spiral increases and the gain decreases until it reaches equilibrium (K=3).

The positive feedback circuit in which the Wien bridge was placed remains unchanged. The general circuit diagram of the generator is as follows:

Positive feedback elements of the op amp determine the generation frequency. And the elements of negative feedback are reinforcement.

The idea of ​​using a light bulb as a control element is very interesting and is still used today. But, alas, the light bulb has a number of disadvantages:

• selection of a light bulb and a current-limiting resistor R* is required.
• With regular use of the generator, the life of the light bulb is usually limited to several months
• The control properties of the light bulb depend on the temperature in the room.

Another interesting option is to use a directly heated thermistor. Essentially, the idea is the same, but instead of a light bulb filament, a thermistor is used. The problem is that you first need to find it and again select it and current-limiting resistors.

Amplitude stabilization on LEDs

An effective method for stabilizing the amplitude of the output voltage of a sinusoidal signal generator is to use op-amp LEDs in the negative feedback circuit ( VD1 And VD2 ).

The main gain is set by resistors R3 And R4 . The remaining elements ( R5 , R6 and LEDs) adjust the gain within a small range, keeping the output stable. Resistor R5 you can adjust the output voltage in the range of approximately 5-10 volts.

In the additional OS circuit it is advisable to use low-resistance resistors ( R5 And R6 ). This will allow significant current (up to 5mA) to pass through the LEDs and they will be in optimal mode. They will even glow a little :-)

In the diagram shown above, the Wien bridge elements are designed to generate at a frequency of 400 Hz, however they can be easily recalculated for any other frequency using the formulas presented at the beginning of the article.

Quality of generation and elements used

It is important that the operational amplifier can provide the current necessary for generation and have sufficient frequency bandwidth. Using the popular TL062 and TL072 as op amps gave very sad results at a generation frequency of 100 kHz. The signal shape could hardly be called a sinusoidal; it was more like a triangular signal. Using TDA 2320 gave even worse results.

But the NE5532 showed its excellent side, producing an output signal very similar to a sinusoidal one. LM833 also coped with the task perfectly. So it is NE5532 and LM833 that are recommended for use as affordable and common high-quality op-amps. Although, with a decrease in frequency, the rest of the op-amps will feel much better.

The accuracy of the generation frequency directly depends on the accuracy of the elements of the frequency-dependent circuit. And in this case, it is important not only that the value of the element corresponds to the inscription on it. More precise parts have better stability of values ​​with temperature changes.

In the author's version, a resistor of type C2-13 ±0.5% and mica capacitors with an accuracy of ±2% were used. The use of resistors of this type is due to the low dependence of their resistance on temperature. Mica capacitors also have little dependence on temperature and have a low TKE.

Cons of LEDs

It's worth focusing on LEDs separately. Their use in a sine generator circuit is caused by the magnitude of the voltage drop, which usually lies in the range of 1.2-1.5 volts. This allows you to obtain a fairly high output voltage.

After implementing the circuit on a breadboard, it turned out that due to the variation in LED parameters, the fronts of the sine wave at the generator output are not symmetrical. It's a little noticeable even in the above photo. In addition, there were slight distortions in the shape of the generated sine, caused by the insufficient operating speed of the LEDs for a generation frequency of 100 kHz.

4148 diodes instead of LEDs

The LEDs have been replaced with the beloved 4148 diodes. These are affordable, high-speed signal diodes with switching speeds of less than 4 ns. At the same time, the circuit remained fully operational, not a trace remained of the problems described above, and the sinusoid acquired an ideal appearance.

In the following diagram, the elements of the wine bridge are designed for a generation frequency of 100 kHz. Also, the variable resistor R5 was replaced with constant ones, but more on that later.

Unlike LEDs, the voltage drop across the p-n junction of conventional diodes is 0.6÷0.7 V, so the output voltage of the generator was about 2.5 V. To increase the output voltage, it is possible to connect several diodes in series, instead of one, for example like this:

However, increasing the number of nonlinear elements will make the generator more dependent on external temperature. For this reason, it was decided to abandon this approach and use one diode at a time.

Replacing a variable resistor with a constant one

Now about the tuning resistor. Initially, a 470 Ohm multi-turn trimmer resistor was used as resistor R5. It made it possible to precisely regulate the output voltage.

When building any generator, it is highly desirable to have an oscilloscope. Variable resistor R5 directly affects generation - both amplitude and stability.

For the presented circuit, generation is stable only in a small resistance range of this resistor. If the resistance ratio is greater than required, clipping begins, i.e. the sine wave will be clipped from above and below. If it is less, the shape of the sinusoid begins to distort, and with a further decrease, the generation stalls.

It also depends on the supply voltage used. The described circuit was originally assembled using an LM833 op-amp with a ±9V power supply. Then, without changing the circuit, the op amps were replaced with AD8616, and the supply voltage was changed to ±2.5V (the maximum for these op amps). As a result of this replacement, the sinusoid at the output was cut off. The selection of resistors gave values ​​of 210 and 165 ohms, instead of 150 and 330, respectively.

How to choose resistors “by eye”

In principle, you can leave the tuning resistor. It all depends on the required accuracy and the generated frequency of the sinusoidal signal.

To make your own selection, you should first of all install a tuning resistor with a nominal value of 200-500 Ohms. By feeding the generator output signal to the oscilloscope and rotating the trimming resistor, reach the moment when the limitation begins.

Then, by lowering the amplitude, find the position in which the shape of the sinusoid will be the best. Now you can remove the trimmer, measure the resulting resistance values ​​and solder the values ​​as close as possible.

If you need a sinusoidal audio signal generator, you can do without an oscilloscope. To do this, again, it is better to reach the moment when the signal, by ear, begins to be distorted due to clipping, and then reduce the amplitude. You should turn it down until the distortion disappears, and then a little more. This is necessary because It is not always possible to detect distortions of even 10% by ear.

Additional reinforcement

The sine generator was assembled on a dual op-amp, and half of the microcircuit remained hanging in the air. Therefore, it is logical to use it under an adjustable voltage amplifier. This made it possible to move a variable resistor from the additional generator feedback circuit to the voltage amplifier stage to regulate the output voltage.

The use of an additional amplifier stage guarantees better matching of the generator output with the load. It was built according to the classical non-inverting amplifier circuit.

The indicated ratings allow you to change the gain from 2 to 5. If necessary, the ratings can be recalculated for the required task. The cascade gain is given by the relation:

K=1+R2/R1

Resistor R1 is the sum of variable and constant resistors connected in series. A constant resistor is needed so that at the minimum position of the variable resistor knob the gain does not go to infinity.

How to strengthen the output

The generator was intended to operate at a low-resistance load of several ohms. Of course, not a single low-power op-amp can produce the required current.

To increase power, a TDA2030 repeater was placed at the generator output. All the goodies of this use of this microcircuit are described in the article.

And this is what the circuit of the entire sinusoidal generator with a voltage amplifier and a repeater at the output looks like:

The sine generator on the Wien bridge can also be assembled on the TDA2030 itself as an op-amp. It all depends on the required accuracy and the selected generation frequency.

If there are no special requirements for the quality of generation and the required frequency does not exceed 80-100 kHz, but it is supposed to work with a low-impedance load, then this option is ideal for you.

Conclusion

A Wien bridge generator is not the only way to generate a sine wave. If you need high-precision frequency stabilization, it is better to look towards generators with a quartz resonator.

However, the described circuit is suitable for the vast majority of cases when it is required to obtain a stable sinusoidal signal, both in frequency and amplitude.

Generation is good, but how to accurately measure the magnitude of high-frequency alternating voltage? A scheme called . is perfect for this.

The material was prepared exclusively for the site

The proposed sine wave test audio generator is based on a Wien bridge, produces very low sine wave distortion and operates from 15 Hz to 22 kHz in two sub-bands. Two levels of output voltages - from 0-250 mV and 0-2.5 V. The circuit is not at all complicated and is recommended for assembly even by inexperienced radio amateurs.

Audio Generator Parts List

• R1, R3, R4 = 330 Ohm
• R2 = 33 Ohm
• R5 = 50k dual potentiometer (linear)
• R6 = 4.7k
• R7 = 47k
• R8 = 5k potentiometer (linear)
• C1, C3 = 0.022uF
• C2, C4 = 0.22uF
• C5, C6 = 47uF electrolytic capacitors (50v)
• IC1 = TL082 double op-amp with socket
• L1 = 28V/40mA lamp
• J1 = BNC connector
• J2 = RCA Jack
• B1, B2 = 9 V Krona

The circuit laid out above is quite simple, and is based on a dual operational amplifier TL082, which is used as an oscillator and buffer amplifier. Industrial analog generators are also built approximately according to this type. The output signal is sufficient even to connect 8 ohm headphones. In standby mode, the current consumption is about 5 mA from each battery. There are two of them, 9 volts each, since the op-amp power supply is bipolar. Two different types of output connectors are installed for convenience. For super-bright LEDs, you can use 4.7k resistors R6. For standard LEDs - 1k resistor.

The oscillogram shows the actual 1 kHz output signal from the generator.

Generator assembly

The LED serves as an on/off indicator for the device. Regarding the L1 incandescent bulb, many types of bulbs were tested during the assembly process and all worked well. Start by cutting the PCB to the desired size, etching, drilling and assembly.

The body here is half-wooden - half-metal. Cut two inch-thick pieces of wood for the sides of the cabinet. Cut a piece of 2mm aluminum plate for the front panel. And a piece of white matte cardboard for the scale dial. Bend two pieces of aluminum to form battery holders and screw them to the sides.